ARCO319_The Digital Divide by Joseph Christopherson

THE CASE FOR FRACTURING URBANISM & EMERGANCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL MUTABILITY

JOSEPH CHRISTOPHERSON: 10265423 KATHARINE WILLIS: ARCO319

The Digital Divide:

The Case For Fracturing Urbanism & Emergence Of Technological Mutability

ABSTRACT

Acknowledging that the term "Digital Divide" is a mediation on a globalised scale the study draws upon aspects that define the phrase to accumulate a rational and critical view on the effect within architectural place. Further discussing how we are "Splintering" between lifestyles within society. Adopting a global perspective the study questions how new technologies and systems of infrastructure are effecting the urban condition in which we live? ii

ABSTRACT In order to ground a critical discussion of the digital divide and technological differences the study adopts a "sociotechnical" understanding of contemporary urban change. To construct this subjective discussion which attempts to address the urban needs of future generations, I will look at: - Globalisation - Urban & social effects of emerging technology - Social polarisation - Infrastructure, architecture & the built environment - Developed & developing communities The issue of the digital divide and its relationship to architecture is an evolving and multi-edged study. The argument advanced here is that a diverse range of social growth for communities within low-income areas can be procured by technology alongside digital media. However are these mediators really becoming a powerful tool in shaping architecture in such a context?

iii

ABSTRACT Developed nations who have the economic ability to invest into digital infrastructures are experiencing accelerating economic growth due to fast communication speeds and complex networking. Are cultures that can't afford to invest potentially exacerbating already existing separations? And as a result , does this allow the developed world to forge ahead exponentially while other nations fall behind?

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1.] DEFINING THE DIVIDE

1-6

7-20

2.] REALITY

21-38

3.] PROSPECTS & FREEDOM

39-54

CONCLUSION

55-62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The study attempts to address issues on how technology can aďŹ&#x20AC;ect the architectural fabric which society is arguably based upon such as; social, economical, political and cultural changes.1 Overcoming extraordinary broad methodological and conceptual problems in terms of a disciplinary structure would be unfeasible. Therefore, constructing a critical dialect of the mutable dilemma faced in this text consists of speciďŹ c questioning.

Inglehart Ronald, 'Culture Shift In Advanced Industrial Society', Princeton University Press, 1990, p.22

INTRODUCTION Firstly, I will discuss what the digital divide is and how it can be defined. Framing the urban experience in such a globalised context of the digital divide I will look at how the term came about and how it has evolved demonstrating examples of social separations that are created in these terms. Bringing me to question what initiates technological disparities? Looking at the contemporary theorist Lisa Servon I will discuss the current understanding of the digital divide, one that it is both contextual and debatable. There has been much debate as to whether or not the digital divide is actually a real-world problem, the argument presented in this study attempts to question what the divide means for people. Secondly, the study questions how is the production of space is entangled in a fundamental process of wealth accumulation? As discussed by geographer David Harvey "infrastructures and territorial organisations facilitate capital accumulation... To make way for further

INTRODUCTION accumulation."2 However, I will contest Harvey's approach which responds to the mutable effect of technology in the built environment by reducing the city and space to a logic of capital.3 This raises the question; can bridging the digital divide involve helping build strong information and communication networks? Or is it an unavoidable product of modern day society? As Harvey suggests "meanings of space and time in social life defines limits and imposes necessities upon the shape and form of urbanisation."4 The idea that the world around us is rebuilding an image in both a material and immaterial realm is one that I personally find intriguing and one that brings me to question the complexity of the global information revolution.

Harvey David, 'Spaces Of Hope', Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000, p.54 3 Castells Manuel, 'The City & The Grassroots: A Cross-Cultural Theory Of Urban Social Movements', London: Edward Arnold Publishers, 1983, p.297 4 Harvey David, 'The Urban Experience', Blackwell Publishers, 1989, p.165

INTRODUCTION

PLATE 1: Frida Khalo’s depiction of the american ‘Capitalistic’ way of life, portraying social decay and destruction of human values. 5

INTRODUCTION Finally, I will discuss; the detrimental effects of polarisation in the digital divide. The dynamics of this conception lie within the exploration of economic and geopolitical elements of place. Exploring evidence of cultural change and acceleration in development for lowincome communities or even slums, through a mediation towards bridging the divide. The text offers insight to possibilities and prospects for inhabitants living in developing as well as developed areas. This brings me to question, what can be done for the voices and concerns of people already living in human povertyâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;lacking incomes, education and access to public institutions? Are these people being increasingly marginalized without access to the Internet? Therefore, does this assume that they are disadvantaged by not having access to the services and applications that run on it? I will do this without presenting technology as an independent driving force shaping the world around us, allowing me to overcome other deficiencies which are inherent within the digital divide.

DEFINING THE DIVIDE Digital - Involving or rela ng to the use of computer technology5 Divide - A wide divergence between two or more groups, typically producing tension or hos lity.6

‘Compact Oxford English Dic onary’, <h p://oxfordd naries.com/deﬁn on/digital> 6 ‘Compact Oxford English Dic onary’, <h p://oxforddic onaries.com/deﬁn on/divide>

The tremendous gap in connec vity between the developed and developing worlds is referred to as the global digital divide. Originally the term was referred to from a globalised perspec ve, given the range of criteria used to assess the various technological dispa between groups/n

ons. This refers to any inequali es between

groups, in terms of; access to, use of, or knowledge of informa on and communica on technologies.7 7

Chinn Menzie, Fairlie Robert, 'The Determinants Of The Global Digital Divide: A Cross-Country Analysis Of Computer & Internet Penetra on', <http://www.econ.yale.edu/growth_pdf/cdp881.pdf> [01.03.2004]

DEFINING THE DIVIDE There has been much talk of an economic and social revolution taking place over the last few decades. This revolution has been assigned a variety of terms: a ‘computer revolution,’ a ‘knowledge economy,’ an ‘information revolution,’ or a ‘third-wave’ in human history bringing about a post-industrial, post-service, and post-modern ‘network society’.8 These revolutions have been widely touted as having farreaching and largely positive outcomes for society in general.9 It has been argued that the information revolution can take away power from centralised structures, spread democracy and potentially spell the end of poverty.10 The last aspect of what information communication technologies can offer is one that I am personally intrigued by and will further discuss the following chapters of this study.

