Journal of Research in Biology Volume 3 Issue 5 by Journal of Research in Biology

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List of Editors of Editors in the Journal of Research in Biology Managing and Executive Editor: Abiya Chelliah [Molecular Biology] Publisher, Journal of Research in Biology. Editorial Board Members: Ciccarese [Molecular Biology] Universita di Bari, Italy. Sathishkumar [Plant Biotechnologist] Bharathiar University. SUGANTHY [Entomologist] TNAU, Coimbatore. Elanchezhyan [Agriculture, Entomology] TNAU, Tirunelveli. Syed Mohsen Hosseini [Forestry & Ecology] Tarbiat Modares University (TMU), Iran. Dr. Ramesh. C. K [Plant Tissue Culture] Sahyadri Science College, Karnataka. Kamal Prasad Acharya [Conservation Biology] Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway. Dr. Ajay Singh [Zoology] Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur Dr. T. P. Mall [Ethnobotany and Plant pathoilogy] Kisan PG College, BAHRAICH Ramesh Chandra [Hydrobiology, Zoology] S.S.(P.G.)College, Shahjahanpur, India. Adarsh Pandey [Mycology and Plant Pathology] SS P.G.College, Shahjahanpur, India Hanan El-Sayed Mohamed Abd El-All Osman [Plant Ecology] Al-Azhar university, Egypt Ganga suresh [Microbiology] Sri Ram Nallamani Yadava College of Arts & Sciences, Tenkasi, India. T.P. Mall [Ethnobotany, Plant pathology] Kisan PG College,BAHRAICH, India. Mirza Hasanuzzaman [Agronomy, Weeds, Plant] Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh Mukesh Kumar Chaubey [Immunology, Zoology] Mahatma Gandhi Post Graduate College, Gorakhpur, India. N.K. Patel [Plant physiology & Ethno Botany] Sheth M.N.Science College, Patan, India. Kumudben Babulal Patel [Bird, Ecology] Gujarat, India.

Dr. Afreenish Hassan [Microbiology] Department of Pathology, Army Medical College, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Gurjit Singh [Soil Science] Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amritsar, Punjab, India. Dr. Marcela Pagano [Mycology] Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Brazil. Dr.Amit Baran Sharangi [Horticulture] BCKV (Agri University), West Bengal, INDIA. Dr. Bhargava [Melittopalynology] School of Chemical & Biotechnology, Sastra University, Tamilnadu, INDIA. Dr. Sri Lakshmi Sunitha Merla [Plant Biotechnology] Jawaharlal Technological University, Hyderabad. Dr. Mrs. Kaiser Jamil [Biotechnology] Bhagwan Mahavir Medical Research Centre, Hyderabad, India. Ahmed Mohammed El Naim [Agronomy] University of Kordofan, Elobeid-SUDAN. Dr. Zohair Rahemo [Parasitology] University of Mosul, Mosul,Iraq. Dr. Birendra Kumar [Breeding and Genetic improvement] Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, India. Dr. Sanjay M. Dave [Ornithology and Ecology] Hem. North Gujarat University, Patan. Dr. Nand Lal [Micropropagation Technology Development] C.S.J.M. University, India. Fábio M. da Costa [Biotechnology: Integrated pest control, genetics] Federal University of Rondônia, Brazil. Marcel Avramiuc [Biologist] Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania. Dr. Meera Srivastava [Hematology , Entomology] Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner. P. Gurusaravanan [Plant Biology ,Plant Biotechnology and Plant Science] School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India. Dr. Mrs Kavita Sharma [Botany] Arts and commerce girl’s college Raipur (C.G.), India. Suwattana Pruksasri [Enzyme technology, Biochemical Engineering] Silpakorn University, Thailand. Dr.Vishwas Balasaheb Sakhare [Reservoir Fisheries] Yogeshwari Mahavidyalaya, Ambajogai, India.

CHANDRAMOHAN [Biochemist] College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University.

Dr. Pankaj Sah [Environmental Science, Plant Ecology] Higher College of Technology (HCT), Al-Khuwair.

B.C. Behera [Natural product and their Bioprospecting] Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, INDIA.

Dr. Erkan Kalipci [Environmental Engineering] Selcuk University, Turkey.

Kuvalekar Aniket Arun [Biotechnology] Lecturer, Pune.

Dr Gajendra Pandurang Jagtap [Plant Pathology] College of Agriculture, India.

Mohd. Kamil Usmani [Entomology, Insect taxonomy] Aligarh Muslim university, Aligarh, india.

Dr. Arun M. Chilke [Biochemistry, Enzymology, Histochemistry] Shree Shivaji Arts, Commerce & Science College, India.

Dr. Lachhman Das Singla [Veterinary Parasitology] Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India.

Dr. AC. Tangavelou [Biodiversity, Plant Taxonomy] Bio-Science Research Foundation, India.

Vaclav Vetvicka [Immunomodulators and Breast Cancer] University of Louisville, Kentucky.

Nasroallah Moradi Kor [Animal Science] Razi University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Iran

José F. González-Maya [Conservation Biology] Laboratorio de ecología y conservación de fauna Silvestre, Instituto de Ecología, UNAM, México.

T. Badal Singh [plant tissue culture] Panjab University, India

Dr. Kalyan Chakraborti [Agriculture, Pomology, horticulture] AICRP on Sub-Tropical Fruits, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India. Dr. Monanjali Bandyopadhyay [Farmlore, Traditional and indigenous practices, Ethno botany] V. C., Vidyasagar University, Midnapore. M.Sugumaran [Phytochemistry] Adhiparasakthi College of Pharmacy, Melmaruvathur, Kancheepuram District. Prashanth N S [Public health, Medicine] Institute of Public Health, Bangalore. Tariq Aftab Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. Manzoor Ahmad Shah Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India. Syampungani Stephen School of Natural Resources, Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia. Iheanyi Omezuruike OKONKO Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, Lead City University, Ibadan, Nigeria. Sharangouda Patil Toxicology Laboratory, Bioenergetics & Environmental Sciences Division, National Institue of Animal Nutrition and Physiology (NIANP, ICAR), Adugodi, Bangalore. Jayapal Nandyal, Kurnool, Andrapradesh, India. T.S. Pathan [Aquatic toxicology and Fish biology] Department of Zoology, Kalikadevi Senior College, Shirur, India. Aparna Sarkar [Physiology and biochemistry] Amity Institute of Physiotherapy, Amity campus, Noida, INDIA. Dr. Amit Bandyopadhyay [Sports & Exercise Physiology] Department of Physiology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, INDIA . Maruthi [Plant Biotechnology] Dept of Biotechnology, SDM College (Autonomous), Ujire Dakshina Kannada, India. Veeranna [Biotechnology] Dept of Biotechnology, SDM College (Autonomous), Ujire Dakshina Kannada, India. RAVI [Biotechnology & Bioinformatics] Department of Botany, Government Arts College, Coimbatore, India. Sadanand Mallappa Yamakanamardi [Zoology] Department of Zoology, University of Mysore, Mysore, India. Anoop Das [Ornithologist] Research Department of Zoology, MES Mampad College, Kerala, India.

Dr. Satish Ambadas Bhalerao [Environmental Botany] Wilson College, Mumbai Rafael Gomez Kosky [Plant Biotechnology] Instituto de Biotecnología de las Plantas, Universidad Central de Las Villas Eudriano Costa [Aquatic Bioecology] IOUSP - Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil M. Bubesh Guptha [Wildlife Biologist] Wildlife Management Circle (WLMC), India Rajib Roychowdhury [Plant science] Centre for biotechnology visva-bharati, India. Dr. S.M.Gopinath [Environmental Biotechnology] Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. Dr. U.S. Mahadeva Rao [Bio Chemistry] Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia. Hérida Regina Nunes Salgado [Pharmacist] Unesp - Universidade Estadual Paulista, Brazil Mandava Venkata Basaveswara Rao [Chemistry] Krishna University, India. Dr. Mostafa Mohamed Rady [Agricultural Sciences] Fayoum University, Egypt. Dr. Hazim Jabbar Shah Ali [Poultry Science] College of Agriculture, University of Baghdad , Iraq. Danial Kahrizi [Plant Biotechnology, Plant Breeding,Genetics] Agronomy and Plant Breeding Dept., Razi University, Iran Dr. Houhun LI [Systematics of Microlepidoptera, Zoogeography, Coevolution, Forest protection] College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, China. María de la Concepción García Aguilar [Biology] Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education of Ensenada, B. C., Mexico Fernando Reboredo [Archaeobotany, Forestry, Ecophysiology] New University of Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal Dr. Pritam Chattopadhyay [Agricultural Biotech, Food Biotech, Plant Biotech] Visva-Bharati (a Central University), India

Table of Contents (Volume 3 - Issue 5) Serial No

Accession No

RA0359

Title of the article

Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC50) of

Page No

993-1002

Organophosphate (OP) pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species (Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera Regan 1914) as a potential biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities of Southeastern Mexico. Francisco Ucan-Marin, VĂctor Cobos-Gasca and Roberto C. BarrientosMedina.

RA0366

Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River: A tributary

1003-1008

of Narmada River. Vipin Vyas and Kripal Singh Vishwakarma.

RA0361

A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden

1009-1017

(artificial mixed plantation) in West Tripura, India. Animesh Dey, Susmita Debnath, Biplab Debbarma and PS Chaudhuri. 4

RA0368

Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers

1018-1031

in coastal savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use. Reuben K. Esena.

RA0370

A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park

1032-1040

Gurgaon, Haryana (India). Girish Chopra, Anil K. Tyor and Seema Kumari.

RA0367

Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixedmethod mode research: Quality improvement strategies for trypanosomiasis control. Reuben K. Esena

1041-1053

Journal of Research in Biology

An International Scientific Research Journal

Original Research

Journal of Research in Biology

Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC 50) of Organophosphate (OP) pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species (Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera Regan 1914) as a potential biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities of Southeastern Mexico. Authors: Francisco Ucan-Marin* 1,2, Víctor Cobos-Gasca3 and Roberto C. BarrientosMedina3

ABSTRACT: Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are commonly used in agriculture; this group of compounds includes very toxic chemicals. Diazinon (IUPAC name: O,O-Diethyl O-[4-methyl-6-(propan-2-yl)pyrimidin-2-yl] phosphorothioate, INNDimpylate) is used often in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Regular tropical rain-floods Institution: and the Yucatan’s karstic topography allow Diazinon to be incorporated quickly into 1. Aquatic Toxicology, the freshwater watersheds and other aquatic ecosystems surrounding agricultural Aquaponika Ltd. 126-340 Parkdale Ave. Ottawa Ontario, areas. This dispersion process has various negative consequences for the aquatic ecosystems. In the present study we used the Yucatan Molly (Poecilia velífera) a native Canada K1Y 1P2. and endemic fish of Southeastern Mexico as a biomonitor for the first time to assess 2 . Chemistry and some of the basic gaps in the Diazinon toxicity data. 96 juvenile fish (fry) were exposed Environmental Toxicology, to two time exposure-observations; for acute (24 hours) and chronic exposures (10 Department of Chemistry, Carleton University. 203 Steacie weeks). Three Diazinon doses were added as follows: 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 mg/l (and a Building Ottawa, Ontario, duplicated control group). The results showed that the acute dosed group has 100% Canada K1S 5B6. mortality. Fish exposed to a 0.01 mg/l did not have any observable effects. The LC50 3. Cuerpo Académico de value calculated during this experiment for Yucatan Mollies exposed to dissolve Ecología Tropical, Depto. de Diazinon is extremely toxic at 0.02 mg/L. These results confirm, that the sensibility of Ecología. Facultad de Medicina Poecilia velifera as a native bioindicator for pesticides; and compared with other Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Campus de Ciencias Biológicas published LC50 data appears to be the most sensitive. Further studies are recommended to continue the study on the Yucatán Molly physiology; this fish has the y Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán. potential to become a reliable sentinel for the aquatic ecosystems in the Yucatan Km. 15.5 Carretera MéridaArea, Mexico. Xmatkuil, Yucatán, México.

Corresponding author: Francisco Ucan-Marin

Keywords: Agriculture, Diazinon, LD50, Yucatan Molly, Biomonitor, Yucatan Mexico, Ecotoxicology

Email Id:

Article Citation: Francisco Ucan-Marin, Víctor Cobos-Gasca and Roberto C. Barrientos-Medina. Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC50) of Organophosphate (OP) pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species (Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera Regan 1914) as a potential biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities of Southeastern Mexico. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002

Web Address:

Dates: Received: 18 June 2013

http://jresearchbiology.com/ documents/RA0359.pdf.

Accepted: 01 July 2013

Published: 16 July 2013

This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal

993-1002 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

www.jresearchbiology.com

Ucan-Marin et al., 2013 has been previously reported as a dangerous chemical

INTRODUCTION The

able of acute toxicity and sub-lethal effects in fresh water

Southeastern Mexico, and is an intensive production area

fish and other aquatic organisms (Banaeea et al., 2011).

for citrus and horticultural farms, most of the farming is

The mode of action of OP chemicals it is associated with

de vel op ed

ca l l ed

the inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase, and oxidative

Cooperatives).

stress (Ozcan and Demet 2007). Diazinon disrupting

“Ejidos

Yucatan

t h r ough

comunitarios”

Peninsula

sm al l

located

gr oups

(Community

Agricultural activities in this region includes: citrus

effects

production, mango and papaya farming, vegetables and

documented in freshwater organisms such as snail

herbs, but also intensive cattle and horse ranching.

(Gillia altilis), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)

Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are used openly for

and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), among others

infestation management and applied intensively. It has

(Robertson and Mazzella 1989; Pan and Dutta 1998;

been noticed that farmers and agricultural workers in the

Beauvais et al., 2000).

Yucatan area do not use proper protection during

aquatic

organisms

has

been

widely

Mexico’s Yucatan geography and hydrological

pesticide applications. Furthermore, there are no

conditions

enforced

remaining

environment (Figure 1), and also a variety of unique

chemicals or containers. Diverse factors of management

endemic species of fish (Figure 2) and aquatic

and inadequate disposal protocols have contributed to

ecosystems. Due to this unique karstic ground (limestone

leaking and accumulation of pesticides in sites near

bedrock) characteristic, the leaching and transporting of

water sources. Therefore the potential of pesticides

contaminants such as pesticides and fertilizers into

entering the aquatic ecosystems increase the possibilities

groundwater do not favor soil absorption (Pacheco and

of endocrine disruptions effects in wildlife, and

Cabrera 1996). In the Yucatan, underground water is the

eventually the surrounding human settlements.

only source for human consumption since rivers are

disposal

Diazinon

regulations

for

(O,O-diethyl

the

create

unique

aquatic

underground

O-[6-methyl-2-(1-

almost not existent. The underground water table is close

methylethyl)-4-pyrimidinyl] phosphorothioate), is an

to the surface in the north and near the coasts, but in the

organophosphate insecticide, it has agricultural and

higher elevations of the middle and south of the

commercial uses, and is used in Southeastern Mexico to

Peninsula water is too far below the surface for access by

control a wide diversity of insects including aphids,

hand-dug

beetles, scales, pill bugs, and others (Cobos-Gasca 1995;

maintained dense populations in this area for centuries

Cox 1992). Diazinon is a compound of large variety of

using reservoirs and underground tanks (chultuno'ob).

applications soluble in water, and produces a chemical

Therefore, the assessment and monitoring of water and

half-life recorded up to 12 weeks in water (Blackburn

environment quality through biomonitoring is highly

et al.., 1988). In addition, Diazinon does not settle

significant for a local social, economic and community

permanently in sediments; as a result, it is easily hydro

context.

transported which facilitates its presence in aquatic ecosystems

(Blackburn

al.,

1988).

Diazinon

wells;

nevertheless,

the

ancient

Maya

Previous regional studies has assessed the effect of OP pesticides in estuarine ecosystems aquatic macro-

permanency in the aquatic ecosystems has been

fauna

associated directly with rain-runoff and its unofficial

(Acosta-Maya

unregulated disposal, where it has been noticed to settle

Gambusia yucatana (Rendón von-Osten et al., 2005).

on freshwater ecosystems (Bailey et al., 2000). Diazinon

Diazinon

994

such

has

as; et

shrimps al.,

also

from

1997),

been

genus

Penaeus

and mosquito fish

repeatedly detected

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002

Ucan-Marin et al., 2013

Figure 1 Cenote (in Spanish) or Sinkhole a common freshwater ecosystem in the Yucatan area of Mexico (Credit; Francisco Ucan-Marin).

horticultural water supplies (underwater sinkholes) in the

Figure 2. Yucatan Molly (Poecilia velífera, male) a native fish of Southeastern Mexico (Credit: Lizbeth Chumba-Segura) MATERIALS AND METHODS

Yucatan region (Cobos-Gasca et al., 1997). One of the

Gravid female Yucatan mollies were captured

most common observable fish surrounding the areas of

from freshwater near the port of Celestun, in the State of

concern is the Yucatan molly (Poecilia velifera, Regan,

Yucatan, Mexico, and kept under laboratory conditions.