Castells Manuel, 'Rise Of The Network Society: The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture', Vol.i, John Wiley & Sons, 2011, p.21 9 Graham Mark, 'Time Machines & Virtual Portal: The Spatialities Of The Digital Divide', Sage Publications, 2011, p.1 10 Graham Mark, 2011, p.1

DEFINING THE DIVIDE

PLATE 2: Child playing with mud phone, where mobile phones have recently been introduced to improve the efficiency of food and agriculture. 10

DEFINING THE DIVIDE The task of forming a critical debate regarding the digital divide involves adopting the terminology, logical structure and form that define and direct work on this important social and ethical issue. A discipline of binary logic is a starting point for demonstrating an understanding which poststructuralists have demonstrated in attempts to, underlie, organise, and animate all possible modes of knowing. If all meaningful discourse is generated in and by using binary terms, then as David Gunkel suggests there is, "nothing of significance outside this system."11 As Mark Dery explains western systems of meaning are underwritten by binary oppositions which include, among an almost infinite number of others: "self/other, mind/body, culture/nature, male/female, civilized/primitive, reality/appearance, whole/part, agent/resource, maker/ made, active/passive, right/wrong,

Gunkel David J., 'Second thoughts: towards a critique of the digital divide', New Media & Society, Vol.v, 2003, p.508

DEFINING THE DIVIDE truth/illusion, totality/partiality."12 In other words, it may not be possible to think, speak, or reason otherwise. Therefore, what is required, is a procedure that not only recognizes this requirement but learns how to operate in this curious and complex situation. However, the problem with the phenomenon of the digital divide is that it has become a theory that goes beyond conceptions of binary thought. In short the binary form necessarily risks oversimplifying the situation and neglecting the important variations that exist in the object of study.13 Although this dichotomised structure is useful for describing the limits of various social and technological inequalities. I have to agree with Gunkel's suggestion that an understanding of the digital divide "is not without significant complications and

Dery Mark, 'Escape Velocity: Cyberculture at the End of the Century', New York: Grove Press, 1996, p.244 13 Gunkel David J., 2003, p.512

DEFINING THE DIVIDE difficulties."14 Because of this, it appears that what is necessary is an alternative formulation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; one that does not distinguish between two opposed alternatives, but becomes capable of perceiving and articulating fine gradations within complex conglomerates. What initiated with thoughts about internet access has become a much wider context for discussion. Aspects of divisions and their effect on society is a continuum that contains many intervening possibilities for how one understands technology and its social effects. The internet, amongst other digital mediations is just one aspect of the problem. Andrew Shapiro contests the extremes that define the current debate about the digital divide and advocates a more balanced understanding stating "Technology is not like anchovies, which some people can love and others hate, nor is it like the right to abortion, which some are for and others are against. Rather, it is an indelible feature of our cultural environment â&#x20AC;&#x201C; one we must strive to understand in all its grey-shaded

Gunkel David J., 2003, p.505

DEFINING THE DIVIDE complexity."15 To further develop my argument presented here I will move away from critiquing thoughts on the digital divide insofar as it does not document the empirical problems of unequal access and discuss opinions and thoughts about what the digital divide is; what causes societal divides, who it involves, where it is happening and query whether the disparities are widening or shrinking. The topic of the global digital divide arose during the mid 70's, Economist Hans Singer was one of the first to introduce a concept of "international technology dualism"16 by which he meant essentially unequal developments in the area of science and technology. Something which is apparent in most urban environments, As Mark Graham notes "to be disconnected is to be both economically and socially absent from the information/knowledge revolution."17

Shapiro Andrew L., ' The Control Revolution: How The Internet Is Putting Individuals In Charge & Changing The World We Know', Public Affairs, 2003, 16 James Jeffery, 'Bridging The Digital Divide' , Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003, p.16 17 Graham Mark, 2011, p.3

DEFINING THE DIVIDE This idea that being disconnected from the tools and the content of the information revolution could cause social polarisation amongst individuals, groups, and regions is one that I think understands the causes of the technological separations. William Mitchell supports and develops Graham's claims acknowledging that the "emerging, informational city is by and large a dual city."18 Further stating that dualities within "informational cities are becoming spatially polarised."19 In a view shared by Manuel Castells, he similarly argues that the information revolution would exacerbate sociospatial segregation and create â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;dual citiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of inhabitants that occupy vastly different spheres of knowledge. It seems apposite then that I must question how deep in society the "dualism" is embedded? Questioning the state of the current urban condition Castells describes that "an urban system socially and spatially

Mitchell William J., 'High Technology & Low-income Communities', Cambridge: MIT press, 1999, p.27 19 Mitchell William J., 1999, p.27

DEFINING THE DIVIDE polarised... Induces increasing integration on the social and spatial core of the urban system, at the same time it fragments devalued spaces and groups and threatens them with social irrelevance."20 It is clear then that Castells views the "dualism" as a dangerous prospect for inhabitants living in such informational societies. In an almost apocalyptic view he mentions that "a real possibility exists of evolving toward systematic urban schizophrenia, that is, toward the dissolution of urban civilisation in an undifferentiated exurban sprawl through telecommunicated/freeway connected, discontinuous spaces, leaving behind "black holes" of poverty, dereliction and ignorance, abandoned to their fate."21 I personally find his extreme view of the potential dangers caused by technological dualities one that is semi-grounded insofar as urban fragmentation is a very real prospect but I contest his view that this will lead to abandonment of the socially deprived. As

Castells Manuel, 'The Informational City is a dual City: Can It Be Reversed?', in 'High Technology & Low-income Communities', ed. by Mitchell William J., Cambridge MA: MIT press, 1999, p.27 21 Castells Manuel, 1999, p.28

DEFINING THE DIVIDE political scientist Pippa Norris argues 'informational blackholes' are temporary and will disappear as participation with such technologies and mediators continues to 'normalise'.22 I find her understanding more realistic in its approach, one that realises both the temporal nature and societal change are undifferentiated within the compounds of the urban condition. Furthering this discussion Graham suggests that "the Internet is creating parallel communications systems: one for those with income and education giving plentiful information at low costs and high speed; the other for those without connections, blocked by high barriers of time, cost and out-dated information."23 In support of Grahams argument I also have to agree that with people in these two systems living and competing side-by-side, the "advantages of connection are

Norris Pippa, 'Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty and the Internet in Democratic Societies', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, p.147 23 Graham Stephan, 'Bridging Urban digital divides? Urban Polarisation & Information & Communication Technologies', Sage Publications, 2001, p.36

DEFINING THE DIVIDE overpowering."24 This opens the discussion for questioning the causes or consequences for technological separations within communities. Karen Mossberger states that this can be based upon a few broad socio-demographic factors such as race, ethnicity, income, education and gender. However, she acknowledges that a "deeper understanding of the digital divide lies within experiences , attitudes and needs of individuals caught in the gap."25 Benjamin Compaine supports Mossberger's point that the nature of the divide can be understood through various demographic factors. However, Compaine states that "perceived gaps are closing within the digital divide in terms of access to the internet ...At least two factors account for the rapid diffusion of internet technology: steadily

Graham Stephan, 2001, p.36 Mossberger Karen, Tolbert Caroline, Stansbury Mary, 'Virtual Inequality: Beyond The Digital Divide', Washington: Georgetown University press, 2001, p.1 25

DEFINING THE DIVIDE decreasing costs of use, and steadily increasing ease of use."26 Contemporary views on the digital divide from the perspective of Lisa Servon accumulate theoretical understanding from people like Compaine and Mossberger to create a new analysis of the social differences influenced by technology. Servon Conceptualises and defines the digital divide in different realms of societies acknowledging "the very existence of the digital divide is evidence of the ability of technology to exacerbate existing inequality."27 She states that "the digital divide is therefore, a symptom of a much larger and more complex problem."28 It is in this understanding that removes the permanence of physicality within the digital divide and offers a new insight in connecting social differences.

Benjamin M Compaine, 'The Digital Divide Facing Crisis Or Creating A Myth?', Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2001, p.ix 27 Servon Lisa J., 'Bridging The Digital Divide: Technology, Community & Public Policy', Wiley-Blackwell, 2002, p.1 28 Servon Lisa J., 2002, p.2

DEFINING THE DIVIDE In view of exploring the multiple divides which lie within the perceived digital divide the study questions; what can digital technology do for those regions of the world that have been traditionally at a disadvantage in accessing information and communication technologies? I will analyse the ubiquitous nature through the relationship of both sociocultural and technological contexts.

REALITY

The objective of this chapter is to understand the process of urban fragmentation through technological disparities. ConďŹ ning the framework of this argument to the "splintering" forms of urbanisation I will discuss the multi scalar ideas from Stephen Graham, accepting the idea that urbanism has a speciďŹ c meaning in terms of facilitating infrastructures. I will question what it is to be a citizen living in a network society and also to be outside of this construct.

REALITY Acknowledging that the ideas of the digital divide are principally concerned with digital media/technology and its effects within society. I will introduce concepts of the digital divide in terms of "hard" physical networks and "soft" institutions that allow the infrastructure in which, it may seem, facilitate the functions of society. Bringing me to question what the dangers of living in a fragmented urban environment are. In attempting to explore how the digital divide and urban splintering are mutually supported by each other, I will demonstrate socially polarising influences of information and communication technologies (ICT). Graham demonstrates how technologies are developing the information infrastructures mediating our increasingly informationintensive urban economies, societies and cultures.29 He does this by supporting William Mitchell's idea that the parallel processes of

Graham Stephen, Marvin Simon, 'Splintering Urbanism: Networked Infrastructures, Technological Mobilities & The Urban Condition', London: Routledge, 2001, p.14

REALITY fragmentation and recombination in urban uses and functions allows the powers of new ICT's to support the complex restructuring of urban forms, lifestyles and landscapes.30 This idea that ICT can facilitate the process of everyday urban life is one that Michael Crang demonstrates "involves subtle shifts in the spatial, temporal, scalar and material processes which together help constitute urban change, and which are all too often overlooked."31 It is clear, that ICT's have, for the most part, become largely invisible. Moreover, Graham suggests that this understanding of "contemporary urban change is increasingly seen to be working in parallel to support the sociotechnical partitioning of the metropolitan and, indeed, societal fabric."32 I support Grahams claims that spaces can become marginalised with unprecedented potential for exclusion. However, I have to disagree with his idea that network

Graham Stephen, Marvin Simon, 2001, p.14 Crang Michael, Crosbie Tracie, Graham Stephen, 'Technology, Timespace & the Remediation of Neighbourhood Life.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;, Environment & Planning A., 24052422, 2011, p.2 32 Graham Stephen, Marvin Simon, 2001, p.383 31

REALITY spaces facilitate change in such a way that enforces "commodified, electronically monitored and controlled" neoliberal ideologies. Supporting Clive Norris' warnings that "if the growing divide between those who have and hove not and those who are included and excluded is intensified through the use of new technology, there is a real danger that our cities will come to resemble the dystopian vision so beloved by futuristic film makers."33 However, I must contest Norris' view as argued by Davies William, the penetration of ICT's in "everyday lives of British [and other] people [has] exhibited neither the futuristic melodrama predicted by the techno-evangelists nor the social fragmentation predicted by the nostalgic Luddites."34 Its seems that for the most part this statement is true and the fact that we are living in such a way now suggests that society can, sometimes, rapidly adapt to change. Moreover, as Michael Crang remarks "ICTs have diffused

Graham Stephen, Marvin Simon, 2001, p.383 Davies William, 'You Don't Know Me But... Social Capital and Social Software', London: The Work Foundation, 2003, p.6 34

REALITY widely to quickly become key parts of the ordinary, taken for granted, widening domains of everyday life."35 It is in this diffusion of the 'ordinary' that the digital divide is hidden between, within the conceptual binaries separating out ICT mediated and non ICT-mediated interactions. Empirically speaking the end of the second millennia was arguably the beginning of a technological and digital revolution, Manuel Castell argues that "this centred around information technologies which began to reshape, at an accelerated pace, the material basis of society."36 It can be noted, as Raimo Blom points out the information society has changed "the material foundations of human life, time and space."37 Moreover, what has emerged through these forms of revolution? The starting point in answering this question is the assertion that infrastructure networks are the key to physical and