1914). The Yucatan molly (Figure 2) belongs to the

Fish tanks were used for the acclimation, and 15 days

Poeciliidae family, and is an endemic species to the

after collection, 134 fingerlings were hatched and were

Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (Miller 1983; Miller 2005;

fed with commercially available food for four weeks.

Hankison et al., 2006). This fish was introduced

The bioassay to assess the toxicity of Diazinon was

internationally for two main reasons; first, as a valuable

conducted by selecting 96 juveniles (fry), of similar

aquarium specie, and as a biological control against

length and weight, and distributed randomly sex

mosquitoes larvae (Courtenay and Meffe 1989; Lever

independent into four tanks with 20 liters of freshwater.

1996).

The conditions were: temperature, 26.9 ± 0.1°C; Studies assessing the toxicity of Diazinon to

saturation of dissolved oxygen, 62 ± 0.1%; electric

aquatic fauna had documented that this pesticide is able

conductivity, 468.61 ± 0.1 μS /cm and pH of 7.40 ± 0.1

to cause neurotoxic effects on fish (Dias-Assis et al.,

units. The experiment had four treatments 0.04 mg/l,

2012). However, the importance of the present study is

0.02 mg/l, and 0.01 mg/l of commercially available

the original contribution of lethal and sub lethal data

Diazinon (Dragon®) and a control group.

assessing this native and endemic species. The values do

Mortality was first observed after 24 h and data

not only contribute to aquatic toxicology knowledge, but

were adjusted accordingly with two regression models:

also add the proposition to use the Yucatan Molly as a

binomial logit model (Collet 2003) and the probit model

biomonitor

surrounding

(Finney 1971), with the help of STATGRAPHICS

agricultural

communities

southeastern

package. This statistical procedure consent the estimation

pesticide

activities across

the

Mexico.

of regression parameters by maximum likelihood method and use the percentage of deviance explained as a measure of fit for comparing the models, and estimates the median lethal concentration (LC50). The bioassay was

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002

995

Ucan-Marin et al., 2013 sustained up to 10 weeks of exposure,

where

changes in the swimming behavior. Regression analyses

concentration levels were applied in order to study

revealed that both; the logit model and probit models, are

severe chronic effects, and a constant concentration of

appropriate

pesticide in the tanks were monitored. Mortality data

concentration and mortality at 24 hours of exposure.

obtained after 10 weeks,

excluding the highest

Both models were highly significant (P < 0.001). Probit

concentration, were analyzed using repeated measures

model had greater percentage of deviance in the data

analysis of variance (ANOVA), considering weeks as

(98.84%) when compared to logit model (97.89%).

repeated sampling units and using as response variable

According to the probit model, estimates of the

the number of dead organisms (base-10 log transformed)

regression parameters are Î˛0 = 2.4246 and Î˛1 = 127.93,

and concentrations as treatments employing Tukey-test

both significantly different from zero according to the

as multiple comparison procedure to distinguish the dose

confidence limits at 95% (Table 1). This means that in

effects, including the control group (Kuehl 2001).

the modeling of mortality by effect of diazinon the

Repeated measure ANOVA were carried out with PAST

intercept (Î˛0) should be considered as an intercept, as a

software (Hammer et al., 2001), version 2.14 and for all

measure of the response obtained in the absence of

statistical analyses, the significant level of 5% was

pesticide (natural mortality), and that the association

considered as appropriated. Finally, to aid in the

between pesticide dose and mortality is direct and

interpretation of results, standardized mortality was

significant, given that mortality is increased nearly 124

calculated according to the following expression

units (on average) by each increase in the applied dose of

(Raymond 1985):

diazinon.

to describe

the relationship

between

The estimate of LC50 was 0.0189 mg / l (0.0160 to 0.0231 mg / l, 95% confidence), statistically similar to Where ME is the standardized mortality, MT is

the

value

intermediate

concentration

used

the death occurred in each dose and MC the mortality that occurred in the control group. This expression allows separating the mortality caused by the pesticide of natural mortality. RESULTS Within the first 24 h of exposure, all organisms exposed to the highest concentration (0.04 mg/l) perished. Diazinon effects on the exposed fish began to be noticeable at the moment of the first exposure, where erratic swimming behavior and disruption in the posture were clearly observable. Fish exposed started to swim close to the bottom of the tank, revolving around a single point, with the head close to the bottom and the body placed in perpendicular to it. Fish groups exposed at 0.02 and 0.01 mg/l had mortalities of 16% and

Figure 3. Relationship between the concentration of diazinon and mortality of Yucatan Molly Poecilia velifera, according to the probit regression model. The 95% CI for the regression curve is also included (dotted lines).

52% (Figure 3), and control registered no deaths or 996

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002

Ucan-Marin et al., 2013 100

Table 1. Estimates of the regression parameters according to the probit regression model. β0 β1

Estimation

CI 95%

-2.42 127.93

0.43 26.97

-4.46, -0.39 11.87, 243.98

SE = standard error, CI = confidence interval (0.02 mg / l), which will cause a mortality of 52%.

0.01 mg/L 0.02 mg/L

Mortality (100%) Logarithmic

Parameter

Control

Comparing selected data (Table 2) as average for lethal concentration obtained in this bioassay for freshwater

1 0

Diazinon exposure is clearly lower.

The repeated

measures ANOVA revealed significant differences

Weeks

fish (Figure 4), shows that Yucatan Molly tolerance to

Figure 4. Yucatan molly (Poecilia velifera) accumulative mortality for each treatment during the 10 weeks of exposure to Diazinon.

between treatments (F= 1164, P<< 0.05 with 2, 29 df). In fact, the three treatments differ in terms of mortality

spinal paralysis. In both cases, fish were not able to feed

(Tukey’s P< 0.05, in all cases): the two sub lethal

for themselves and perished.

concentrations causes mortalities of 9 and 48% respectively, compared with control (Figure 4). At the

DISCUSSION

intermediate concentration, which produces five times

Given the intensive use of pesticides in Yucatan,

greater mortality than the lowest concentration (0.01 mg/

several evaluations of the quality of groundwater have

l), swimming disruption was observed after three weeks

been done; mainly assessing areas specialized in growing

of exposure. In the fourth week we observed that one fish

citrus and vegetables (Cobos-Gasca et al., 1997; Santos-

had damage in the orbits and visible spine paralysis,

Vázquez 1989; Cabrera et al., 1992). These studies have

which prevented movement and feeding. The fish died a

shown that the presence of these contaminants in the

few hours after this behavior first appeared. At the

aquifer is linked to the rainfall season. During this event

seventh week another fish was observed also with severe

the rain wash and carry the all sort of organic compounds

Table 2. Comparative levels of LC 50 (lethal concentration, 50%) of Diazinon (mg /l) for some freshwater fish. Species Channa punctata (Bloch, 1793) Carassius auratus (Linnaeus, 1758) Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758) Cyprinodon variegatus (Lacepède, 1803) Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) Lepomis macrochirus (Rafinesque, 1819) Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802) Danio rerio (Hamilton, 1822) Poecilia sphenops (Cuvier, 1846) Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard, 1853) Poecilia reticulata (Peters, 1859) Poecilia velifera (Regan, 1914) Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002

LC50 11.00 9.01 7.83 4.97 1.47 5.52 0.76 0.09 2.52 1.65 1.27 0.08 0.02

Time of exposure 96 h 96 h 96 h 96 h 96 h 24 h 24 h 24 h 96 h 96 h 48 h 96 h 24 h

Reference Robertson and Mazella, 1989 Turner L, 2002 Giron-Perez et al., 2007 Turner L, 2002 Turner L, 2002 Robertson and Mazella, 1989 Robertson and Mazella, 1989 Robertson and Mazella, 1989 Turner L, 2002 Turner L, 2002 Turner L, 2002 Turner L, 2002 * Present study 997

Ucan-Marin et al., 2013 Table 3. Qualitative descriptors for categories of fish and aquatic invertebrate toxicity (from Zucker, 1985)

LC50 or EC50 < 0.1 ppm 0.1- 1 ppm > 1 ppm > 10 < 100 ppm > 100 ppm

Category description Very highly toxic Highly toxic Moderately toxic Slightly toxic Practically non-toxic

The abnormal behavioral responses (loss of equilibrium, hanging vertically in the water, rapid gill movement, erratic swimming, swimming at the water surface, and staying motionless on the aquarium bottom) of the Yucatan Molly in the present study are similar behavioral

responses

observed

with

the

guppy

[Poecilia reticulate] (Viran et al., 2003), freshwater

passing over calcareous soil, which cause difficulty of

catfish [Heteropneustes fossilis] (Saha and Kaviraj 2003)

absorption into the subsoil. If a compound is exposed

and young mirror carp [Cyprinus carpio] (Calta and Ural

directly over the karstic soil, the heat and light of the

2004). Nevertheless, the physiological response has been

tropics are a decisive factor to their breakdown. Also,

extensively analyzed, where it has been recently

due to the edaphological characteristics of the area, these

observed by Ucan-Marin et al., (2012) that the Brain

do not allow bacterial enzymes to speed the breakdown

Acethyl cholinesterase is the main enzyme affected by

of Diazinon. However, since the pesticide is stored in

OP insecticides. Briefly, the mechanism of action of OP

cold water underground, the persistence of Diazinon is

insecticides is based on the irreversible inhibition of

an environmental concern. Toxicology studies assessing

Brain Acethylcholinesterase (AChE) which leads to the

other native fish species to the Yucatan Peninsula, the

accumulation of ACh in synapses resulting in an initial

mosquito fish Gambusia yucatana (Rend贸n von-Osten

over-stimulation of neurotransmission followed by

et al., 2005) determined, granted midsize lethal

depression of neurotransmission, paralysis, and eventual

concentration (LC50 of 0.085 mg/l for chlorpyrifos, 17.79

death (Pope 1999). The disruption of AChE activity

mg/l for glyphosate, 0.636 mg/l for carbofuran and

either above or below 50% of normal has been

0.011 mg/l for a mixture of chlorpyrifos and glyphosate).

considered as a valid indicator of adverse effects

Chlorpyrifos (IUPAC name: O,O-diethyl

O-3,5,6-

(De Marco et al., 2002). The loss of mobility and lack of

trichloropyridin-2-yl phosphorothioate) after 96 h of

coordination in animals previously exposed to pesticides

exposure had LC50 values of 0.085 mg/l in mosquito fish

is often attributed to a decrease in the activity of brain

(Rend贸n von-Osten et al., 2005).

AChE (Arufe et al., 2007). Yet, the same effect was

Our results showed that Diazinon is extremely

observed when brain AChE activity is increased, Zatta

toxic to the Yucatan molly fry, with high probability to

et al., (2002) studied mice exposed to aluminum and

cause mortality as these chemicals enter the surrounding

reported that brain AChE increased activity also has the

aquatic ecosystems (wells, watersheds and sinkholes)

effects of paralysis and lack of control in the mobility.

where frequent use is registered for this pesticide (Cobos

One of the possible mechanisms of action of

-Gasca et al., 1997). Differences in LC50 values among

Diazinon is centered on its potent ability to open

different species may be due to physiological and

g-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-gated ClK

ecological factors, although most fish are sensitive to

(Campbell 1989) in both invertebrates and vertebrates.

Diazinon, it is known that fish living in fresh and hard

Ucan-Marin et al., (2012) studied salmon smolts and

(calcium-bicarbonate-containing)

observed that behavioral symptoms similar to those

resistant to those who live in saltwater environments

associated with Diazinon are observed when AChE

(Banaeea et al., 2011).

disruption is present, where either an elevated or

waters

are

channels

depressed significantly brain AChE activity can be a 998

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002

Ucan-Marin et al., 2013 response to stress (Nijholt et al., 2004). Diazinon can

intensive agricultural activities.

be metabolized to diazoxon by cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase (Hogan and Knowles 1972). This

CONCLUSION

compound, which is a potent inhibitor of the brain

In the present study we obtained an LC50 of 0.02

acetylcholine esterase (Ucan-Marin et al., 2012), is

mg/L

usually not detectable in vivo because of its rapid

Poecilia velifera (Regan 1914) and due to its high

hydrolysis, catalyzed by the oxonase, to 2-methyl-6-

sensibility to Organophosphate compounds (OP) can be

i sopr opyl -4-pyr im i din ol

Th e

used as a bioindicator for the presence of pesticides in

monooxygenase-catalyzed reaction accomplishes also an

the aquatic ecosystems in the Yucatan Peninsula,

oxidative ester cleavage (Sultatos 1991). So, the

Mexico. P. velifera is an exceptional sensible fish able to

production of diazoxon is accompanied by the concurrent

physiologically react to very low concentrations of

formation of other metabolites, including pyrimidino1

Diazinon present in their ecosystems. Since Diazinon is

(Fuji and Asaka 1982). Finally, Diazinon can also be a

used today in diverse agricultural activities in Latin

substrate for the glutathione S-transferase, which cleaves

America, therefore the use of P. velifera as a first class

an ethyl group from the phosphate and gives rise to the

biomarker could improve the time, precision and costs of

S-ethyl-glutathione

monitoring practices.

(pyr imi din ol ).

conjugate

(de

Bruijn

and

(24h)

for

young

(fry)

Yucatan

molly

Hermens 1991). The remaining portion of the OP may be hydrolyzed by phosphodiesterases to give pyrimidinol

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

and other products. Since monooxygenases are present

We want to thank to the personal at the

in fish with very different levels, it is likely that the rate

Experimental Biology at the Autonomous University of

of formation of the oxon from diazinon as well as

Yucatan (UADY). The funding for this study was

from other organophosphothionates, acts in combination

obtained trough the Yucatan Contaminants Monitoring

with the AChE affinity to cause the species-specific

Program (V Cobos-Gasca) and Aquaponika Ltd.

toxicity of OPs among fish (Keizer et al., 1995). In-vivo

evaluation

Yucatan

molly

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Journal of Research in Biology

An International Scientific Research Journal

Original Research

Journal of Research in Biology

Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River: A tributary of Narmada River Authors: Vipin Vyas* and Kripal Singh Vishwakarma

ABSTRACT:

Corresponding author: Vipin Vyas

Keywords: Biodiversity, Sip River, Narmada River, Conservation, Ecosystem

Email Id:

Article Citation: Vipin Vyas and Kripal Singh Vishwakarma Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River: A tributary of Narmada River Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1003-1008

The Sip River is a tributary of the River Narmada, joining Narmada right bank just upstream of Indira Sagar Reservoir. A systematic study of fish diversity in River Sip has been neglected and the information on this aspects in scanty, either very old or not been updated for decades. Keeping this in view, the present study was Institution: Department of conducted. The aim of this study is to document ichthyofauna and to provide Environmental Science and measures for their conservation. The present work was done from the period of May Limnology, Barkatullah 2011 to April 2012. A total of 29 species belonging to 17 genera, eight families and University, Bhopal-462026, three orders were recorded. A total of 427 individuals were caught from eight India stations. The most abundant group of fish was Cyprinidae. Out of all these, Rasbora daniconius has the maximum number of individuals (116) recorded from all sites and contributes 27.16% of the total population.

Web Address:

http://jresearchbiology.com/ documents/RA0366.pdf.

Dates: Received: 13 July 2013

Accepted: 26 July 2013

Published: 10 Aug 2013

1003-1008 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

www.jresearchbiology.com

Vyas and Vishwakarma, 2013 district, (Longitude 76° 56’ E and Latitude 22° 54’N) at

INTRODUCTION The Narmada River is a west flowing river of

an elevation of above 292 M msl. Total length of Sip

central India which has been extensively studied for its

River is about 68 km. The catchment area of Sip river

ecological aspects. Ichthyofaunal diversity of Narmada

basin is shown in Map – 01.

has been documented by various workers in concern of fish

community

Hora

and

Nair

(1941),

Fish sampling was conducted at eight preselected locations in the river Sip namely Kaliyadev,

Karamchandani et al., (1967), Vyas et al., (2007). Most

Ambha

of these studies were confined to the main river but

Confluence Point of Sip River, Up Stream Sip –

tributaries have not been studied yet.

Narmada River Confluence and Down Stream Sip –

Some recent works on various aspects of fish

Kadim,

Jhirniya,

Chhapri,

Pandagaon,

Narmada River Confluence.

diversity were also confined to central part of the river Narmada (Vyas et al., 2007). Very first record of fish

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

diversity of Narmada was on the hill stream of Satpura

Sampling and Analysis:

ranges (Hora and Nair 1941). Later Tawa and Barna

Physicochemical Analysis:

tributaries were dammed to form reservoirs and studies

During the study, water samples were collected

were done on these reservoirs. Vyas et al., (2009)

at seasonal interval during May 2011 and April 2012,

worked on Ganjal River which joins Narmada River near

using clean 1L-polyethylene bottle for analysis of water

the backwaters of Indira Sagar. No record of fish fauna

variables in the laboratory from preselected station of the

of Sip River is available in the present literature.

river. The water quality parameters such as air and water

Therefore, our objective in this study is to

temperature, pH, Secchi Disc transparency, alkalinity

document the fish diversity and species composition in

(carbonate and bicarbonate) and dissolved oxygen were

Sip River. The information from this investigation will

measured on in the field itself. The air and water

serve as a baseline data for carrying out further study on

temperature was recorded with the help of mercury

ecology, conservation, sustainability and management of

thermometer, pH, conductivity and turbidity were

fisheries resources of this tributary of Narmada in light

recorded through digital equipment and dissolved

of the changing habitat conditions due to dam formation.

oxygen was analyzed use Modified Winkle’s Method.