Crang Michael, Crosbie Tracie, Graham Stephen, 2011, p.4 Castells M, 2011, p.1 37 Blom Raimo, 'The information society reader', London: Routledge, 2004, p.145 36

REALITY technological assets of modernity. As Gabrial Dupuy demonstrates "materially/[immaterially] networked, mediating infrastructures; transport, communications, energy, and water systems constitute the largest and most sophisticated technological artefacts ever devised by humans."38 The networks of functioning "hard" infrastructure are often taken for granted in most developed countries, as they are seamlessly embedded into our daily life, they become largely invisible and forgotten. Moreover, Maria Kaika argues that these technologies are part of the processes which inform change within the built environment, stating "Technological networks are constitutive parts of the urban [condition]. They are mediators through which the perpetual process of transformation of nature into city takes place."39 It is in this understanding that brings me to acknowledge that the life and flux of the urban environment can be considered to be what Graham calls a

Graham Stephen, Marvin Simon, 2001, p.10 Kaika Maria, Swyngedouw Erik, 'Fetishising The Modern City: Phantasmagoria Of Urban Technological Networks', in 'International Journal Of Urban & Regional Research', 2000, pp.122-148, p.123 39

REALITY 'Sociotechnical process'. For most us in the developed world we use such technologies to benefit us in some way or increase our general livelihood. However, what is happening to those who are less fortunate than ourselves, the billions who are in deprived areas of the world without the modern day assets that we have readily available to us? It is noted that the lack of infrastructure can lead to poor health and high mortality. Where there are no places for health and well being such as clinics or hospitals available, or where lack of roads or bridges makes them inaccessible, people cannot access the medical services that they require to be healthy and productive. Developing countries around the world lack even the most basic infrastructure, not just for the provision of basic services, or for the economy.

REALITY

PLATE 3: Power lines near Durban, South Africa, which run through the township without serving any of the people who live there. 29

REALITY As Louis Pouliquen demonstrates "What good is a road if it has no transport services or the poor can only afford to walk? What good is electrification if the poor canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t afford to connect?"40 In my view, it is apparent that the lack of access results in an overall exclusion from opportunity and development. Places, people, buildings and urban elements work together in a series of dynamic relationships and exchanges which some would argue would not otherwise be possible without the construction of spaces of mobility and flow. As Manuel Castells points out to define the material and social dynamics and divisions, within and between urban places one must analyse the ways in which function, form and meaning are produced in the urban physical form, stating "the new urban world seems to be dominated by the double movement of inclusion into trans-territorial networks and exclusion by the spatial

Pouliquen Louis, 'Infrastucture & Poverty', <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.197.1162&rep=r ep1&type=pdf.>, [01.12.2000]

REALITY separation of places."41 Some would argue that social systems function through the processes of capitalism in the urban environment. On the one hand there are high-valued groups and functions and on the other there are devalued; however, both work together to function economic growth. Thus, a divide of such may remain so long as a capital based political structure is in place. As Chris Freeman argues "This uneven distribution occurs on an international scale with some nations taking full advantage of new technologies and others unable to do so."42 Understanding how and why the trend towards greater inequality emerges when a major new technology spreads through the economic system brings me to

Castells Manuel, ' Space of Flows, Space of Place: Materials For A Theory Of Urbanism In The Information Age', in 'The Cybercities Reader' ed. by Stephan Graham, London: Routledge, 2004, p.84 42 Freeman Chris, 'Social Inequality, Technology & Economic Growth', in 'Technology & In/Equality: Questioning The Information Society', ed. by Sally Wyatt, Flis Henwood, Nod Miller, Peter Senker, London: Routledge, 2000, p.162

REALITY question Freemans ideas of the capacity for technology to change society. His views come from the perspective that the "informationrich/poor" are not only those employed or unemployed. As the basis of his argument suggests, "each new wave of technical change brings with it many social benefits in the form of new more skilled occupations and professions, and higher standards of living for many people based on the growth of new industries and services."43 However, Freeman also acknowledges that "each new wave also brings high social costs in the form of erosion of old skills and occupations, the decline of some older industries, services and industrial areas."44 It seems apathetic then to suggest that the adoption of technology in such a way can mediate its way through social existence. Moreover, Freeman notes that "all previous experience shows that when a new pervasive technology enters the economic system, it can do so only

43 44

Freeman Chris, 2000, p.162 Freeman Chris, 2000, p.162

REALITY after a prolonged social process of learning, reform and adaptation of old institutions."45 It seems that these effects are not so immediate in the current condition. Although the internet is potentially rapid and useful in some highly "sociocultural" situations, it is not an unqualified and unquestioned human good. Unlike clean water, nutritious food, and adequate shelter, the value of this technology has been determined by unique circumstances that are only applicable to a small fraction of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population.

Freeman Chris, 2000, p.161

REALITY

FIG.1: Satellite communication as saviour in the developing world: an advertising for Inmarsat. 34

REALITY Developing an understanding of how this brings together numerous domains, across several cultures and institutional contexts. It is evident that the urban poor face a multi-dimensional process of exclusion that has geographical, physical, technological, social, economical and political aspects. The Internet is therefore much more than an unevenly diffused and polarised medium of communication and expression. Graham analyses that "It is directly involved in the restructuring of those cities that drive its development. Certain urban spaces, especially in ‘global’ cites, are emerging as dominant powerhouses of global Internet production."46 This offers potential for a new type of economic enclave that is emerging in such places, for example the gentrifying ‘cyber’ district. As Graham demonstrates "the cities that are developing such enclaves tend to be those with very great strengths in the arts, cultural

Graham Stephan, 2001, p.38

REALITY industries, fashion, publishing and computing."47 Such spaces are now driving the production of Internet services, websites and the whole digitisation of design and architecture. As noted by Kevin Lynch that "in a changing, pluralistic society, where power is unequally distributed and problems are large in scale... A reality will require drastic changes in our economy, political power and way of life."48 Something which I will further discuss in the forthcoming chapter, avoiding a utopian view in order to address possibilities for bridging the global digital divide.

47 48

Graham Stephan, 2001, p.38 Lynch Kevin, 'Good City Form', Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1984, p.218

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM

Finally, I will attempt to qualify why the application of ICTs may be supporting social and geographical polarisation? This seems an especially apposite question as I have previously discussed that computing and communications technologies can oďŹ&#x20AC;er tantalising possibilities for transcending traditional social and geographical barriers. However, there is now a great deal of evidence that the dominant trends surrounding the application of ICTs are serving to

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM underpin and support processes and practices of intensifying urban polarisation.49 What lies ahead for humanity? With all the problems we have, it's hard to believe our future is bright. Inflation and recession, environmental deterioration, diminishing resources, unrest and oppression in developing countries and apathy, loneliness and lack of direction in developed ones all combine to cloud the horizon. Graham argues that the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;disembeddingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of dominant economic, social and cultural activities is a product of the social and technological distancing of the powerful from the less powerful.50 suggesting that "the explosion in the use of ICTs overwhelmingly represents an extraordinary extension and geographical powers of those groups/organisations who are best connected."51 It is those particular people and places that Graham argues "are orchestrating the

Graham Stephan, 2001, p.34 Graham Stephan, 2001, p.35 51 Graham Stephan, 2001, p.35 50

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM instantaneous and often international mediation of money, work, service distribution, transport, leisure and media access."52 The main question here is how can different parts of an urban system adjust to the change occurring within it? Castells states that spatial transformation is a fundamental dimension of the overall process of structural change.53 A view that is supported by Harvey, querying that "the changes have been rapid in recent decades...[However], different parts of the urban system have different capacities for adjustment. Some aspects of urban organisation respond immediately whereas others respond very sluggishly."54 I support Harvey's opinion in that the pace at which changes happen depends on which part of the urban condition it is effecting. In my opinion, it is an observable fact that pervasive conditions will react faster than the more permanent aspects of society.

Graham Stephan, 2001, p.36 Castells Manuel, 2004, p.83 54 Harvey David, 'Social Justice and the City', Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988, p.56 53

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM

FIG.2: The modern idea of linear technological ‘progress’ via ever more elaborate and capable scientiﬁc, technological and infrastructural systems. 41

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM Moreover, It seems only probable that society can adjust to huge differences in a short period of time. However, this is often the case when dealing with the emergence of digitally mediating technologies such as those provided by the global construct of the internet. Castells describes that new social forms and processes emerge as a consequence of technological change.55 It is apparent that the technology gap is only one link that binds certain groups to disadvantage. It is true that such consequences in certain places are inherently deeper, due to economic factors. Equitable information access and freedom of expression are viewed as essential aspects of a truly democratic society. Furthermore, understanding the relationship between cities and social change is one aspect that addresses aspects of the digital divide. Bringing me to question; what can bridging the divide offer to citizens currently bound to disadvantage?

Castells Manuel, 2011, p.5

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM Sally Wyatt indicates that each new wave of technical change brings with it many social benefits in the form of more new skilled occupations and professions and higher standards of living for many people based on the growth of new industries and services.56 However, it is these 'waves' of technical progression that breeds inequality which also manifests itself in the wealth and poverty of whole nations, through the uneven development of the world economy. As Michael Crang demonstrates the recombination of different times and spaces for activities that ICTs now mediate is one of the most important possibilities reshaping the lived practice of contemporary society.57 The international dimension of the growth of inequality is even more serious than the domestic problems in developed countries since

Wyatt Sally, Henwood Flis, Miller Nod, Senker Peter, 'Technology & In/equality: Questioning The information Society', London: Routledge, 2000, p.161 57 Crang Michael, and Crosbie, Tracie. and Graham Stephen, 'Technology, Timespace & The Remediation Of Neighbourhood Life.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;, Environment and planning A., 39 (10). pp. 2405-2422.

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM poverty in the third world is far more extreme.58 In support of Mike Holderness's idea that if countries cannot take advantage of the information revolution and surf this great wave of technological change, they may be crushed by it. In that case, they are likely to be even more marginalised and economically stagnant in the future than they are today.59 Evidence shows that the industrial revolution and the huge changes in technology over the past two centuries, has caused variations in country growth rates. William Mitchell demonstrates that ICT's benefit for the poor requires that they be connected with the digital world. Mitchell points out "access is more than personal computers; it requires infrastructure, affordable hardware, userfriendly software and motivation to employ them."60 The present phase of the "information revolution" therefore requires institutional

Wyatt Sally et al, 2000, p.163-4 Holderness Mike, 'Who are the worlds Information-poor', in 'Cyberspace divide: Equality, Agency & Policy In The Information Society' ed. by Brian Loader, Pyschology Press, 1998, pp.36-56, p.52 60 Mitchell William J., 1999, pp.36-37 59

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM and social innovations which could create a stable regulatory framework for the constructive application of this extraordinary powerful technology in world-wide economic growth.61 However, this offers the discussion; can technology succeed in eliminating poverty? As Peter Senker articulates "the alleviation of poverty is not a major goal of those who direct multinational corporations which play such a large role in directing the worlds technological efforts."62 In recent years, major advances in information and communications technologies combined with the rapid growth of global networks have transformed production processes, commerce, education, government, citizen participation and all other aspects of our individual and collective lives. It can create substantial new forms of economic growth and social development. Therefore, access to and

Wyatt Sally et al, 2000, p.170 Senker Peter, 'A Dynamic Perspective On Technology, Economic Inequality & Development' in 'Technology & In/Equality: Questioning The Information Society', ed. by Wyatt Sally, Henwood Flis, Miller Nod, Senker Peter, London: Routledge, 2000, p.215 62

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM effective use of the ICTs and networks of the new global economy are critical to poverty reduction, increased social inclusion and the creation of a 'better' life for all. However, it is critical to understand that ICTs are inherently flexible technologies. The ways in which they are configured, diffused and applied are not permanent fixtures. Graham suggests that "new types of information flow, communication and cultural experience can be mobilised and shaped in other ways which can help to make effects on cities and human development much more progressive and positive"63, He supports Souters claims that: It is this enabling capacity of ICTs, the fact that it allows the user, whether individually or communally, to take advantage of it in ways that they choose that gives these technologies their democratic and empowering potential.64 I too agree with Souter and Grahams depiction of the potential for

Graham Stephan, 2001, p.48 Souter D, 'The role of information and communication technologies in democratic development', 1999, p.412 64