STUDY AREA:

The

methodology

adopted

for

the

analysis

The Narmada River is one of the three major

physicochemical properties was followed from American

rivers in peninsular India. It flows over a length of

Public Health Association (APHA, 1998) and Adoni

1312km before draining through the Gulf of Cambay

et al., (1985).

into the Arabian Sea. Narmada receives 41 principal

Collection of fish:

tributaries. Out of which 22 tributaries join from the left

Th e

fi sh e s

we r e

c ol l e c t e d

using

bank and 19 from the right bank. The river under the

monofilamentaous gill nets of 10-50 mm mesh size. We

study is a right bank tributary of river Narmada namely

also used cast nets of 10-25 mm mesh size for collecting

Sip river. The Sip river originates near Ramdasi village

fish in shallow areas. Fish specimens were also collected

of Ichhawar Tehsil in Sehore district of Madhya Pradesh,

from different fish landing sites. All specimens were

(Longitude 77° 11’ E and Latitude 22° 34’ N) at an

preserved in 4% formaldehyde solution at the field.

elevation of above 432 M msl and joins river Narmada near village Satdev of Narsurlaganj Tehsil in Sehore 1004

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1003-1008

Vyas and Vishwakarma, 2013 alkalinity (182 mg/l – 504 mg/l), Dissolved oxygen (6.4 mg/l -13.6 mg/L), chloride (7.94 mg/l - 69.5 mg/l), total hardness (90 mg/l – 190 mg/l), calcium hardness (46.2 mg/l – 102 mg/l), magnesium hardness (43.8 mg/l – 88 mg/l), and Turbidity (1.05 NTU -15.4 NTU). The river serves as a source of water for irrigation. During the present study of fish biodiversity of Sip River, a total of 29 species belonging to eight families and 17 different genera and three orders were recorded. The species were collected at different sampling sites during May 2011 to April 2012. The members of family Cyprinidae were dominated with 19 species,

followed

Cobitidae

three

species,

Ophiocephalidae two species, Gobiidae one species, Heteropneustidae one species, Siluridae one species, Ambassidae one species, Bagridae one species. Family Cyprinidae was represented by the Oxygaster bacaila, Oxygaster gora, Rasbora daniconius, Garra gotyla, Puntius sophore, Puntius dorsalis, Puntius conchonius, Puntius sarana, Puntius chola, Puntius chrysopterus, Map – 01: Map showing Sip river and its catchment area in Narmada basin

Puntius ticto, Amblypharyngodon mola, Danio devario, Labeo bata, Labeo boga, Labeo pangusia, Labeo calbasu, Aspidoparia jaya and Tor tor Family Cobitidae

Laboratory Procedures:

by Lepidocephalichthys guntea, Nemacheilus botia and

Fishes brought to laboratory were preserved in

Nemacheilus duyi, Bagridae by Mystus bleekeri,

10% formaldehyde solution in separate specimen jar

Heteropneustidae by Heteropneustes fossilis, Siluridae

according to the size of specimen. The fishes were

by Ompok bimaculatus, Gobiidae by Glossogobius

identified using standard keys of Jayaram (1981),

giuris, Ambassidae by Chanda ranga, Ophiocephalidae

Qureshi and

Qureshi (1983), Jhingran (1991), Day

by Channa gachua and Channa striatus. From all the

Francis (1994) and Shrivastava (1998). Fish Base

stations, Cyprinidae formed the largest dominant family

website was also referred for various aspects of fish

contributing the 19 species (62.06%); Cobitidae formed

fauna (www.fishbase.org).

the subdominant family contributing three species (10.32%) and rest of the family followed the order of

RESULTS

AND

DISCUSSION :

abundance.

At the period of this study, the two seasons were:

During the studies 427 fish individuals were

dry (October- June) and wet (July – September), pH (7.0-

collected from eight sites, belonging to three orders,

8.9), air temperature (27°C - 36°C) , water temperature

eight families, 17 genera and 29 species (Table -1). Out

(22°C -31°C), transparency (09cm - 90cm), conductivity

of all these, Rasbora daniconius has the maximum

(270 µ/cm - 618µ/cm), free Co2 (22 mg/l – 50 mg/l), total

number of individuals found from all the sites. The

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1003-1008

1005

Vyas and Vishwakarma, 2013 Table - 1: Systematic Position of fish fauna of Sip River S.No 1

Order Cypriniformes

Family Cobitidae

Species Lepidocephalichthys guntea

Nemacheilus botia

Nemacheilus duyi

Cyprinidae

Oxygaster bacaila

Oxygaster gora

Rasbora daniconius

Garra gotyla

Puntius sophore

Puntius dorsalis

Puntius conchonius

Puntius sarana

Puntius chola

Puntius chrysopterus

Puntius ticto

Amblypharyngodon mola

Danio devario

Labeo pangusia

Labeo bata

Labeo boga

Labeo calbasu

Tor tor

Aspidoparia jaya

Bagridae

Mystus bleekeri

Heteropneustidae

Heteropneustes fossilis

Siluridae

Ompok bimaculatus

Gobiidae

Glossogobius giuris

Ambassidae

Chanda ranga

Ophiocephalidae

Channa gachua

Perciformes

27 28

Ophiocephaliformes

Channa striatus

dominant species, Rasbora daniconius has total 116

Siliuridae and

individuals (27.16%) followed by Danio devario with 59

(0.23%) respectively (Figure-1). Vyas et al., (2006- 07)

individuals (13.81%) and Puntius conchonius with 47

reported, a total of 47 species of fishes belonging to 29

individuals (11%) respectively. The least abundant fish

genera, 15 families and six orders in the Hoshangabad

was Lepidocephalichthys guntea with one individual

stretch of River Narmada.

(0.23%).

Ambassidae (0.46%) and Gobiidae

Vyas et al., (2012) worked on fish biodiversity of

Among all these families Cyprinidae was the

Betwa River, a total of 60 fish species belonging to 18

most dominant family constituting (88.75%) which is

families and 36 genera were recorded. Verma and

followed by Cobitidae (5.38%), Bagridae (2.81%)

Kanhere (2007) revealed that at least 39 species in

Heteropneustidae and

Narmada River are declined and considered as threatened

1006

Ophiocephalidae (0.93%) and

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1003-1008

Vyas and Vishwakarma, 2013 bodies in the management and conservation of fisheries resources of this river where there are dearth of information related to its fish and fisheries. Moreover formation of reservoirs on the main river course and on its tributaries may result in the change in fish faunas in due course of time. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors are thankful to Dr. Dinesh Damde and Figure 1. Family wise fish species of Sip River species or endangered species.

Dr. Vivek Parashar for their kind support during the work. Thanks are due to Mr. Ankit Kumar, Mrs. Reetu

Various workers have done work on main river

Sharma and Mr. Shyam Panwar who helped during field

whereas very little is known about the tributaries of

visits. Our special thanks are due to the University

Narmada river. First detailed work on Narmada was done

Grants Commission, New Delhi for providing funds in

by Karamchandani et al., (1967) which recorded 77 fish

the form of Major Research Project during the course of

species belonging to 41 genera, 19 families and seven

present investigation.

orders. In a stretch from Jabalpur to Khalghat Anon (1971) reported 46 species belonging to 27 genera, 14

REFERENCES

families and seven orders. Rao et al., (1991) have

Adoni AD, Joshi G, Ghosh K, Chourasia SK,

undertaken

Punasa,

Vaishya AK, Yadav M and Verma HG. 1985.

Omkareshwar, Mandleswar, Maheshwar and Barwani

Workbook on Limnology. Pratibha Publishers, Sagar

pertaining to the river and have enlisted 84 fish species

India, 1-127.

pre

impoundment

survey

belonging to 45 genera, 20 families and six orders. Hora and Nair (1941) Very first recorded 41 species of fish from River Narmada on the hill stream of

Anon. 1971. Fisheries Department, M.P. Fisheries Survey in Narmda River, 1967-1971.

Satpura ranges. Vyas et al., (2009) studied on fish fauna

APHA. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of

some tributaries of River Narmada and recorded 52

water

species belonging to 28 genera, 13 families and seven

Association, Washington, DC.

orders. Bose et al., (2013) have reported 57 species, belonging to 35 genera, 13 families and six orders from middle stretch of river Tawa. CONCLUSION In conclusion, increased fishing pressure exerted from overfishing activity of the artisanal fishermen that operating in this water body and farming activities around the river as factors that were probably responsible for low fish composition and diversity in Sip River. This study could serve as baseline data in assisting relevant Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1003-1008

and

wastewater,

American

Public

Health

Bose AK, Jha BC, Suresh VR, Das AK, Parasar A and Ridhi. 2013. Fishes of the Middle Stretch of River Tawa, Madhya Pradesh, India. J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci. Sec., A, 3(1): 706-716. Day Francis. 1994. The Fishes of India, Jagmander Book Agency, New Delhi. Hora SL and Nair KK. 1941. Fishes of Satpura Range, Hoshangabad District, Central Province, Rec. Indian Mus., 43.361-373. 1007

Vyas and Vishwakarma, 2013 Jayaram KC. 1981. The Freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Srilanka, A handbook Edited by Zoological, Survey of India Calcutta-12.

Soc.India.41(2`): 18-25. Vyas V, Damde D

and Parashar V. 2012. Fish

Biodiversity of Betwa River in Madhya Pradesh, India

Jhingran VG. 1991. Fish and Fisheries of India,

with Special reference to Sacred Ghat. Int. J. Biodiv.

Hindustan Pub. Co., New Delhi, 727.

Con., 4(2): 71-77.

Karamchandani SJ, Desai VR, Pisolkar MD, and Bhatnagar GK. 1967. Biological investigation on the fish and fisheries of Narmada River (1958-66). Bull cent. Inland Fish. Res. Inst. Barrackpore, 10:40 (Mimeo). Qureshi TA and Qureshi NA. 1983. Indian fishes, Publishers: Brij Brothers, Sultania Road, Bhopal. (M.P.) 5-209. Rao KS, Chatterjee SN, and Singh K Anil. 1991. Studies

preimpoundment

fishery potential

Narmada Basin (Western Region) in the context of Indira Sagar, Maheshwar, Omkareshwar and Sardar Sarovar reservoirs. J.Inland Fish India. 23 (1): 41-44 Shrivastava G. 1998. Fishes of U.P. and Bihar, Sevnth edition, Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, Chowk Varanasi India Pub. Verma D, and Kanhere RR. 2007. Threatened Ichthyofauna of the River Narmada in Western Zone. Life Sciences Bulletin, 4(1 and 2), 17-20 Vyas V, Bara S, Parashar V, Damde D and Tuli RP. 2006. Temporal variation in fish biodiversity of River Narmada in Hoshangabad Region. Fishing Chimes.27: 49-53.

Submit your articles online at www.jresearchbiology.com

Vyas V, Parashar V, Bara S and Damde D. 2007.

Advantages

Fish catch composition of River Narmada with reference to common fishing gears in Hoshangabad area. National Bulletin of Life Sciences, 4(1 and 2): 1-6. Vyas

Damde

Fish diversity Indra 1008

Sagar

and

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of Narmada in submergence area of Reservair.

Journal

Inland

Easy online submission Complete Peer review Affordable Charges Quick processing Extensive indexing You retain your copyright submit@jresearchbiology.com www.jresearchbiology.com/Submit.php.

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A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden (artificial mixed plantation) in West Tripura, India Authors: ABSTRACT: Animesh Dey1*, Susmita Debnath1, Biplab Insects are the largest taxonomic group in the animal kingdom and their Debbarma1, PS Chaudhuri 2. significant role in ecology needs no description. Spiders are exclusively predatory, hence can play a very important role in regulation of insect population in any Institution: ecosystem. Comprehensive study of spider fauna of Tripura has not been carried out 1. Department of Zoology, yet. In our present study, we are attempting to provide relevant information regarding Maharaja Bir Bikram College, Agartala - 799004, spiders. This information may serve as the baseline documentation for future studies in Tripura. A survey was carried out during July 2011 to January 2012 in a house West Tripura garden (artificial mixed plantation) in Khayerpur of west Tripura district. A total of 47 2. Department of Zoology, spider species belonging to 36 genera of 14 families were collected. Among all the Tripura University, families, Salticidae dominated the studied assemblage and represents approximately Suryamaninagar â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 799022, 38% of the total species collected. West Tripura Corresponding author: Animesh Dey

Keywords: Spider diversity, artificial mixed plantation, salticidae, insect predator

Email Id:

Article Citation: Animesh Dey, Susmita Debnath, Biplab Debbarma and PS Chaudhuri. A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden (artificial mixed plantation) in West Tripura, India. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017

Web Address:

Dates: Received: 24 June 2013

http://jresearchbiology.com/ documents/RA0361.pdf.

Accepted: 18 July 2013

Published: 16 Aug 2013

Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal

1009-1017 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

www.jresearchbiology.com

Dey et al., 2013 illustrated account of the diversity, beauty and intricacies

INTRODUCTION The arachnids are the second largest contributor

of spiders has been documented by Taylor (1999).

(8.3%) of total arthropod diversity after insects. Spiders

Although few reports on spiders from southern part of

belong to the order Araneae of class Arachnida and are

the country are available up to some extent (Charpentier,

one of the diverse and functionally important predators.

1996; Jose and Sebastian, 2001; Jose et al., 2006; Smith,

Hence, spiders can play a very important role in

2004; Sugumaran et al., 2005; Vijayalakshmi and

regulating

Ahimaz, 1993), there are scanty records on diversity and

the

(Coddington

and

terrestrial Levi,

arthropod 1991).

populations

Considering,

the

distribution of spiders in India including its north east

potentiality of spiders as bio-control agents of insect

part as compared to other regions of the world. In NE

pests and bio-indicator as well, exploration of spider

India, diversity of spiders approximately unexplored and

diversity need to be done with immediate effect. Since

have received least attention in conservation strategies

the distribution and occurrence of spiders are greatly

(Singh et al., 2012). A very few documentations

related to habitat structure and vegetation parameters

(Tikader, 1970; Biswas, 2000a, 2000b, 2003, 2004,

(Buddle et al., 2000; de Souza and Martins, 2004;

2006, 2007) are available on spiders of north east India.

Greenstone, 1984; Uetz, 1991; Wise, 1993), study of

As far as the spider diversity of Tripura is concerned, it

spiders can be very much helpful for understanding

is still not completely explored or understood. The main

biodiversity patterns (Platnick, 1999). Despite of their

aim of this study was to explore the spider species

enormous importance in the natural ecosystem, spiders

richness in a house hold garden. Considering the duration

are largely ignored in conservational studies (Chetia and

and plot size, this study is far from the complete

Kalita, 2012).

exploration of spider fauna of the state. However, it

Now-a-days, distribution and diversity of spiders

forms the basis for further investigations on this faunal

has been studied in different parts of the world. A well

group and reveals the importance, as well as potentiality

Figure 1. Showing the study site (Khayerpur) near Agartala city 1010

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017

Dey et al., 2013 of house hold gardens as natural habitat of spider fauna. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted during July 2011 to January 2012 in a house hold garden having an area of 80 m2 in Khayerpur (23째 50' 37.9'' N, 91째 20' 39.9'' E; elevation 24 m) near to the Agartala city of west Tripura district (Fig. 1). Since, polyculture house hold gardens with such type of size are very rare in the core city of Agartala now a days, the above site is selected for this preliminary survey of spider fauna near to the city. Aerial and ground hand collection methods, along with vegetation beating was mainly used for the collection of spider specimens. Spiders were searched visually also

Figure 2. Showing the total number of genera represented by different spider families

under fallen tree branches, leaf litters etc. Collected

respectively (Framenau, 2013; Richman et al., 2005).

specimens were preserved in 70% ethanol for further

Rest are endemic to south-east Asia (Siliwal et al., 2005)

identification. Keys and catalogs provided by Biswas and

and distribution of four species (Thiania bhamoensis,

Biswas (1992, 2003, 2004), Sebastian and Peter (2009)

Argiope versicolor, Cyrtophora unicolor, Amyciaea

and Tikader (1987) were followed for the identification

lineatipes) are reported in India for the first time

of spider specimen.

(Keshwani et al., 2012). A total of 1686 spider species accounts with India (Keswani et al., 2012) and 47 species are recorded

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A total of 47 spider species were collected from

during the study from a small house hold garden.

the studied house hold garden. Among the collected

Records on spider diversity from the other parts of the

species of spiders, eighteen species belong to the family

country viz. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sikkim,

Salticidae, seven species to the family Araneidae, three

Calcutta and Assam (Chetia and Kalita, 2012; Singh

species each to the family Tetragnathidae, Lycosidae and

et al., 2012; Tikader and Biswas, 1981; Tikader, 1970,

Thomisidae, two species each to the family Nephilidae,

1977, 1980) are comparable with the observations of the

Oxyopidae, Sparassidae, and Theridiidae, one species

present study. Highest species diversity was shown by

each to the families Scytodidae, Hersiliidae, Uloboridae,

Salticidae, followed by Araneidae, Tetragnathidae,

Corinnidae and Miturgidae (Table 1). India represents

Lycosidae, Thomisidae etc. (Fig. 3). Plexippus paykulli

438 genera (Keswani et al., 2012) from which 36 genera

was found to be most abundant in the studied garden

were recorded during the study. Highest generic diversity

followed by Phintella vittata, Myrmarachne sp1,

was

(6),

Neoscona sp, Araneus mitificus, Pardosa sp, Camaricus

Tetragnathidae (3), Lycosidae (3) and Thomisidae (2)

formosus etc. Out of total spider species recorded, about

(Fig. 2). Among the collected spiders, four (Cyrtophora

48 % (22 species) were found to be foliage runner, 28 %

unicolor, Camaricus maugi, Nephila pilipes, Heteropoda

(13 species) were orb web builder, 15 % (7 species) were

cervina) and one (Menemerus bivittatus) species of

ground runner, 6 % (3 species) were ambusher and 4 %

spiders were also reported from Australia and USA

(2 species) were scattered line weber (Fig. 4).

found

Salicidae

(12),

Araneidae

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017

1011

Dey et al., 2013 Table 1: List of spider species collected from the household garden during study Family Salticidae (Foliage runner)

Araneidae (Orb web builder)

Tetragnathidae (Orb web builder)

Lycosidae (Ground runner)

Thomisidae (Ambusher)

Nephilidae (Orb web builder)

1012

Species

Distribution

1) Plexippus paykulli (Audouin, 1826)

IND, CHN, LKA

2) Plexippus petersi (Karsch, 1878)

IND, CHN, SGP

3) Phintella vittata (C. L. Koch, 1846)

IND, CHN, MYS

4) Asemonea sp.

IND, LKA, THA

5) Phintella versicolor (C. L. Koch, 1846)

IND, CHN, MYS

6) Portia labiata (Thorell, 1887)

IND, LKA, MYS

7) Epeus sp.1

IND,CHN,MYS,IDN

8) Epeus sp.2

IND,CHN,MYS,IDN

9) Menemerus bivittatus (Dufour, 1831)

IND, USA

10) Thiania bhamoensis (Thorell, 1887)

SGP, IDN, MYS

11) Telamonia dimidiata (Simon, 1899)

IND, IDN, BTN

12) Brettus sp.

IND, CHN, LKA

13) Siler sp.

IND, LKA

14) Rhene danieli (Tikader, 1973)

IND

15) Myrmarachne orientales (Tikader , 1973)

IND, PAK

16) Myrmarachne plataleoides (Cambridge, 1869)

IND, LKA, CHN

17) Myrmarachne sp.1

IND, LKA, CHN, PAK

18) Myrmarachne sp.2

IND, LKA, CHN, PAK

19) Neoscona sp.

IND, PAK, CHN

20) Argiope versicolor (Doleschall, 1859)

SGP, IDN, VNM

21) Cyclosa sp.

IND, LKA, MYS

22) Cyclosa bifida (Doleschall, 1859)

IND, LKA, MYS

23) Araneus mitificus (Simon, 1886)

IND, PAK, BGD

24) Cyrtophora unicolor (Doleschall, 1857)

LKA, PHL, AUS

25) Gasteracantha hasselti (C. L. Koch, 1837)

IND, CHN

26) Leucauge decorata (Blackwall, 1864)

IND, LKA, SGP

27) Opadometa fastigiata (Simon, 1877)

IND, PHL

28) Tylorida sp.

IND, CHN, AUS

29) Lycosa mackenziei (Gravely, 1924)

IND, PAK, BGD

30) Pardosa sp.

SGP, THA, CHN

31) Hippasa greenalliae (Blackwall, 1867)

IND, LKA, CHN

32) Camaricus formosus (Thorell, 1887)

IND, CHN, PHL

33) Camaricus maugi (Walckenaer, 1837)

IND, LKA, AUS

34) Amyciaea lineatipes (Cambridge, 1901)

SGP, IDN

35) Nephila kuhlii (Doleschall 1859)

IND, LKA, SGP

36) Nephila pilipes (Fabricius, 1793)

IND, CHN, AUS

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017

Dey et al., 2013 Oxyopidae (Foliage runner)

37) Oxyopes birmanicus (Thorell 1887)

IND, LKA, MYS

38) Oxyopes javanus (Thorell 1887)

IND, CHN, PHL

Sparassidae (Ground runner)

39) Heteropoda venatoria (Latreille, 1802)

IND, JPN

40) Heteropoda cervina (C. L. Koch, 1875)

IND, AUS

Theridiidae (Scattered line weber)

41) Chrysso sp.

IND, CHN, JPN

42) Ariamnes sp.

IND, AUS

Scytodidae (Ground runner)

43) Scytodes pallida (Doleschall 1859)

IND, CHN, PHL

Hersiliidae (Foliage runner)

44) Hersilia sp.

IND, LKA, MMR

Uloboridae (Orb web builder)

45) Zosis sp.

IND, TWN

Corinnidae (Ground runner)

46) Castianeira sp.

IND, BGD, BTN

Miturgidae (Foliage runner)

47) Cheiracanthium danieli Tikader, 1975

IND

Abbreviations: IND – India, CHN - China, LKA – Sri Lanka, SGP – Singapore, MYS – Malaysia, THA – Thailand, IDN – Indonesia, USA – United States, BTN – Bhutan, PAK – Pakistan, VNM – Viet Nam, BGD – Bangladesh, PHL – Philippines, AUS – Australia, JPN – Japan, MMR – Myanmar, TWN – Taiwan According to earlier reports, the spider fauna of

present study is not focused on specific spider families

Tripura is represented by 6 families, 15 genera and 27

like the previous authors, who studied only six families

species (Biswas and Majumder, 2000). Present study

(Araneidae,

represents 14 families, 36 genera and 47 species (plate 1

Lycosidae and Heteropodidae) and the survey is carried

and 2), collected from a small house hold garden during

out in a natural habitat of spiders, greater species

a very small survey, among which 45 species were

richness is observed. Hence this study reveals the

reported for the first time from the state. Since, the

potentiality of Tripura state as the reservoir of large

Oxyopidae,

Tetragnathidae,

Salticidae,

Hersiliidae

Figure 3. Percentage of total species diversity shared by shared by different spider families Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017

Figure 4. Graph showing the number of species represented by different types of spiders 1013

Dey et al., 2013

Plate 1. (1) Plexippus paykulli (2) Plexippus petersi (3) Phintella vittata (4) Asemonea sp. (5) Phintella versicolor (6) Portia labiata (7) Epeus sp.1 (8) Epeus sp.2 (9) Menemerus bivittatus (10) Thiania bhamoensis (11) Telamonia dimidiata (12) Brettus sp. (13) Siler sp. (14) Rhene danieli (15) Myrmarachne orientales (16) Myrmarachne plataleoides (17) Myrmarachne sp.1 (18) Myrmarachne sp.2 (19) Neoscona sp. (20) Argiope versicolor (21) Cyclosa sp. (22) Cyclosa bifida (23) Araneus mitificus (24) Cyrtophora unicolor

spider diversity. Inter-specific variation in coloration

of spiders on these regards are completely untouched in

among different spiders might be linked with different

Tripura, NE India. Checklist or records of these spiders

environmental effects and behavioral patterns observed

are not yet prepared. However, spiders can be considered

on them (Craig and Ebert, 1994; Hoese et al., 2006;

as the most efficient one, among the few bio-indicator

Huber, 2002; Oxford and Gillespie, 1998).

species in ecological studies (Kapoor, 2008; Noss, 1990). Relationship between spider distribution with habitat

CONCLUSION

patterns and its various patterns of responses to the

Ecological as well as taxonomic information on

different disturbances create complexities in using them

Indian spiders are lacking up to a great extent and studies

as indicator species (Chetia and Kalita, 2012). This study

1014

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017

Dey et al., 2013

Plate 2. (25) Gasteracantha hasselti (26) Leucauge decorata (27) Opadometa fastigiata (28) Tylorida sp. (29) Lycosa mackenziei (30) Pardosa sp. (31) Hippasa greenalliae (32) Camaricus formosus (33) Camaricus maugi (34) Amyciaea lineatipes (35) Nephila kuhlii (36) Nephila pilipes (37) Oxyopes birmanicus (38) Oxyopes javanus (39) Heteropoda venatoria (40) Heteropoda cervina (41) Chrysso sp. (42) Ariamnes sp. (43) Scytodes pallida (44) Hersilia sp. (45) Zosis sp. (46) Castianeira sp. (47) Cheiracanthium danieli shows information related to the species distribution in a

Biswas B and Biswas K. 2007. Araneae: Spiders. Fauna

particular habitat and the importance of house hold

of Mizoram, State Fauna Series 14. Zoological Survey of

gardens in maintaining and conserving spider diversity.

India. 455-475.

The study also reveals the potentiality of the state as the reservoir of diversified spider fauna. Detailed studies on the spider fauna of the state and inclusion of spiders in conservational strategies are recommended.

Biswas B and Biswas K. 2003. Araneae: Spiders. Fauna of Sikkim, State Fauna Series. Zoological Survey of India. 9(2): 67-100. Biswas B and Biswas K. 1992. Fauna of West Bengal

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Journal of Research in Biology

Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers in coastal savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use Authors: Reuben K. Esena

ABSTRACT: Cattle trypanosomiasis is a major constraint to livestock development in Ghana and is demonstrated by the fact that cattle farmers treat the disease by themselves. The main objective of this study is to identify the constraints associated with the control of trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers. To identify the constraints, 250 herdsmen were interviewed on the use of trypanocides to treat cattle trypanosomiasis. The interview focused on treatment procedures such as knowledge of diagnosis, trypanosomiasis treatment procedures, dilutions, injection techniques, volume of trypanocides used and prophylaxis use. The data were supplemented by relevant records and information from the following sources: Department of Veterinary Technical officers (Community Animal Health/Frontline Staffs), District veterinary doctors and the National Head of Tsetse and trypanosomiasis Control Unit. Institution: To empirically estimate the marginal effect of constraints affecting the Department of Health Policy control of trypanosomiasis, multiple regression equations were run on the PC-SPSS Planning and Management, version 16 programme by Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) analysis. In this analysis, the School of Public Health, “general to specific” approach of Hendry as found by Koutsoyiannis (1977) was University of Ghana, adopted in order to arrive at a coherent regression results. This provided a reliable Legon - Accra, Ghana means of recommending appropriate and effective control strategies and good drug services for traditional husbandry systems. In this research, certain factors were identified as affecting cattle production. They are, inappropriate dosage of Berenil® used by farmers, selective treatments adopted, pour-on techniques and lack of extension training. Others were the criteria for treatments, inappropriate treatment intervals, underdosing of Berenil® used, and cost of inputs and services. Some others were injection techniques, lack of knowledge of trypanocides and dilution of drugs. These are factors that affect productivity and need to be addressed by policy makers especially by the Veterinary department to improve drug use by herdsmen. Corresponding author: Reuben K. Esena

Keywords: Trypanocides, Berenil® Trypanosomiasis, Constraints, Drug use, Quality Control.

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Article Citation: Reuben K. Esena Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers in coastal savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

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http://jresearchbiology.com/ documents/RA0368.pdf.

Dates: Received: 13 July 2013

Accepted: 07 Aug 2013

Published: 20 Aug 2013

Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal

1018-1031 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

www.jresearchbiology.com

Esena, 2013 herdsmen has never been attempted mainly due to a

INTRODUCTION Certain policies have been instrumental in

paucity of data on such important factors as diagnosis of

affecting veterinary drug use, especially trypanocide in

the disease, drug dosages, farmers’ knowledge of

Africa. Prominent among these policies is the Structural

trypanosomiasis and treatment strategies. Prominent

Adjustment Programme (SAP) which has been a strong

among these constraints is the lack of knowledge of on

factor in the move towards privatization in Africa. A

the effects of the disease on livestock productivity;

“free market policy” as a component of SAP, has

especially the difficulties in quantifying the values of

triggered privatisation and commercialisation of almost

livestock and their products in traditional husbandry

all sectors of the economy including animal production

systems (ILCA, 1992a).

and the social marketing of Veterinary drugs (especially

At the herd or household level, livestock

trypanocides) by the private sector. The belief was that,

productivity can be measured in terms of the output of

a free market with price flexibility could maximize the

meat, milk, inputs of preventive and curative treatments

effect of SAP and thereby stimulate economic growth.

using trypanocidal drugs (Swallow, 2000) whilst

But the decentralization of the ministry of food and

incomes, expenditures and profits are commonly used

agriculture as a component of SAP created stagnation in

economic measures. Therefore this procedure, analyses

national livestock services projects because of unclear

the annual costs of livestock products such as milk, meat,

responsibilities and lack of communication at national,

manure, hides, and cost of cattle sales in economic terms.

regional and district levels (Ghana, 1998a) and thereby

Infact,

enabling cattle farmers to treat their own livestock –

profitability of the use of trypanocide in relation to their

especially animal trypanosomiasis.

livestock and products rather than the products by itself.

cattle

farmers are more

concerned with

The constraints inherent in SAPs does not only

The productivity in this study was therefore measured

affect the poorest sections of the population, but also

and calculated for sales and profits and analysed in the

failing to steer the economy towards self-sustaining

model.

development (Araka Morna et al., 1990).

In the

African Trypanosomiasis is one of the most

agricultural sector for example, the rapid change in the

important constraints to livestock development in sub-

privatization of the veterinary services and provision of

Saharan Africa. Despite almost a century of research on

drugs has serious implications on disease control. In

the subject, and considerable investments, little impact

fact, the failure of livestock production to grow and

has been made on its control. African trypanosomiasis

contribute to national development is not only due to

are caused

policy changes, nor lack of requisite drugs, inputs and

parasites (Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei)

finance. Indeed it is related to drug use.

that are transmitted by tsetse flies. Currently, the only

by species of trypanosomes, protozoan

Until the problems and constraints associated

effective treatment is the continuous dosage of

with drug use against animal diseases are recognised,

trypanocidal drugs such as Diminazene aceturate

policy reforms promoting livestock production cannot be

(Berenil®) and Isometamedium chloride (Samorin®). In

implemented. This section discusses some important

an area of intensive tsetse challenge, each animal may

aspects of veterinary drug use especially trypanocides for

need several treatments per year.

cattle

makes

This study examines the impact of a spectrum of

recommendations. A comprehensive quantification of

factors on sales, profits, drug use and the prevalence of

the impact of trypanosomiasis control on productivity by

animal trypanosomiasis among cattle farmers in the

1019

trypanosomiasis

control

and

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

Esena, 2013 coastal Savannah zone of Ghana. This is necessary to

reason is that profit measures the scale of what actually

identify major factors influencing production and to

happens in the businesses and excludes the value of

quantify the relationships. It will also help to inform

materials which are merely bought and sold (Harper,

farmers on the appropriate choice of control measures for

1984).

cattle trypanosomiasis in the coastal savannah. The

This study is the type needed at the micro-level

objective is to establish a relationship between cattle

for the successful implementation of agricultural

management practices and cattle productivity as found in

economics and drug use policies. Another advantage of

the

village

production

trypanosomiasis

systems

controlled

where

animal

this model is that it helps in the forecasts on sales and

cattle

farmers

profits of cattle productivity as well as factors associated

themselves. Identifying the procedures and constraints

with

associated with the control of animal trypanosomiasis by

problem is linked to a policy question and the approach

cattle farmers is what this research seeks to answer. The

to the policy question is in turn embedded in the

models used for the analysis consist of trypanosomiasis

econometric framework.

prevalence, drug use and sales and variable profit

Variables used for the Models

functions.

the control of trypanosomiasis. The research

The collection and organization of data for this model is described and presented below. Data were

METHODOLOGY

required for the dependent variables (sales, profit,

Trypanocide usage and the constraints in the control

trypanosomiasis prevalence, Berenil® dose rate) and

of trypanosomiasis by livestock keepers

independent variables and are presented as follows:

Knowledge

diagnosis

and

treatment

procedures of trypanosomiasis by 250 herdsmen

was

s = Dependent Variable 1: Sales ($) π = Dependent Variable 2: Profit ($)

assessed by questionnaire to interview respondents on

λ = D e p en d en t

the use of trypanocides to treat cattle trypanosomiasis.