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM technology's ability to create a progressive and developmental future for those currently enabled users, those who are already well educated and financially supported. Capturing instances where growth trends have altered existing arrangements and have made possible new land uses or "sociospatial" forms and patterns emerge in the process of urbanisation can be done by looking at New York's period of redevelopment. Under its master planner, Robert Moses, at the time there was a rapid progression of modernisation along with development. Sociologist Saskia Sassen outlined that "the impact of technology on the spatial organisation of the economy was under way... [With the] introduction of highways and bridges, there were even slum clearance's that eliminated whole neighbourhoods, and there were public housing construction programs that benefited significant numbers and sectors of the working and

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM middle classes even though they hurt and displaced others."65 As demonstrated in Sassen's analysis it is understandable that if there is a demand to construct such infrastructural elements, such as the transport related ones mentioned, then, with enough financial support areas can be regenerated and for the most part this has positive effects although it can fragment and 'displace' the already deprived citizens living in these places. It is suggested that the introduction of 'digital infrastructure' can also have a profound effect on changing society. As Graham reveals "profitdriven mergers between telecommunications and media transnational's start to define and direct the global roll-out of ICT infrastructure."66 He also states that these organisations are also segregating between certain areas, in a similar way to the

Sassen Saskia, 'The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo', Princeton University Press, 2001, pp.257-258 66 Graham Stephan, 2001, p.40

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM

PLATE 4: New York from above, the roof tops reveal the hidden infrastructure and new developments in the district of Manhattan. 49

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM transformation of New York, where investment was made because the place has a return value. It seems true then, as Graham suggests that "investment tends to concentrate on ‘cherry picking’ the market ‘hotspots’: the downtown business districts, high-tech spaces, media clusters and upper income residential districts of prosperous, internationally oriented and ‘global’ cities."67 It is no surprise then that the concentration of all information, communications and knowledge infrastructures and industries creates an astonishing pool of demand in the business cores of such cities: in 1999, both New York and Tokyo had more telephones than the whole of Africa.68 However, it is crucial to emphasise that the picture of the future for the urban poor is not one of desolation and in hostility. Certainly, ICTs and their effects are currently strongly shaped by the ways in which they are being mobilised; to extend the powers of the powerful and

67 68

Graham Stephan, 2001, p.40 Graham Stephan, 2001, p.32

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM socioeconomically powerful. Moreover, we cannot doubt that "dominant uses of ICTs currently support the deepening of geographical unevenness at all scales."69 Grahams assertion offers the question; why do people who are not trapped into poverty, supply negative connotations towards the use of information and communication technologies or mediating components such as those posed by the internet? One aspect concerning this contention is that of the grey divide a term which the social sciences regard as the study of why predominantly elderly people are distanced from ICTs. Although for the purpose of the study I realise it is not necessary to go into the details of this topic. However, it seems that most of the elderly have not yet adjusted to this change.

Graham Stephan, 2001, p.47

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM In conclusion, it is in my opinion that technological diffusion has increased Internet use in many sections of society. Furthermore, it is evident that the question of bridging the divide is one that entails a critical view on how both technology and the urban form are linked. It seems a reluctance to embrace technology brought on by computer anxiety is a significant causal factor forming that of the digital divide. This can be realised through an understanding of how the activities and behaviours of inhabitants are effected through the process of change within the built environment.

CONCLUSION

The purpose of this study was to discover and analyse the potential fragmentation that technology can have on the nature of the urban condition. It is clear to see that for the most part some aspects of society have changed in a positive way through this mediation. Although, at a cost for low-income areas, where capital is almost unobtainable. However, the introduction of new 'mobilities' and such technologies in these areas is not necessarily a solution to the entire problem which lies within the digital divide.

CONCLUSION Addressing critical views analysing definitions of the global digital divide and its complexity I find that Merritt Smith's claims that "technology alone does not determine society"70 remain true. However, I also agree with Servon's depiction of society being manipulated by the effect of technologies. Moreover, in my opinion it is difficult to tell whether the differences within the divide will grow or shrink as of now, but the outcome will become more apparent in recent times depending on how well low-income communities can adapt too and keep up with more affluent counterparts. As discussed in my second topic of research, it is evident that we are living in an increasingly knowledge-based economy, where information is becoming at least as important as land and physical capital. The outcomes of which suggest that ideas of the digital divide and urban splintering are supported by each other. As demonstrated through

Smith Merritt R., Marx Leo, 'Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma Of Technological Determinism', Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1994, p.102

CONCLUSION claims made by Graham who believes that the process of fragmentation follows a 'sociotechnical' process. It can be understandable then to believe that Mike Holderness' idea that in the future; the distinction between "developed and non-developed countries will be joined by distinctions between fast and slow countries, networked and isolated nations"71 is one that is potentially upon the horizon. However, it is in my opinion the future will not be so bleak, a view that is shared with Nelson Mandela, in a speech given in 1995 he remarks that "in the twenty-first century, the capacity to communicate will almost certainly be a key human right. Eliminating the distinction between the information-rich and information-poor is also critical to eliminating other inequalities... And to improving the life of all

Holderness Mike, 'Who are the worlds Information-poor', in 'Cyberspace divide: Equality, Agency & Policy In The Information Society' ed. by Brian Loader, Pyschology Press, 1998, p.37

CONCLUSION humanity."72 Although, there remains the stark disparity between two types of world citizens: one empowered by access to information and communication technologies to improve their own livelihood; the other stunted by the lack of access that provide critical development opportunities. As discussed in my final topic of research, I concluded that it is only the manner in which these societies can merge together into a new era of revolution, can one see how activities and behaviours have been influenced by the emergence of technology. However I now recognise that the internet, however, has a passive rather than active role in the real-world. It, thus, influences only those who interact with it. If already underrepresented people continue to be unable to participate in such forums, the digital divide will reinforce a socioeconomic and socio-political divide. Such factors translate to the lesson

Wilson Ernest J., 'The Information Revolution & Developing Countries', Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2004

CONCLUSION that bridging the digital divide will have huge advantages for both the current digitally disadvantaged, as well as for society at large. There is very little control on behalf of isolated nations in terms of what they can do to determine how they will emerge into the strata of information societies. It is one that will be determined by transnational corporations and other social elites. As there is very little interest from these influential conglomerates to develop infrastructural elements in low-income areas. I have to agree with Doreen Massey who denotes that these groups consist of "those who are both doing the moving and communicating and who are in some way in a position of control in relation to, it is these groups who are really, in a sense, in charge...who can effectively use it and turn it to their advantage."73 Thus the uneven growth of the Internet and other ICT-mediated systems, represents a subtle, often invisible, but immensely powerful process of 'dualisation'