Prevalence (%)

Records included the volume of berenil administered to

σ = Dependent Variable 4: Dosage of Berenil (mg/kg

cattle. The data were supplemented by relevant records

body wt)

and information from the following sources: Department

Independent Variables:

of Veterinary Technical officers (Community Animal

VAL.INPUTS: Value of Inputs (in US$)

Health/Frontline Staffs), District veterinary doctors and

COST.SERVICES;

the National Head of Tsetse and trypanosomiasis Control

(in US$)

Unit.

AGE.ENTPRISE: Age of enterprise or kraal (years)

The Models

MANAGEMNT.EXP : Management Experience (years)

The research problem discussed in this section

HERD.SIZE :

Va r i a bl e

Cost

3 : T r yp a n os om i a si s

Veterinary

Services

Herd size (number of cattle)

considers the impact of farming practices associated with

DOSE Dosage: Estimated Berenil® dosage (milligrams/

sales and profits on cattle farms. Sales turnover is a

kg body weight of cattle)

measure for defining the scale of enterprises (Harper,

0 = < 1.9

1984). Value added or profit, which is the difference

EDUCATN: Education of herdsman

between sales and the cost of purchased material

1 = 1.9-3.4

0=No

education,

2 = 3.5-7.0 1

Basic/primary/JSS,

supplied or labour, is a further refinement and

2 = Secondary/Technical, 3= Training College/Diploma/

theoretically preferable version of sales turnover. The

University

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

1020

Esena, 2013 EXTN.TRG : Extension training (1 if herdsman received

ANTIBIOTICS.USE: Antibiotics use (against secondary

extension training, 0 if otherwise)

infections) in conjunction with Trypanocides (1, does not

BUSS.OWN: Business Ownership of livestock (1 if

use antibiotics in conjunction with trypanocides

partnership, 0 if sole ownership)

trypanosomiasis treatments; 0 if otherwise)

ENCOUNTER.TSETSE : Encounter tsetse during

POURON.TECHNIQUE:

migrations, movements or grazing (1 if cattle do not

integrated vector control strategies of pour-on for disease

encounter tsetse flies during cattle migrations, 0 if

control 1, does not use pour on technique 0)

encounter tsetse flies during cattle migrations or grazing)

CRITERIA.TREATMNT: Criteria for trypanosomiasis

KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE : Knowledge of Trypanocides

treatment (ie for drug use). (1 drug used when animal has

( 1 if farmer has knowledge of Trypanocides, 0 if

all the following characteristics: lean, off-feed,diarrhoea,

otherwise)

watery eyes, or clinically diagnosed; 0 if drug is used

PROF.ADVICE : Professional advice. (1 if farmer seeks

only when animal is lean, weak, off-feed or whenever

or adopts Veterinary Technical advice on trypanocide

drug is available).

use, 0 if farmer does not seek professional advice

Production or sales

prior to trypanocide use).

technique.

(Use

The sales production function is specified as:

DILUTION : Dilution of trypanocides

(1 if correct

Equation 1.1

dilution of trypanocide-Berenil i.e. 1 sachet of Berenil in 125mls of distilled water, 0 if otherwise) INJECTION.TECNIQUE:

Pour-on

for

Injection

S= ƒ( VAL. I NP UT S, COST . SE RVI CE S, AGE.ENTERPRISE, MANAGEMT.EXP, HERD.SIZE,

Techniques

DOSE,

EDUCATN,

EXTN.TRG,

BUSS.OWN,

(1 if farmer uses appropriate needles ie 4 cm (16G)

ENCOUNTER.TSETSE,

1.5 mm and injects at appropriate sites i.e. neck or rump

P R O F . A D V I C E , D I L U T I O N ,

and excess injected at two separate sites; or injection by

INJECTION.TECHNIQUE, TREATMT.INTERVALS,

Veterinary Technical officer and 0 if otherwise).

SANAT IVE. PAIR,

SE LECT IVE.T RE ATMNT,

TREATMT.INTERVALS: Treatment Intervals. Correct

PROPHYLAXS,

ANTIBIOTICS.USE,

intervals (3 to 4 months) between Treatments 1,

POURON.TECHNIQUE, CRITERIA.TREATMNT)

prolonged intervals (> 6 months) between treatments 0)

where,

SANATIVE.PAIR: Sanative pair. Uses sanative pair of

S = Sales

drugs

VAL.INPUTS = Value of inputs (US$)

(Isometamedium

and

Diminazene)for

KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE,

trypanosomiasis treatment 1; does not use sanative pair

COST.SERVICES = Cost of Services (US$)

of drugs, 0)

AGE.ENTERPRISE = Age of enterprise/kraal (years)

SELECTIVE.TREATMT: Selective treatment. Adopts

MANAGEMNT.EXP = Management experience (years)

selective treatment of infected cattle only 1; adopts mass

HERD.SIZE = Herd size (number of cattle)

treatment of all animals whenever trypanosomiasis cases

DOSE = Dosage of Berenil® used by farmer

are detected 0)

EDUCATN = Education of herdsmen

PROPHYLAXIS: Prophylaxis use (1 if farmer treats all ®

EXTN.TRG = Extension training

animals with samorin prior to the Period for highest

BUSS.OWN = Business ownership of livestock

risk such as rainy season and movement of cattle, 0 if

ENCOUNTER.TSETSE = Encounter tsetse (during

otherwise).

migrations, movements or

Grazing)

KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE = Knowledge of trypanocides 1021

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

Esena, 2013 PROF.ADVICE = Professional advice

ADVICE+b13logDILUTN+b14logINJEC.TECHNQ+b15lo

DILUTIONN = Dilution of trypanocides

gTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16 logSANATV.PAIR+

INJECTION.TECHNIQUE = Injection technique

b17 logSELECTV.TREATMNT+b 18 PROPHYLAXS+

TREATMNT.INTERVLS = Treatment intervals

b19logANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.TECHNQ+

SANATIVE.PAIR = Sanative pair

b21logCRITERIA.TREATMNT

SELECTIVE.TREATMNT = Selective treatment

Equation 1.4

PROPHYLXS = Prophylaxis

Logπ=logb0+b1logVAL.INPUTS+b2logCOST.S

ANTIBIOTICS.USE = Antibiotics use

ERVICES+b3logENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.EX

POURON.TECHNIQUE = Pour-on technique

P+b5logHERD.SIZE+b6logDOSE+b7logEDUCTN+b8log

CRITERIA.TREATMNT = Criteria for treatment

EXTN.TRG+b9logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNTER.T

Variable Profit Function

SETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPROF.A

The variable profit function is specified as:

DVICE+b13 logDILUTN+b14 logINJEC.TECHNIQUE+

Equation 1.2

b15logTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16logSANATIVE.P

π=ƒ

(VAL.INPUTS,

AGE.KRAAL,

COST.SERVICES,

MANAGEMT.EXP,

HERD.SIZE,

AIR+b17logSELECTIVE.TREATMNT+b18PROPHYLA XS+b19ogANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.

DOSAGE, EDUCATN, EXT.TRAING, BUSS.OWN,

TECHNIQUE+b21logCRITERIA.TREATMNT

HUSBNDRY.T YPE,

Equation 1.5

C ATTLE. MO VEMNT,

ENCOUNTER.TSETSE, ORIGIN.TSETSE, DIAGNS, CLIN. DIAGNS,

Logλ=logb0 +b1 logVALINPUTS+b 2 logCOST.

KNOW.T RYPANOCI DE,

SERVICES+b3logENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.E

P R O F . A D V I C E , D I L U T I O N ,

XP+b5 logHERD.SIZE+b 6 logDOSE+b 7 logEDUCTN+

INJECTION.TECHNIQUE,

b8logEXTN.TRG+b9 logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNT

REGULAR.TREATMNT,

T RE AT MT. I NTE RVALS,

SANAT V. PAI R,

ER.TSETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPR

S E L E C T I V E . T RE A T M N T ,

P RO P HY L A X S ,

OF.ADVICE+b13logDILUTN+b14 logINJEC.TECHNIQ

ANTIBIOTICS.USE,

STERILITY,

UE+b15logTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16logSANATIV

POURON.TECHNIQUE, CRITERIA.TREATMNT

E.PAIR+b17logSELECTIVE.TREATMNT+b18PROPHY

Where,

LAXS+b19logANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.TE

π= profit

CHNIQUE+ b21logCRITRIA.TREATMNT

The other independent variables are the same as in

Equation 1.6

(Equation 7.1) above Functional Forms

Logσ=logb0+b1logVALINPUTS+b2logCOST.SE RVICES+b3logENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.EXP

In terms of functional forms, equations (Equation

+b5logHERD.SIZE+b6logDOSE+b7logEDUCTN+b8logE

7.1) and (Equation 7.2) are estimated as log-linear

XTN.TRG+b9logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNTER.TS

equations. The log-linear sales function is shown as:

ETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPROF.AD

Equation 1.3

VICE+b13 logDILUTN+b 14 logINJEC.TECHNIQUE+

LogS=logb0+b1logVAL.INPUTS+b2logCOST.S

b15logTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16logSANATIVE.P

ERVICES+b3ENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.EXP+

AIR+b17logSELECTIVE.TREATMNT+b18PROPHYLA

b5 logHERD.SIZE+b6logDOSE+b7logEDUCTN+b8logE

XS+b19logANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.TECH

XTNSN.TRG+b9logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNTER.

NIQUE+ b21logCRITRIA.TREATMNT

TSETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPROF. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

1022

Esena, 2013 Testing for the overall significance of a

Estimation Procedures The Ordinary least Squares (OLS) was applied to

regression, we generalize the test for models including

the data regressions in equations (Equation 1.1) and

any number of explanatory (independent) variables.

(Equation 1.2).

When ordinary least squares is

Such tests aim at finding out whether explanatory

appropriately applied to data, the choice among all

variables do actually have any joint significance

possible lines is normally done on the basis of the least

influence on the dependent variable. Formally the test of

squares criterion. The rationale for this criterion is easy

overall significance of the regression implies that the null

to understand:

hypothesis

It is intuitively obvious that the smaller the

H0 : b1 = b2 =……………….bk = 0

deviation from the line, the better the fit of the line to the scatter of the observations. Consequently from all

Against the alternative hypothesis

possible lines, we choose the one for which the deviation

H1 : not all b1’s are zeros

of points is the smallest possible. The least squares

If the null hypothesis is true, that is, if all the true

criterion requires that the regression line be drawn

parameters are zeros, there is no linear relationship

(i.e. its parameters be chosen) in such a way as to

between Y and the regressors. To test for the overall

minimize the sum of squares of the deviation of

significance of the regression, F ratio is computed and

observations from it.

compared with the theoretical F* (at p = 0.5 level of

Test of Significance

sinificance) with v1 = k-1 (numerator) and v2 = n-k

Test of significance of parameter estimates was

(denomenator) degrees of freedom. If F* > F, we reject

carried out by the use of the student t-test. Traditionally,

the null hypothesis, ie. we accept that the overall

in econometric applications, researchers (Koutsoyiannis,

regression is not significant: not all b1’s are zeros. If F*

1977; Wonocott and Wonocott 1979) test the null

< F, we accept the null hypothesis, that is, we accept that

hypothesis H0 : b = 0 for each parameter, against the

the overall regression is not significant. In general,

alternative hypothesis H1 : b1 ≠ 0

higher values of F* suggest significant relationships

This type of hypothesis implies a two-tail test of a chosen level of significance, usually at the 5 % (and

between the dependent variable and the independent variables.

more rarely at the 1% level). We compute the t ratio for

The generalization of the formula of the

each b1. This is the observed (or sample) value of the t

coefficient of multiple determination maybe derived by

ratio which we compare with the theoretical value of t

inspection of the values of R2 (goodness of fit). It should

obtainable from the t-table with n-k degrees of freedom

be noted that the inclusion of additional independent

(where n = number of observations and k = number of

variables in the function can never reduce the coefficient

independent

(for

of multiple determination and would usually raise it. By

significance tests) is that the t-values associated with

introducing a new regressor, (independent variable) the

independent variables that are equal to or greater than

value of the numerator of the expression for R2 is

theoretical value (t.05

are considered to have

increased, and the denominator remains the same

significant effects on the dependent variables (eg. sales,

(Koutsoyiannis, 1977). It is important to adjust R2 (Ř2)

profits) and are retained in the model (Koutsoyiannis,

by taking into account degrees of freedom [df] which

1977).

decrease as new regressors (independent variables) are

variables).

The

(2)n-k)

decision

rule

introduced into the function. 1023

The R2 expresses the

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

Esena, 2013 goodness

of fit

the coefficient

of multiple

positive because most of the herdsmen have many years

determination. In this case it expresses the proportion of

of experience. Hisrich and Peters (1992) have explained

the total variability on dependent variables (sales and

that entrepreneurial experience is one of the best

profits) attributable to the dependence of sales and profit

predictors of success, particularly when the new venture

on the joint independent variables. The greater the

is in the same field as the entrepreneur’s (herdsman’s)

proportion (near unity), the better the goodness of fit of

new experience.

the values of joint independent variables around their mean.

The herd size (coefficient b5) was expected to be positive and the dose rate b6 negative. Appropriate

In conclusion, it should be noted that, while the t

dosage rate in the field is difficult because procedures

values determine the significance of the respective

depend on the accurate estimation of body weight

independent variables, the F-value determines the overall

(Connor, 1992).

(or collective) significance of the independent variables

herdsmen) was expected to have positive signs because

as noted by Harper (1984), educational background or

determines coefficient of multiple determination of the

training normally equip the entrepreneur (farmer) with

regressors (independent variables).

knowledge to plan and manage his business and thereby

Economic Theory and “a Priori” Expectations

survive in economically turbulent times (Anheier and

of the results obtained from the computer. The R

The coefficients b7 (education of

Certain independent variables were included in

Siebel 1987). Furthermore Swallow (2000) found that

the sales (Equation 1.1) and the profit functions

migratory pastoralists with higher education raise more

(Equation 1.2). The reasons for inclusion of these

livestock as compared with less educated.

variables may be explained by the fact that some were

training (b8) was expected to be positive because this

variables to be tested in the hypotheses. Others were

could assist the farmer with the knowledge to increase

findings from the field research while the rest were

productivity. Business ownership type (b9) was expected

derived from literature review and also responses from

to be

respondents as factors affecting the control of animal

proprietorships are unable to meet adequately the

trypanosomiasis.

financial needs of Small Scale Enterprises SSEs (Popiel

negative

the area.

Sole

Extension

and

family

Among the variables included in the equations,

1994; Soyibo 1996; Aryeetey 1995). On credit they are

expectations were made on the signs of each as they

constantly being discriminated against obtaining credit

could affect sales and profit. For example, in equation

(Liedholm and Mead 1987) and they are unable to meet

1.1 coefficients b1 (value of inputs) and b2 (cost of

the cost of inputs.

services) were expected to have negative signs. This is

The presence of tsetse (b10) is expected to be

because profitability of the use of trypanocides is

negative because as livestock pass through high-risk

determined by the cost of inputs (drugs) and services/

areas they are infected with trypanosomiasis that could

treatments (Brandl, 1988). Jahnke (1974) and Adelheim

deteriorate animal health and decrease productivity

(1980) estimated the cost of treatment to be between 50

(Brandl, 1988). Knowledge of trypanocides (b11) and

and 100% of the cost of drugs. In Uganda for example,

professional advice (b12) are both expected to be negative

(Jahnke, 1974) estimated that the cost for trypanocides

because the herdsman or owner carries out the treatment

used by pastoralists amounted to 50% of their family

without regular Government Veterinary supervision.

incomes. The age of cattle business b3 (Enterprise) and

Dilution (b13) of drugs and injection techniques (b14) are

b4 (management experience) were expected to be

both expected to be negative because of the difficult

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

1024

Esena, 2013 nature of making up solutions correctly on the field

for both sales and profit. Other findings were that: age

(Connor, 1993) and the difficulty of getting access to the

of enterprise (b3), dosage of Berenil® (b6) and business

use of appropriate needles.

ownership (b9) were positive while education of

Treatment interval (b15) and the use of “sanative

herdsmen (b7), Presence (or encounter) of tsetse were

pairs” of drugs (b16) are expected to be negative because

negative

they are generally done without regular Veterinary

Knowledge of trypanosomiasis (b11) was positive for

supervision. The amount of trypanocidal drugs used in

both sales and profit. Dilution of drugs (b13), injection

Africa is known to be small in relation to the numbers of

techniques (b14) and treatment intervals b15 were all

animals at risk (Anheier and Siebel 1987). (Trail, Murray

positive in the model. Furthermore, it was observed that

et al., 1984). Although the concept of a “sanative pair”

the following coefficients were positive as expected:

of drugs is known to be effective against trypanosomes

sanative pair of drugs (b16), selective treatments (b 17),

(Brandl, 1988) drug use among farmers depends on

prophylaxis (b18), and pour-on technique (b20).

availability. Selective treatment (b17) is expected to be

criteria for treatment (b21) was negative as expected.

positive because mass treatment is now known to have

Antibiotic use (b19) turned out to be positive.

led to the appearance of resistant trypanosomes (Geerts

Re-estimation of the models

and Holmes 1998).

expected.

Contrary

expectation,

The

Prophylactic drug use (b18) is

In this study, only certain variables turned out as

expected to contribute positively in the control of the

expected in the previous equations (Equation 1.2 and

disease (Lee and Maurice 1983). Antibiotic use (b19) is

1.4), Apart from the variables that were dropped by the

expected to contribute negatively because of the

computer itself probably due to collinearity, those

likelihood of drug misuse (Roderick, Stephenson et al.,

variables that had very low t-values (p > 0.05) were also

2000). The use of the pour-on (b20) is expected to be

dropped from the subsequent equation to re-estimate the

positive because it prevents infection with trypanosomes

model. The reason was that, these variables were

and thereby improve animal health to increase

unreliable.

productivity (Brandl, 1988). Trypanosomiasis

Re-estimated Sales and profit function results

control

requires an integrated approach using drugs and vector

The re-estimated sales model is presented in

control to reduce the tsetse challenge (Peregrine, 1994).

Table 1 and while the re-estimated model for profit is

Criteria for treatment (b21) are expected to be negative

presented in Table 2. The re-estimated models for

because farmers were not trained to identify the disease.

trypanosomiasis prevalence and dosage of Berenil ® by

Sales and Profit Function Results

herdsmen are presented in Table 3 and Table 4

The findings of sales and profit functions

respectively.

indicate that the signs of the coefficients were all similar except for cost of services (b2), education of herdsmen

DISCUSSION

(b7) and the criteria for trypanosomiasis treatments (b21)

Constraints associated with drug use by herdsmen

which were positive for profit models.

Contrary to

The findings of this model have been compared

expectations, the coefficient b1 (value of input) was

to the objectives, hypothesis, and literature review and

positive. The cost of service (b2) was negative for the

are discussed below.

profit model as expected. Management experience (b4)

mainly on the constraints associated with the use of

was positive as expected and herd size (b5) was positive

Diminazene aceturate (Berenil®) by herdsmen for the

1025

The focus of this discussion is

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

Esena, 2013 Table 1: Re-estimated sales model of herdsmen Variables Constant (K)

Beta 2.3890

t-value 26.5500

p-value 0.001

Farm size

0.2000

8.9810

0.001

Management experience

0.2110

3.5581

0.001

Prophylaxis

0.1000

3.5990

0.000

Age of enterprise (kraal)

0.2060

2.9840

0.003

Dosage of Berenil®

0.0056

2.6640

0.008

control of cattle trypanosomiasis.

Table 2: Re-estimated Profit model of herdsmen ariables Constant (K) Farm size

Beta 2.3420 0.1760

t-value 24.219 7.488

p-value 0.001 0.001

Age of enterprise (kraal)

0.2640

3.545

0.001

Prophylaxis

0.0082

2.761

0.006

Management experience

0.1680

2.655

0.008

Dosage of Berenil®

0.0074

3.105

0.002

Extension training

-0.0071

- 2.376

0.018

Business/cattle ownership

0.0035

2.117

0.035

and profit increases by 0.00176. This is an encouraging

Important issues have emerged in this model.

finding for farmers whose priority is cattle population

Firstly, it has been observed that, there is a significant

increase.

(p < 0.05) impact of the joint regression between sales

livestock population increases and/or tsetse free areas

and the independent variables and also a significant (p <

are taken up by other forms of land use, it may become

0.05) impact on the joint regression between profit and

necessary for livestock owners to enter tsetse infested

the independent variables. Similar findings were

areas and there is a tendency for some of the cattle to

observed for trypanosomiasis prevalence and dosage of

acquire trypanosome infections (Lee and Maurice, 1983).

Berenil® as dependent variables in relation to the

Jordan (1986) explained that as challenge increases the

respective independent variables. However only certain

problem of administering drugs effectively and the

independent variables were identified to have significant

consequent risk of a high incidence of drug resistance

(p < 0.05) impacts on sales, profit, trypanosomiasis

developing also increase. The result further shows that

However some workers believe that as

prevalence and dosage of Berenil . Although some

farm management experience had a significant (p <

variables were insignificant (p > 0.05) others had

0.001) impact on profit. The issue of farm management

positive impacts on productivity. For example, it was

has been noted by other researchers (Trail, Sones et al.,

observed that cattle management experiences (p <

1985). They showed that a good farm management and

0.001), age of kraal (p < 0.001), farm size (p < 0.001),

an efficient trypanosomiasis monitoring programme

dosage of Berenil® (p < 0.001) and prophylactic use of

(chemoprophylaxis) is highly effective in maintaining

drug (p < 0.001) had positive impacts on sales. This

cattle in areas of high tsetse challenge.

establishes an important equation which explains that

On the issue of farm management, (Sadhu and

those who adopt prophylaxis and an increased dosage of

Singh 1995) explained that the farmer normally acts as

Berenil have higher chances of increasing their output

entrepreneur or proprietor of the farm business and is

for sales and profit margins.

responsible for framing the general policy or plan of his

Farm size was observed to have a positive impact

business or his system of farming. Indeed some writers

on productivity (Table 1). In other words large scale

(Haaijer-Ruskamp and Dukes 1993) have noted that

farmers (> 99 cattle) appear to have more outputs and

these social and cultural setting influence peoples’

benefits than medium (50-99 cattle) and small scale

response to the drug.

farmers (<50 cattle). The results show that for every unit

pharmacology,

of increase (1%) in farm size increases sales by 0.002

determine drug use. There is no doubt that in areas of

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

They further explained that

epidemiology

and

social

sciences

1026

Esena, 2013 Table 4: Re-estimated model; dosage of Berenil® usedby herdsmen

Table 3: Re-estimated trypanosomiasis prevalence model Variables

Beta

t-value

p-value

Constant (K)

1.1530

17.984

0.001

Variables Constant (K)

Beta 3.131

t-value 6.833

p-value 0.001

Treatment intervals

-0.0088

- 3.080

0.002

Education of herdsmen

0.543

4.919

0.001

Dilution

-0.2140

- 2.992

0.003

Pouron technique

-0.652

-3.683

0.001

0.00528

2.161

0.032

-0.177

-1.990

0.048

0.1070

2.394

0.017

Districts

Selective treatment

0.1110

2.084

0.038

Ownership of business

Dosage of Berenil

low trypanosomiasis challenge, it is more economical to

(Berenil®) in the study area.

control the disease by chemotherapy than by tsetse

however had a significant (p < 0.05) impact on both sales

control (Jordan, 1986).

and profit. Although dosage was expected to have a

Brandl (1988) has added that, the prevention of

Dosage of Berenil®

negative (p < 0.001) impact on both sales and profit, it

loss of performance of animals as a consequence of

was contrary.

trypanosomiasis has economic significance for the

districts (Akatsi and AMA) used the appropriate dose

livestock enterprise and for the national economy. The

(3.5 to 7.0 mg/kg body weight of Berenil®). One of the

cultural setting determines how society views drug use in

main difficulties in the field is to achieve correct dosage

terms of

rate because appropriate dose depends on the accurate

its social acceptability and its social

significance (Haaijer-Ruskamp and Hemminki, 1993).

estimation of body weight which is difficult to achieve.

Non-compliance has become an important issue in medical, veterinary and socio-scientific research.

But the survey showed that only two

When subcurative doses of trypanocides are given by livestock owners or herdsmen, there is the

becomes more pronounced where the prescribed

danger

treatment is complex (Hingson, 1981) and long (Sackett

1993). Weight estimation by eye is a method which is

and Snow 1979) or where there are side effects

prone to inaccuracy and perhaps the greatest source of

(Christensen, 1978). Haaijer-Ruskamp and Hemminki

error in the accurate administration of drugs (Boyt,

(1993) clarified this issue by explaining that health care

1984).

systems vary widely from country to country because

especially with trypano-susceptible cattle. The reason is

they are embedded in different historical, social, cultural

that the animals have to be treated several times if sub-

and political values of the country. For example, the

therapeutic doses are given. In fact it is a method which

principle of equal access to drugs is associated with a

requires skills that can only be acquired by training

more general emphasis on social equality and with a

which only few livestock owners and veterinary staff

socio-political structure that more readily accepts

have the opportunity to acquire (Connor, 1993). The risk

governmental control.

associated with frequent treatment of cattle with

Prominent among the constraints associated with ®

of selecting resistant trypanosomes (Connor,

This method is ineffective (Connor, 1993)

trypanocidal drugs especially in cattle with poor body

drug use was the dose of Berenil used by farmers and

condition has been noted in Kenya by Stevenson and

its positive impact on trypanosomiasis prevalence. For

Sones et al., (1995).

the fact that dosage of Berenil had a positive impact on

The effects of trypanocide dilution and treatment

trypanosomiasis prevalence suggests that there could be

intervals on trypanosomiasis were both inversely

a threat of resistance of trypanosomes to the drug

proportional and tend to decrease trypanosomiasis

1027

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

Esena, 2013 prevalence (Table 3). The survey indicates that most

wealthy. On the cost factor, Kimbel (1993) added that

farmers had two blanket treatments yearly; the dilution

although it concerns national administration it is a matter

was a sachet of Berenil in 125 mls of distilled water. It

that must concern the health professionals as a whole. In

was usually measured with a syringe that were

the light of this argument one observes that drug

recommended for the appropriate amounts. Therefore

utilisation can make an important contribution by

preparation of injectable solution was not a problem

striking a balance between the benefits and the risk of

among farmers in the study area as expected. However

drug use (Haaijer-Ruskamp and Dukes, 1993).

the appropriate dose was not administered by all farmers.

The age of cattle business/enterprise (Kraal)

Surveillance is necessary in addressing the problem of

(Tables 1 and 2) had positive impacts on sales and profit

dosage and in determining the treatment intervals of

respectively.

chemoprophylactic regimes. Although drug surveillance

herdsmen

schemes were set up in 1964 to identify risks WHO

chronological age are the best predictors of success

(1972) it is not effective in developing countries. The

particularly when the new venture is in the same field as

need for treatment is judged by the farmer. The farmer’s

enterpreneur’s (herdsman) new experience (Hisrich and

response generally is to treat only problem animals i.e

Peters, 1992). Cattle farming as an enterprise has been

those with clinical disease that are recognised as sick and

noted to be an old business among Fulani herdsmen in

whose productivity or life is visibly threatened (Connor,

particular (Dickson and Benneh, 1995) and this could

1993).

have an advantage in enhancing productivity.

In fact the entrepreneurial age (age of reflected

experience)

and

their

(Brandl, 1988), explained that under normal

Certain factors had positive impacts on the

circumstances herd treatment should be carried out

dosage of drug use (Table 4): Education of herdsmen had

through regular administration of a curative dose of

positive impacts on the use of Berenil®.

Extension

Berenil or Samorin as a prophylaxis. But the cost of

training was inversely correlated with profit. Extension

monitoring

and logistical requirements limit the

training and educational background in general normally

efficiency of prophylactic regimens. The requirements

equip the herdsman with knowledge to plan and manage

today of farmers to pay for such treatments make it less

a business. This is however not the case in the study area

likely that herd prophylaxis will be widely practised

where extension training has not yet been given to most

under traditional management systems. The explanation

of the farmers.

is that, there is a general belief that the cost of

Pour-on techniques and farm/business ownership

trypanocidal drugs and their use is high. Trail et al.,

had negative impacts on drug use. In other words farmers

(1985) argued that “notions” of high cost of trypanocidal

with a higher education level who used pour-ons (jointly

drugs and their use is a reasonable but unfounded

with drugs) tend to decrease the dosage of Berenil ® used

assumption because there is little published information

and communal farms did not comply with appropriate

on the economics of use of trypanocidal drugs on

doses as compared to farms that were family owned or

livestock productivity. But some writers (Haaijer-

solely owned. It is like farms that where farms were

Ruskamp and Dukes 1993) believe that alongside the

communally owned, different farmers attempted to

medical/veterinary and social determinants of drug use

influence the herdsmen’s practices.

economic factors play an important role. They argued

were identified in the model and are were presented in

that money has always been relevant to the use of drugs

the model itself.

and indeed the best medicines were available only to the

Berenil® had some positive impacts on sales and profit

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

Other constraints

Antibiotic use in conjunction with

1028

Esena, 2013 and even decreased trypanosomiasis prevalence. The use

trypanocide drug use by herdsmen.

of antibiotics mixed with trypanocides has had also been

constraints pose threats to the emergence of resistance

noted among cattle farmers (massai pastoralists) in

strains of trypanosomes. To address these problems,

Kenya by (Roderick, Stephenson et al., 2000). These

there is the need for a trypanocide classification system

farmers used homidium or diminazene in conjunction

as a tool for comparative studies of both supply/

with oxytetracycline in the absence of Veterinary

marketing and use. Such a system will provide a solid

supervision. There were other factors correlated with

basis on which to compare trypanocide drug use among

trypanosomiasis prevalence in the model but these were

farmers in the study area. Furthermore, the veterinary

not significant (p > 0.05). These were the poor injection

department

techniques and criteria for treatment. Other factors had

consultation with the government should promote the

negative impacts on trypanosomiasis prevalence. These

accreditation of Veterinary drug stores at national,

factors were: knowledge of trypanocides, professional

regional and district levels. The Ghana Veterinary

advice, sanative pair of drugs and prophylactic drug use.

Medical Association should be encouraged to promote

The variable “criteria for trypanosomiasis treatment”

professional ethical standards by formulating a code of

tends to increase trypanosomiasis prevalence. This

ethics assuring quality of services provided for the

implies that the diagnosis and treatment of cattle

community.

and

the

Ghana

Some of these

standards

board

trypanosomiasis among farmers have been questionable. Farmers normally attribute anaemia to

trypanosomal

infection but it is important to note that there are other important

anaemia

causing

pathogens

such

gastrointestinal helminths that affect cattle productivity (Agyemang, Dwinger et al., 1997).

Farmers and

veterinarians normally resort to treatment of only sick

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animals with trypanocides based solely on certain retrospective symptoms (Connor, 1993), but the presence of concurrent diseases could mask trypanosomiasis and

Agyemang K and Dwinger RH . 1997. Village N'dama cattle Production in West Africa. Six years of Research in the Gambia. Banjul, ILRI and ITC.

complicate the clinical picture. However, some of the basic symptoms generally adopted by farmers in the study area are anaemia, rough hair coat and diarrhoea (Aning, Karbo et al., 1998).

Anheier HK and Seibel HD. 1987. Small Scale Industries and Economic Development in Ghana: Business behaviour and strategies in Informal Sector economics. Saarbruchen, Germany, Verlag Breitenbach Publishers.

CONCLUSION This research has shown that there is no control ®

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The effect is that there

are

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associated with trypanosomiasis control limiting the

Aning KG and Karbo N, Nyanu JA,Otchere EO. 1998. Tsetse, Trypanosomiasis and Dermatophilosis Survey in the Saboba-Chereponi District in the Northern Region of Ghana. Accra, Animal Research Institute, CSIR.

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Haaijer-Ruskamp FM and Hemminki E. 1993. The social aspects of drug use. Drug utilization studies methods and uses. Regional publication, European series No. 45. M. N. G. Dukes.

Boyt WP. 1988. A field guide for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of African Animal trypanosomiasis. Rome, FAO.

Hay SI, Tucker CJ, Rogers DJ and Packer MJ. 1996. Remotely sensed surrogates of meteorological data for the study of the distribution and abundance of arthropod vectors of disease." Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 90(1): 1-19.

Brandl FE. 1988. Economics of trypanosomiasis control in cattle.Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk,Kiel: Farming Systems and Resource Economics in the Tropics. Stuttgart, Vissennschaftverlag vauk kiel. Connor RJ. 1992. The diagnosis, treatment and prevention of animal trypanosomiasis under field conditions. Programme for the control of animal trypanosomiasis and related development. Ecological and technical aspects. Proceedings of the FAO panel of experts, Harare, Zimbabwe, FAO, Rome. Connor RJ. 1993. "Epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment. Technical consultation on Trypanosomiasis. Nairobi, Kenya 16-19 February, 1993. FAO RAFR:TRYP/LOM/93/3 32 pp." Christensen BL. 1978. Drug-taking compliance: a review and synthesis. Health Services Research, 6: 121187. Dickson KB and Benneh G. 1970. A new Geography of Ghana. London, Longman Group Publishers. Geerts S and Holmes PH. 1998. Drug Management and Parasite resistance in Bovine Trypanosomiasis in Africa. Rome, FAO, PAAT:1-31. Ghana RO. 1998a. National Livestock Services Project IDA/GOG. Implementation Support Mission. Accra, Ministry of Food and Agriculture.: 1-25. Haaijer-Ruskamp FM and Dukes MNG. 1993. The economic aspects of drug use. Drug utilization studies. M. N. G. Dukes. Geneva, WHO: 125-145. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

Harper M. 1984. "Small Business in the Third World.