Massey Doreen, 'Power-Geometry & Progressive Sence of Place', in 'Mapping The Futures: Local Cultures, Global Change', ed. by Jon Bird, Pyschology Press, 1993, p.62

CONCLUSION within and between urban environments. Graham presents a clear picture of this by suggesting "Urban societies become separated into the ‘on-line’ and the ‘off-line’ in complex tapestries of inclusion and exclusion which work simultaneously at multiple geographical scales."74 It is understandable that such trends are multiple, superimposed and complex but they are clearly starting to affect layers of the physical, technological, social and economic architecture of cities and systems of human settlements in very important ways. Reflecting back on what I have compiled in this study, it has become apparent to me that in the contemporary age of 'digalism' there is a growing capacity for information and communication technologies to effect social processes and even the urban fabric in which inhabitation is supported.

Graham Stephan, 2001, p.37

CONCLUSION Although what I initially set out to achieve was an understanding of the digital divide in terms of how people are separated through ICT's I have uncovered a more complex underlying theory which raises more questions than answers. Going beyond most of my previous research, one that entails that bridging the divide would also mean conquering global poverty.

ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES 1

Frida Khalo, 'My Dress Hangs Here', 1933, Hoover Gallery: San Francisco, Harvey David, 'Justice, Nature & The Geography Of Difference', Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996

p.5

Masoner Richard, 'Cargo Cult', <http://www.flickr.com/photos/bike/236125877/> [06.09.2006]

p.10

Graham Stephen, Marvin Simon, 'Splintering Urbanism: Networked Infrastructures, Technological Mobilities & The Urban Condition', London: Routledge, 2001, p.7

p.29

Joseph Christopherson, 'New York From Above', [19.09.2009]

p.49

FIGURES 1

Graham Stephen, Marvin Simon, 'Splintering Urbanism: Networked Infrastructures, Technological Mobilities & The Urban Condition', London: Routledge, 2001, p.24

p.34

Graham Stephen, Marvin Simon, 'Splintering Urbanism: Networked Infrastructures, Technological Mobilities & The Urban Condition', London: Routledge, 2001, p.48

p.41

ILLUSTRATIONS TITLE PAGES INTRODUCTION

Ben Leow, ' Backpacking In India', <http://www.benleow.com/ wp-content/uploads/2009/06/img_1884.jpg>,[19.06.2009] Nisha Kumar Kulkarni, 'Inclusive Housing In Mumbai', <http://searchlightsa.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/ ndd_housing.jpg>, [21.06.2011] Rowena Speirs, 'A Change Of Perspective', <http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_LE9LQ2DhXI/TQFWYH4sEmI/ AAAAAAAAACI/aVTDx414yVc/s1600/ Subash%2BNagar_Playing%2Bin%2Bthe%2Brubbish.jpg>, [10.12.2010]

DEFINING THE DIVIDE

Lunceford Sharon, 'Technology', <http://www.hcbe.net/media/332721/technology.jpg>, [30.01.2007] Scott Palmer, 'Our Digital Lives', <http://unixheads.org/backend/wpcontent/uploads/ 2011/12/digital_world.jpg>, [17.12.11]

REALITY

Atkinson Felicia, 'Super Surface', <http://feliciaatkinson.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/ supersurface-superstudio-008.jpg>, [27.05.2010]

PROSPECTS & FREEDOM

Gyeman Fredua, 'A Day In the Life Of A Kwamebikrom Visitor', <http://1.bp.blogspot.com/1IYliPv2ESs/Tc7E5uE0UNI/ AAAAAAAAAoQ/kfOWutaEsqE/s1600/ phone+charging+point.jpg>, [15.05.2011]

CONCLUSION

Bevacqua Jonathon, 'The Ethos Of Us', <http://2.bp.blogspot.com/exqBGO5CAHE/Tq3aJ8oP4WI/ AAAAAAAAAH0/0HQ5gFC7Hfs/ s1600/hands+together.jpg>, [16.11.2011]

BIBLIOGRAPHY ONLINE acm.org citation.allacademic.com citeseerx.ist.psu.edu econ.yale.edu fao.org google.com globalpovertyproject.com housingstruggles.wordpress.com ictlogy.net itu.int oxforddictionaries.com scribd.com symmetrymagazine.org unhabitat.org un.org youtube.com

VIDEOS Sciencedissemination, Visualise African Connectivity, <http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=IrJ9MIOK7gI&feature=player_embedded>, [07.04.2008] Drewdigs, The Digital Divide, <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IcboST0evqE>, [24.04.08] vlbworks2010, 'So What does It All Mean?', <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jp_oyHY5bug>, [02.03.2010] B1ackD0g, Bill Gates on Enabling Social & Economic Opportunity, <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4N8xsdo2vQ>,[24.04.08]

BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS/ARTICLES/JOURNALS Auge Marc, 'non place: Introduction To An Anthropology Of Supermodernity', Verso, 2008 Bird Jon, 'Mapping The Futures: Local Cultures, Global Change', London: Routledge, 1993 Blom Raimo, 'The Information Society Reader', London: Routledge, 2004, Castells Manuel, 'The Informational City is a dual City: Can It Be Reversed?', in 'High Technology & Low-income Communities', ed. by Mitchell William J., Cambridge MA: MIT press, 1999 Castells Manuel, 'The City & The Grassroots: A Cross-Cultural Theory Of Urban Social Movements', London: Edward Arnold Publishers, 1983 Castells Manuel, 'Rise Of The Network Society: The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture', Vol.i, John Wiley & Sons, 2011 Castells Manuel, ' Space of Flows, Space of Place: Materials For A Theory Of Urbanism In The Information Age', in 'The Cybercities Reader' ed. by Stephan Graham, London: Routledge, 2004 Compaine Benjamin M., 'The Digital Divide: Facing A Crisis Or Creating A Myth?', Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001 Crang Michael, 'Cultural Geography', London: Routledge, 1998 Crang Michael, Crosbie Tracie, Graham Stephen, 'Technology, Timespace & the Remediation of Neighbourhood Life.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;, Environment & Planning A., 2405-2422.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Davies William, 'You Don't Know Me But... Social Capital and Social Software', London: The Work Foundation, 2003 Dery, Mark, 'Escape Velocity: Cyberculture at the End of the Century', New York: Grove Press, 1996 Fothergrill Stephen, Gudgin Graham,'Unequal Growth: Urban & Regional Employment Change In The U.K', 1982 Franck Karen A., Stevens Quentin, 'Loose Space', London: Routledge, 2007 Freeman Chris, 'Social Inequality, Technology & Economic Growth', in 'Technology & In/Equality: Questioning The Information Society', ed. by Sally Wyatt, Flis Henwood, Nod Miller, Peter Senker, London: Routledge, 2000 Gunkel David J., 'Second thoughts: towards a critique of the digital divide', New Media & Society, Vol.v, 2003, 499-522 Graham Mark, 'Time Machines & Virtual Portal: The Spatialities Of The Digital Divide', Sage Publications, 2011 Graham Stephan, 'Bridging Urban digital divides? Urban Polarisation & Information & Communication Technologies', Sage Publications, 2001 Graham Stephen, 'Disrupted Cities: When Infrastructure Fails', Taylor & Francis, 2009 Graham Stephen, Marvin Simon, 'Splintering Urbanism: Networked Infrastructures, Technological Mobilities & The Urban Condition', London: Routledge, 2001 Graham Stephen, 'The Cybercities Reader', London: Routledge, 2004

BIBLIOGRAPHY Harvey David, 'Justice, Nature & The Geography Of Difference', Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996 Harvey David, 'Social Justice and the City', Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988 Harvey David, 'Spaces Of Hope', Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000 Harvey David, 'The Urban Experience', Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1989 Hoffman Donna, Novak Thomas, Venkatesh Alladi, 'Has The Internet Becoming Dispensable?', Communications Of The ACM, [01.07.2004], p.37-42 Holderness Mike, 'Who Are The Worlds Information-Poor?', in 'Cyberspace Divide: Equality, Agency & Policy In The Information Society', ed. by Brian Loader, London: Routledge, 1998, pp.36-56 Inglehart Ronald, 'Culture Shift In Advanced Industrial Society', Princeton University Press, 1990 Kaika Maria, Swyngedouw Erik, 'Fetishising The Modern City: Phantasmagoria Of Urban Technological Networks', in 'International Journal Of Urban & Regional Research', 2000, pp.122-148 Loader Brian, 'Cyberspace Divide: Equality, Agency & Policy In The Information Society', London: Routledge, 1998 Lynch Kevin, 'The Image Of The City', Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1960 Massey Doreen, 'For Space', Sage Publications, 2005

BIBLIOGRAPHY Massey Doreen, 'Power-Geometry & Progressive sence of place', in 'Mapping The Futures: Local Cultures, Global Change', ed. by Jon Bird, Pyschology Press, 1993 Mitchell William J., 'e-topia', Cambridge MA: MIT press, 2000 Mitchell William J., 'High Technology & Low-income Communities', Cambridge MA: MIT press, 1999 Mossberger Karen, Tolbert Caroline, Stansbury Mary, 'Virtual Inequality: Beyond The Digital Divide', Washington: Georgetown University press, 2001 Norris Pippa, 'Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty and the Internet in Democratic Societies', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001 Odendaal Nancy,'(D)urban Space as the Site of Collective Actions: Towards A Conceptual Framework For Understanding The Digital City in Africa', in 'Augmented Physical Spaces: Articulating the Physical & Electronic City', ed. by Alessandro Aurigi, Foirella De Cindio, Hampshire: Ashgate, 2008 Palfrey John, Gasser Urs, 'Born Digital: Understanding The First Generation Of Digital Natives', Basic Books, 2008 Plowman Lydia, 'Growing Up With Technology: Young Children Learning In A Digital World', London: Routledge, 2010 Rich Adrienne, 'An Atlas Of The Difficult World', W.W. Norton & Co, 1991, in 'Justice, Nature & The Geography of Difference', ed. by David Harvey, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996 Ross Kristin, 'The Emergence of Social Space: Rimbaud and the Paris Commune', University of Minnesota Press, 1988

BIBLIOGRAPHY Sadler Simon, 'Architecture Without Architecture', Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005 Sassen Saskia, 'The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo', Princeton University Press, 2001 Schiller Dan, 'Digital Capitalism: Networking the Global Market System', Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2000 Sharr Adam, 'Heidegger For Architects', London: Routledge, 2007 Shapiro Adrew L., ' The Control Revolution: How The Internet Is Putting Individuals In Charge & Changing The World We Know', Public Affairs, 2003, Senker Peter, 'A Dynamic Perspective On Technology, Economic Inequality & Development' in 'Technology & In/Equality: Questioning The Information Society', ed. by Wyatt Sally, Henwood Flis, Miller Nod, Senker Peter, London: Routledge, 2000 Souter D, 'The role of information and communication technologies in democratic development', 1999, pp.405-417 Smith Merritt R., Marx Leo, 'Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma Of Technological Determinism', Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1994 Tofler Alvin, 'Future Shock', London: The Brodley Head ltd, 1970 Tschumi Bernard, 'Architecture & Disjunction', Cambridge MA: MIT press, 1996 Wilson Ernest J., 'The Information Revolution & Developing Countries', Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2004 Wyatt Sally, Henwood Flis, Miller Nod, Senker Peter, 'Technology & In/equality: Questioning The information Society', London: Routledge, 2000

BIBLIOGRAPHY Zimmerman Rae, Horan Thomas A., 'Digital Infrastructures: Enabling Civil & Environmental Systems Through Information Technologies', Oxon: Routledge, 2004

THIS STUDY DRAWS UPON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEENTECHNOLOGY AND THE URBAN CONDITION, I ADOPT A CRITICAL ANALYSIS TOWARDS THE EVOLVING AND MULTI-DISCIPLINARY FIELD OF SOCIAL POLARISATION. COMBINING IDEAS OF THE DIGITAL DIVIDE ALONG WITH CONCERNS OF URBAN FRAGMENTATION. IT IS THE COMPILATION OF NEARLY A YEARS WORTH OF RESEARCH INTO THE FIELD OF SOCIAL DISPARITIES.