Hingson R. 1981. In sickness and in Health: Social dimensions of medical care. St Louis, Moresby. Hisrich RD and Peters MP. 1992. Entrepreneurship : Starting, Developing and Managing a New Enterprise. Boston, UNWIN. Hoste CH, Chalon, E, d'Ieteren GDM and Trail JCM. 1992a. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West Africa and central Africa. Vol 3: A decade's results. International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) Monograph 2. Addis Ababa,, ILCA: 206 pp. Jahnke HE. 1974. The economics of controlling tsetse flies and cattle trypanosomiasis in Africa, examined for the case of Uganda. PhD thesis. Hobenheim, University of Hobenheim. Jordan AM. 1986. Trypanosomiasis control and the African rural development. London, Longmans. Kimbel KH. 1993. "Drug utilization and Health Profession. In Drug utilization studies, Methods and uses." WHO Regional Publication Series 45: 193-218. Koutsoyiannis A. 1977. Theory of Econometrics (2nd ed.). London, MacMillan. Lee CW and Maurice JM. 1983. The African Trypanosomiasis: Methods and concepts of eradication in relation to development. Washington, DC., The World Bank.

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Esena, 2013 Liedholm C and Mead D. 1987. "Small Scale Industries in Developing Countries: empirical evidence and policy implications". East Lansing MI, USA, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University.

Trail JCM, Murray M and Wissoco Y. 1984. "The trypanotolerant livestock network in West and Central Africa." International Livestock Centre for Africa, ILCA Bulletin 18: 16-19.

Peregrine AS. 1994. "Chemotherapy and delivery systems: haemoparasites." Veterinary Parasitology 54(1-3):(223-248).

Trail JCM, Sones KR, Jibbo JMC, Durkin J, Light DE and Murray M. 1985. Productivity of Boran cattle maintained by chemoprophylaxis under trypanosomiasis risks. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, ILCA Report 9: 1-9.

Popiel PA. 1994. Financial Systems in sub-Saharan Africa: a A comparative study. World Bank Discussion Papers: Africa Technical Department Series. Washington DC. Roderick S, Stevenson P, Mwendia C and Okech G. 2000. "The use of Trypanocides and Antibiotics by Maasai Pastoralists." Tropical Animal Health and Production 32(6): 361-374.

WHO. 1972. International drug monitoring: the role of national centres. Report of a WHO Meeting. Geneva, WHO Technical Report Series No. 498. Wonocott RJ and Wonocott TH. 1979. Econometrics (2nd ed.). New York, John Wiley, Chapter 3, 580. World B. 1997. Ghana, Consultative Group. Press Background Development 8.

Sackett DL and Snow JC. 1979. The magnitude of compliance and non-compliance. Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press. Sadhu AN and Singh A. 1995. Fundamentals of Agricultural Economics Chp 6 p.421. Delhi, Tarum Offset Printers. Soyibo A. 1996. Financial Linkage and Development in sub-Saharan Africa: A Study of informal Finance in Nigeria - Report of a Study prepared by by Overseas Development Institute. London, ODI. Stevenson P, Sone KR, Gicheru MM and Mwangi EK. 1995. "Comparison of isometamidium chloride and homidium bromide as prophylactic drugs for trypanosomiasis in cattle at Nguruman, Kenya." Acta Tropica 59(2): 77-84. Swallow BM. 2000. Impacts of Trypanosomiasis on African Agriculture. PAAT Tecnical and Scientific Series. Rome, Italy. 2: 1-52. Trail JCM and Gregory KE. 1982. "Production characters of the Sahiwal and Ayrshire breeds and their crosses in Kenya." Tropical Animal Health and Production 14(1): 45-57. 1031

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Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031

Journal of Research in Biology

An International Scientific Research Journal

Original Research

Journal of Research in Biology

A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India) Authors: Girish Chopra, Anil K. Tyor and Seema Kumari*

Institution: Department of Zoology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra- 136119, Haryana (India)

ABSTRACT: The present study was conducted in Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India) from February, 2011 to January, 2013 to analyze the avian diversity along with its status and abundance. During the study period, a total of 79 wetland species belongings to 10 orders, 23 families and 56 genera were identified. The order Anseriformes was the most dominant represented by 18.9% of the total identified wetland avian species followed by Charadriiformes (17.72%), Passeriformes (16.45%), Ciconiiformes (15.18%) and Pelecaniformes (5.06%). The order Apodiformes and Podicipediformes were the least represented order (1.26%) with one species each, namely, Swift, Apus apus and Little Grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis respectively. Out of total 79 wetland avian species, 31 were ‘occasional’ species, 13 were ‘uncommon’ species, 12 were ‘abundant’ species, 11 were ‘common’ species and 12 were ‘rare’ species. Based on the frequency of sighting, Pied King Fisher, Ceryle rudis; Chestnut Headed Bee-Eater, Merops leschenaultia; Cotton Pygmy Goose, Nettapus coromandelianus; Eurasian Spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia; Little-ringed Plover, Charadrius dubius; Pheasant-Tailed Jacana, Hydrophasianus chirurgus were ‘rarely sighted’ wetland species.

Corresponding author: Seema Kumari

Keywords: Wetland, Wetland Species, Water Birds, Water Associated Birds, Sultanpur National Park.

Email Id:

Article Citation: Girish Chopra, Anil K. Tyor and Seema Kumari A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India) Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1032-1040

Web Address:

http://jresearchbiology.com/ documents/RA0370.pdf.

Dates: Received: 24 July 2013

Accepted: 30 July 2013

Published: 23 Aug 2013

Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal

1032-1040 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

www.jresearchbiology.com

Chopra et al., 2013 INTRODUCTION The wetlands can be defined as transitional lands

of wetland ecosystem, as they form important links in the food web and nutrient cycles.

between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem where the

From time to time various ornithologists have

water table is near the surface or land is covered by

studied flora and fauna in various wetland ecosystems in

shallow water (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). One of the

protected areas (Saxena, 1975; Hussain et al., 1984;

best functions of wetlands is that these provide the best

Singh and Roy, 1990; Hosetti et al., 2001; Bhat et al.,

preferred ground for feeding, breeding, nesting, roosting

2009; Chopra and Sharma, 2012).

for birds as well as rearing site for their young ones

Sultanpur National Park is one of the famous

(Stewart, 2007). According to Vyas, (1992), freshwater

wetlands in northern India. This national park is

wetland alone support 20% of known range of

considered as a major habitat for the cross boundary

biodiversity in India Therefore, monitoring of these sites

migratory birds. Keeping in view of the conservational

provides valuable information about the ecological

values of wetland birds, systematic efforts have been

health and status thereof, which can be a key tool for

made during the present study with an objective to

developing awareness regarding the importance and

prepare the exhaustive checklist of wetland and wetland

conservation value of wetlands. wetlands are used by

dependent/associated birds of Sultanpur National Park.

birds for the purpose of feeding, nesting and roosting and these birds are generally classify as „water birds‟ or

MATERIALS AND METHODS

popularly known as waterfowls and waders. According

Sultanpur National Park (28°28‟ N latitude and

to Kumar et al., (2011), bird groups like kingfishers,

76° 53‟ E longitudes) (Fig. 1) is located in a

raptors and some passerines are also ecologically depend

predominantly agricultural landscape with an area of

on wetlands, hence known as wetland dependent/

13,727 ha and includes its core area of 143 ha of low-

associated birds. These birds are the essential component

lying marshes, which were notified as a bird sanctuary

Fig. 1(a) Location of study site within the map of Haryana

Fig.1(b) Diagrammatic presentation of Sultanpur National Park

1033

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1032-1040

Chopra et al., 2013 by the Haryana State Government in 1971 (Kalpavriksh,

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1994). Sultanpur Lake is a seasonal lake with irregular

Besides being ideal indicators of the health of

margins and fluctuating water level throughout the year,

wetland, the wetland birds play a significant role in

being maximum water level in rainy season and winters,

human lives culturally, socially and scientifically

and nearly dried condition during hot summer season.

(Stewart, 2007). As a wetland ecosystem, Sultanpur

Periodic

from

National Park provided varied habitats, including forest

February, 2011 to January, 2013 in terrestrial and aquatic

patch and low laying marshy areas for nesting and

habitats in the area in the early morning and later in the

feeding of various types of birds.

fortnightly

visits

were

conducted

evening to record avian species. Line transects method

During the study period of two years from

(Sale and Berkmuller, 1988) and point count methods

February, 2011 to January, 2013, 79 wetland species

(Blondel, et al., 1981) were used to enumerate the

belongings to 10 orders, 23 families and 57 genera were

population of birds‟ species. Binoculars (Nikon 7×50

reported from Sultanpur National Park (Table 1). These

CF) were used to locate/identify the distant birds, Sony

include both water bird species and water associated bird

handy cam models DCR-HC-42E and digital camera

species; former were significantly more than latter. A

Nikon L-120 model were used to take photograph of the

checklist of the wetland birds observed during the study

birds encountered. Later, the wetland populations were

period along with their conservation status and

identified with the help of different field guides (Ali and

abundance is represented in Table 1.

Ripley, 1987; Grimmett et al., 1998 and Inskipp et al., 1999).

Earlier studies have also revealed the existence of significant number of wetland avian species in the

Seasonal variation in avian diversity was

wetland area of Haryana (Harvey, 2003; Gupta and

recorded in different season‟s viz., winter, summer,

Kaushik, 2008; Gupta et al., 2011 and Chopra and

monsoon and autumn seasons. On the basis of frequency

Sharma, 2012). Harvey (2003) reported a total of 102

of sighting, the observed birds were segregated following

wetland avian species which includes 58 species

Srinivasulu and Nagulu (2002),

Ab-abundant

occasional and 44 species of uncommon bird in the

(encounter rate 95 % to 100 %); Cm- common

wetland of Sultanpur region of Gurgaon district

(encounter rate 65% to 95%); Uc- uncommon (encounter

(Haryana). Gupta and Kaushik, (2008) reported a total of

rate 40% to 60%) Oc - occasional (encounter rate 20% to

80 wetland avian species belonged to 10 orders and 20

40%); and Rr- rare (encounter rate less than 20%).

families in northern Haryana. Gupta and Kaushik, (2011)

Status of the birds were categorized as: RS- resident

reported 47 species of wetland birds belonging to 9

species (found in the study area throughout the year);

orders and 13 families in the wetland area of

WM- winter migrant species (found in the study area

Yamunanagar District (Haryana). Chopra and Sharma,

only in winter season); LM- local migrant species (found

(2012) reported 88 wetland avian species belonging to 17

irregularly in study site but resident of India); SM-

orders and 32 families in the wetland area of Panchkula

summer migrant species (found in the study area only

district of Haryana.

during summer season) and SU- status unknown species (not observed in any of the above mentioned categories).

During the present study, out of total reported 79 wetland avian species, 20 (25.3%) were „resident‟ species and 59 (74.6%) were „migrant‟ species. The migrant species included 11 (14%) local migrants, 43 (55%) winter migrants and only 5(6%) summer migrants

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1032-1040

1034

Chopra et al., 2013 Table 1: Systematic position, status and abundance of wetland species in Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India). Order 1.Podicipediformes

Family Podicipedidae

Common name Little Grebe

Zoological name 1.Tachybaptus ruficollis

2.Pelecaniformes

Phalacrocoracidae

Little Cormorant

3.Ciconiiformes

Ardeidae

Ciconiidae

Threskiornithidae 4.Anseriformes

5.Falconiformes

1035

Anatidae

Accipitridae

Status RS

Abundance Oc

2.Phalacrocorax niger

Great Cormorant

3. Phalacrocorax carbo

Indian Cormorant

4. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis

Darter

5. Anhinga melanogaster

Grey Heron

6. Ardea cinerea

Purple Heron

7. Ardea purpurea

Indian Pond Heron

8. Ardeola grayii

Great Egret

9. Casmerodius albus

Little Egret

10. Egretta garzetta

Cattle Egret

11. Bubulcus ibis

Intermediate Egret

12. Mesophoyx intermedia

Painted Stork Black Necked Stork

13. Mycteria leucocephala 14. Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus

RS WM

Ab Rr

Open Billed Stork

15. Anastomus oscitans

Black headed Ibis

16. Threskiornis melanocephalus

Eurasian Spoonbill

17. Platalea leucorodia

Greylag Goose

18. Anser anser

Bar Headed Goose

19. Anser indicus

Spot Billed Duck

20. Anas poecilorhyncha

Common Pochard

21. Aythya ferina

Eurasian Wigeon

22. Anas penelope

Tufted Pochard

23. Aythya fuligula

Cotton Pygmy Goose

24. Nettapus coromandelianus

Ruddy Shelduck

25. Tadorna ferruginea

Northern Pintail

26. Anas acuta

Mallard

27. Anas platyrhynchos

Gadwall

28. Anas strepera

Northern Shoveler Lesser Whistling Duck Common Teal

29. Anas clypeata

30.Dendrocygna javanica

31. Anas crecca

Garganey

32. Anas querquedula

Black Kite

33. Milvus migrans

Black Eagle

34. Ictinaetus malayensis

Shikra

35. Accipiter badius

Brahminy Kite

36. Haliastur Indus

Black winged Kite

37. Elanus caeruleus

Sparrow Hawk

38. Accipiter nisus

Pied Harrier

39. Circus melanoleucos

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1032-1040

Chopra et al., 2013 6.Gruiformes

7.Charadriiformes

Gruidae

Sarus Crane

40.Grus antigone

Rallidae

White Breasted Waterhen Common Moorhen

41.Amaurornis phoenicurus 42.Gallinula chloropus

Purple Swamphen

43.Porphyrio porphyrio

Common Coot Little-ringed Plover Red-wattled Lapwing

44.Fulica atra 45.Charadrius dubius 46.Vanellus indicus

White-tailed Lapwing Pheasant-Tailed Jacana

47.Vanellus leucurus 48.Hydrophasianus chirurgus

Common Redshank Spotted Redshank

49.Tringa tetanus 50.Tringa erythropus

Common Sandpiper Wood Sandpiper

51.Actitis hypoleucos 52.Tringa glareola

Green Sandpiper Marsh sandpiper

53.Tringa ochropus 54.Tringa stagnatilis

Little Stint Ruff

55.Calidris minuta 56.Philomachus pugnax

Recurvirostridae

Black-winged Stilt Black-necked Stilt

57.Himantopus himantopus 58.Himantopus mexicanus

Apodidae Alcedinidae

Swift White Throated Kingfisher

59.Apus apus 60.Halcyon smyrnensis

Meropidae

Pied Kingfisher Green Bee-eater

61.Ceryle rudis 62.Merops orientalis

Blue Cheeked Bee-eater

63.Merops persicus

Chestnut Headed Bee-eater Indian Roller Indian Grey Hornbill

64.Merops leschenaulti 65.Coracias benghalensis 66.Ocyceros birostris

Hirundinidae

Red Rumped Swallow Plain Martin

67.Hirundo daurica 68.Riparia paludicola

Oriolidae Dicruridae

Eurasian Golden Oriole Black Drongo

69.Oriolus oriolus 70.Dicrurus macrocercus

Muscicapidae

Hodgson Bush Chat Orange Headed Thrush

71.Saxicola insignis 72.Zoothera citrina

Blue-throat Rusty-tailed Flycatcher

73.Luscinia svecica 74.Muscicapa ruficauda

Red -throated Flycatcher Paddy-field Pipit

75.Ficedula parva 76.Anthus rufulus

White Wagtail Large -pied Wagtail

77.Motacilla alba 78.Motacilla maderaspatensis

Yellow Wagtail

79.Motacilla flava

Charadriidae

Jacanidae Scolopacidae

8.Apodiformes 9.Coraciiformes

Coraciidae Bucerotidae 10.Passeriformes

Motacillidae

RS WM WM WM WM WM RS WM SM WM WM WM WM WM WM WM WM RS WM RS RS WM RS R SM RS RS WM RS WM RS WM WM WM SM SM RS WM WM WM

Oc Oc Oc Cm Ab Rr Ab Oc Rr Uc Uc Oc Oc Oc Rr Rr Uc Ab Rr Oc Cm Rr Cm Oc Rr Oc Oc Oc Oc Uc Ab Oc Oc Oc Uc Oc Oc Oc Uc Rr

RS = Resident species LM = local migrant species SM = summer migrant species WM = winter migrant species Ab = abundant species Oc = occasional species Cm= common species Uc = uncommon species Rr rare species (Fig 2). The present study revealed that local migrants

site. Maximum numbers of migrant species were

such as, Great Egret (Casmerodius albus), Open Billed

reported in the winter season because migratory water

Stork (Anastomus oscitans) and Pacific Reef Egret

birds species like Bar headed Goose (Anser indicus),

(Egretta sacra) were observed irregularly from the study

Grey Leg Goose (Anser anser), Cotton Pygmy Goose

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1032-1040

1036

Chopraet al., 2013

Fig 2: Percentage composition of residential status of wetland bird species of Sultanpur National Park, Gurgaon (India)

Fig 3: Percentage composition of abundance status of wetland bird species of Sultanpur National Park, Gurgaon (India)

(Nettapus coromandelianus), Gadwall (Anas strepera)

Sultanpur lake was elevated.

and Eurasian Wigeon (Anas Penelope) visit this place

During the present study among 79 wetland

from December to February. Minimum numbers of water

species, 12 (15%) species were „abundant‟, 11(14%)

bird were observed in the month of May and June.

species were „common‟, 31 (39%) species were

Wetland species adapt differently to different

„occasional‟, 14 (18%) species were „uncommon‟ and 11

water levels as the food preference of water birds

(14%) species were „rare‟ (Fig 3). On the basis of

changes with fluctuation in the water level (Mukherjee,

frequency of sighting common wetland species included

1972). Red Wattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus) and

Little

Black Winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus) (Order-

Cormorant

Gruiformes) were observed at variable water levels of

Pochard (Aythya ferina), Mallard (Anas platyrhyncos),

the lake but other representatives of this avian order,

Gadwall, (Anas strepera), Lesser Whistling Duck

namely,

(Dendrocygna javanica), Common Teal (Anas crecca),

Spotted

Sandpiper

(Tringa

erythropus),

Cormorant

(Phalacrocorax

niger),

fuscicollis),

Indian Common

Common Red Shank (Tringa tetanus) and Ruff

Garganey (Anas querquedula),

(Philomachus pugnax) occupied the lake only in shallow

(Porphyrio porphyrio) on the other hand, Grey Heron

regions. Their arrival coincided with the reduction in

(Ardea cinerea), Little Egret (Egretta garzetta), Open

water level in the lake so that, they could avail the food

Billed Stork (Anastomus oscitans), Tufted Pochard

easily by probing into the mud. Similar observations

(Aythya fuligula), Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea),

were made earlier on water birds of Sunderban

Common Redshank (Tringa tetanus), Spotted Redshank

(Mukherjee, 1972) and Anekere wetland of Karnataka

(Tringa erythropus), Ruff (Philomachus pugnax) were

(Bhat et al., 2009). The present study also revealed that

the „uncommon‟ wetland birds and Pied King Fisher

Painted

(Ceryle rudis), Chestnut Headed Bee-Eater (Merops

Stork

(Mycteria

leucocephala)

(Order-

Ciconiformes) was observed throughout of the year even

leschenaultia),

when the water level in the lake was drastically reduced

coromandelianus),

in summer months (May and June), while another

leucorodia), Little-ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius),

representative of this order, i.e., Black neck Stork

Pheasant-Tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus)

(Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) was sighted during the

were „rarely sighted‟ wetland species. Maximum wetland

starting of winter season when the water level in the

bird species in the study area belonged to order

1037

Cotton

Purple Swamphen

Pygmy

Eurasian

Goose

(Nettapus

Spoonbill

(Platalea

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1032-1040

Chopra et al., 2013 Table 2: Per cent distribution of avian species belonging to different orders and families Order 1.Podicipediformes 2.Pelecaniformes 3.Ciconiiformes

No. of species (%) (1) 1.26 % (4 ) 5.06 % (12) 15.18 %

4.Anseriformes 5.Falconiformes 6.Gruiiformes

(15) 18.90 % (7) 8.86 % (5) 6.32 %

7.Charadriiformes

(14) 17.72 %

8.Apodiformes 9.Coraciiformes

10. Passeriformes

(1) 1.26 % (7) 8.86 %

(13) 16.45 %

Family Podicipedidae Phdlacrocoracidae Ardeidae Ciconiidae Threskiornithidae Anatidae Accipitridae Gruidae Rallidae Charadriidae Jacanidae Scolopacidae Recurvirostridae Apodidae Alcedinidae Meropidae Coraciidae Bucerotidae Hirundinidae Oriolidae Dicruridae Muscicapidae Motacillidae

No. of species (%) (1) 1.26 % (4) 5.06 % (7) 8.86 % (3) 3.79 % (2) 2.53 % (15) 18.90 % (7) 8.86 % (1) 1.26 % (4) 5.06 % (3) 3.79 % (1) 1.26 % (8) 10.12 % (2) 2.53 % (1) 1.26 % (2) 2.53 % (3) 3.79 % (1) 1.26 % (1) 1.26 % (2) 2.53 % (1) 1.26 % (1) 1.26 % (5) 6.32 % (4) 5.06 %

Anseriformes (15, 18.9%) followed by Charadriiformes

and representative of this order utilize grassland and

(14,

16.45%),

terrestrial ecosystem for feeding, breeding and roosting

Ciconiiformes (12, 15.18%), Falconiformes (7, 8.86%),

purpose (Sundar, 2005; Urfi et al., 2005 Shahabuddin et

Gruiiformes (5, 6.32%) and Pelecaniformes (4, 5.06%)

al., 2006; Sultana et al., 2007; Pande et al., 2007, Chopra

while the representative of the order Apodiformes and

et al., 2012). However, during the present study in

Podicipediformes were represented by single species, i.e,

Sultanpur National Park only 13 wetland avian species,

Swift (Apus apus) and Little Grebe (Tachybaptus

i.e., 16.45% of the total sighted wetland avian fauna

ruficollis) respectively (Tables 1 and 2). All the 15

represented this order (Table 2).

17.72%),

Passeriformes

(13,

members of order Anseriformes belonged to the single

During the present study most of wetland avian

family, i.e., Anatidae constituting 18.9% of the total

species were observed near the submerged vegetation of

wetland avian species, whereas representative of the

wetland area and utilized these vegetation for nesting,

order Charadriiformes belonged to 4 families namely,

roosting and feeding ground whereas, Painted Stork

Charadriidae (3), Jacanidae (1), Scolopocidae (8) and

(Mycteria leucocephala), Open Billed Stork (Anastomus

Recurvirostridae (2) consitituting 3.79%; 1.26%; 10.12%

oscitans)

and 2.53% respectively. The families, Bucerotidae,

melanocephalus) were found to utilize the wetland area

Coraciidae (Order- Coraciiformes); Oriolidae, Dicruridae

for feeding purpose and trees were mainly used for

(Order- Passeriformes); Apodidae (Order- Apodiformes);

nesting and roosting by these species.

and

Black-headed

Ibis

(Threskiornis

Gruidae (Order- Gruiiformes) and Jacanidae (OrderCharadriiformes) were represented by single species

CONCLUSION

(Table-2). In the terrestrial habitats, majority of the

It is revealed that a total of 79 wetland species

reported avian species belonged to order Passeriformes

were observed which includes 12 species of abundant

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1032-1040

1038

Chopra et al., 2013 category, 11 species of common category, 31 species of occasional category, 13 species were

of uncommon

category with 12 species were rare sighted wetland species. Though, Sultanpur National Park has a rich diversity of flora and fauna and important attracting wetland area for Anseriformes, increased anthropogenic

Foothillsâ&#x20AC;? (India) Nature and Science. 10 (7): 86-93. Chopra G, Tyor AK, Kumari S and Rai D. 2012. Status and conservation of avian fauna of Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India) Journal of Applied and Natural Science. 4 (2): 207-213.

factors such as habitat fragmentation and destruction,

Grimmett R, Inskipp T and Inskipp C. 1998. Birds of

tourism pressure and scarcity of water during the

the Indian subcontinent. Delhi: Oxford University. 888.

summer season impose threats to these avian fauna. Besides, the herds of Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Stray dogs and wild cattle also occasionally trampled the chicks and eggs of water birds in this national park. Successful conservation of the avian species will depend

Gupta RC and Kaushik TK. 2011. Insight into wetland winter Migratory avian biodiversity in Hathnikund Barrage in Haryana State in India. International Journal of Life Science. 5 (1): 39-43.

on improved understanding of ecological requirements

Gupta RC and Kaushik TK. 2008. Studies on the

and number of visitor birds. Further survey and intensive

natural history of avian fauna of natural village ponds in

studies in different seasons will be helpful in drafting

northern Haryana. Ph.D thesis, Department of Zoology,

conservational strategies of the wetland in general and

Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra.

wetland birds in particular. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are grate full to Wildlife Department

Harvey B. 2003. Checklist of the birds of Sultanpur. Retrieved

August,

18,

2010

from

http://

www.delhibird.net/content/view/73/89.

Panchkula for giving permission to work in protected

Hosetti BB, Somanath BC and Naik KL. 2001. Eco-

area. The corresponding author dully acknowledges

ornithological studies on Gudavi Bird Sanctuary,

UGC fellowship for financial support.

Shimoga, Karnataka, India, cited. In: Trends in wild life biodiversity

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communities of the Proposed Naina and Pindari wildlife Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1032-1040

1040

Journal of Research in Biology

An International Scientific Research Journal

Original Research

Journal of Research in Biology

Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixed-method mode research: Quality improvement strategies for trypanosomiasis control Authors: Reuben K. Esena

ABSTRACT:

This paper presents a continuum of triangulation designs ranging from Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), surveys, parasitological to satellite data for a holistic approach to a research on trypanosomiasis – a disease affecting human and livestock. The purpose is to combine several methods to improve the quality of trypanosomiasis control in the coastal savannah. This is the most extensive work on Institution: trypanosomiais in an African coastal savannah ecosystem, covering eleven districts in Department of Health Policy Planning and Management, Ghana. In this study, quantitative results were supplemented by qualitative methods to improve on the validity and reliability. The study focused on farmers’ production School of Public Health, objectives, constraints associated with the use of Berenil® to control trypanosomiasis, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 13 Legon – Accra, and satellite data for mapping areas at the risk of diseases for appropriate targeting, predictions and control. This mixed-method studies seeks convergence (triangulation), Ghana of results by examining different aspects of a phenomena (complementarity) on using methods sequentially (development) on discovering paradox and fresh perspectives (initiation), and on adding breadth and scope to a project (expansion). In this paper, issues of triangulation, validity and reliability has been discussed. Corresponding author: Reuben K. Esena

Keywords: Triangulation, Tsetse, Trypanosomiasis, Berenil, Dosage, Mixed-Method.

Email Id:

Article Citation: Reuben K. Esena Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixed-method mode research: Quality improvement strategies for trypanosomiasis control. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

Web Address:

http://jresearchbiology.com/ documents/RA0367.pdf.

Dates: Received: 13 July 2013

Accepted: 07 Aug 2013

Published: 28 Aug 2013

Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal

1041-1053 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

www.jresearchbiology.com

Esena, 2013 INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT Multiple methods

have

social

a distinct tradition of research strategy.

science

one

such

example

adapting

several

methods

to arrive at a coherent result for targeting and control.

This study

adopts a multimethod/multitrait (Campbell and Fiske,

RESEARCH METHODS AND RESULTS

1959; Creswell, 1994), or “triangulation” (Webb et al.,

Rationale for Research Approach and Methodology

1966). These notions share similar conception that there

This

research,

combines

qualitative

and

is the need to combine qualitative and quantitative

quantitative design as the most appropriate method of

methods as complementary. But combining methods

analysis. In support of the mixed methodology design in

alone has been viewed as somewhat controversial

procedure and data analysis, Morse (1991) stated, “a

(Hilton, 2002) because there are other types of

project must be either theoretically driven by the

triangulation that need to be addressed for confirmation

qualitative methods incorporating a complementary

and completeness. Some of these triangulations are

quantitative component, or theoretically driven by the

theory, data sources, methods and analysis. The reason

quantitative method, incorporating a complementary

for

qualitative component”.

such mixed-methods is that limitations in single

methods

not

manifest

mixed-methods

The main purpose of this research was to explore

(triangulation) and this could improve the validity of

the views of cattle farmers on the importance of

research findings (Mathison, 1988). It is not the simple

trypanosomiasis in relation to their production objectives

combination of different kinds of data that matters but

and to find out how farmers controlled cattle

the attempt to relate them so as to complement each

trypanosomiasis in the area. This research was to develop

other and counteract the threats to validity in each. This

a model that could identify the constraints affecting

is what the current paper seeks to explain. It gives an in-

control of trypanosomiasis by farmers in the study area

depth analysis and explanation and exemplifies how

as well as predictions of the disease. Therefore a mixed-

multi-methods could be used to converge and validate

methodology design of both qualitative and quantitative

data for a holistic approach as evidence for decision

approaches was adopted. As qualitative research occurs

making on trypanosomiasis planning and control.

in natural settings where human behaviour and events

Problem Statement

occur, it was rightly used for certain aspects of the study

Tsetse and trypanosomiasis control are public health programmes in Ghana, but sustainable control

although supplemented occasionally with quantitative tools.

has not yet been achieved. Several unsuccessful

In certain aspects of the research, the qualitative

attempts have been made in the past to control

suggestions of (Marshall and Rossman, 1989) and the

the

Participatory

disease

(Stewart,

1937,

1946,

1954;

Rural

Appraisal

(PRA)

Techniques

Nowosielki-Slepowron, 1962; Ghana Ministry of Food

(Grandin and Young 1994; Hadgu, Yisehak, and Tekle

and Agriculture, 1996) but currently some 60 % of the

1992; Kirsopp-Reed and Hinchcliffe, 1994) were

country is still infested with various species of tsetse flies

adopted. This is because the focus of this research was

(Ghana Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2009).

on respondents’ perception and experiences (Locke,

The control of the disease is a complex (and multifaceted) and requires investigation into several aspects for a holistic approach. This study is

Spiriduso, and Silverman, 1987, Fraenkel and Wallen, 1990; Merriam, 1988; IAEA, 1998) especially of major animal health problems (Catley, 1997), and to assess the success of disease control measures (Catley, 1997;

1042

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

Esena , 2013 Ghirotti, 1993; McCracken, Pretty, and Conway, 1988).

statistical data analysis (Bailey, 1982), and some

This approach is appropriate for understanding multiple

techniques can be used with fewer than 30 cases

facts, characteristics and constraints of trypanosomiasis

(Champion, 1970). For the Participatory Rural Appraisal

control, livestock diseases and the development of a

(PRA) technique, 850 farmers comprising drovers,

forecasting

of this

herdsmen and owners were interviewed for matrix-

convergence

scoring of the production objectives and the effect of

methodology

tool.

Therefore

design

was

the to

purpose seek

(triangulation) by examining different aspects of the research and adding breadth and scope to the project (Greene, Caracelli, and Graham, 1989).

animal diseases on livestock and their products. For the purpose of trypanosomiasis prevalence studies a current cattle population census of the various

The quantitative method of this research are

districts was obtained from records of the respective

concerned with measurements and evaluation of the use

Veterinary Offices. A minimum sample size of all herds

of Berenil速 and the prevalence of trypanosomiasis (lab

(kraals) was chosen at a 95% confidence level, an

studies) as well as the use of satellite data for prediction

assumed (estimated) prevalence of 20% (Ghana, 1999)

and control. Therefore, the emphasis is on numerical data

and within a precision (margin of error) of 5%

and measurable variables. It was appropriate to use

(Lemeshow et al., 1990; Lwanga and Lemeshow, 1991).

multivariate analysis and GIS (ArcView) to analyse

In each herd (within the kraals) the required

certain aspects of the data to develop epidemiological

number of animals was selected by simple random

models. Hence a multi-method approach was adopted

sampling so as to ensure that each animal had an equal

for this research as a strategy for validation.

chance of being selected.

Population and sample

In this survey, 1,830 cattle were sampled. But

The respondents consisted of 250 herdsmen

the research also adopted a total of 6,902 samples for

representing 15.14% of the total population of herdsmen

analysis as secondary data from the Tsetse Control Unit

in the study area. The number of cattle farms owned in

(Veterinary Department of the Ministry of Food and

the study area is 1651 (Ghana, 2009). They were grouped

Agriculture) to strengthen the validity of the research

into various districts as follows:

findings.

In the central region there are 112 farms at Awutu-Efutu-Senya (AES) district and 139 in Gomoa

Procedure Participatory Rural Appraisal Surveys (PRA)

District. In the Greater Accra Region, there are 20 in the

The PRA survey relied on a technique known as

Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA); 185 in Dangme

preference ranking of variables within a matrix (Kirsopp-

East 429 in Dangme West and 205 in Tema District. In

Reed and Hinchcliffe, 1994). Participants were asked to

the Volta region, 198 in Akatsi district 33 in Keta district

rank the importance of different cattle production

46 in Ketu and 119 in Sogakope (South Tongu) district.

parameters and also their perceptions of the importance

Of this total number of farms, 250 were selected for the

of livestock diseases. Parameters included hide, beef,

study and the respective herdsmen were identified as

milk, manure as well as customary and ceremonial uses.

respondents and interviewed. In a survey design, a

The criteria were listed in the rows of a matrix with the

sample of 10 to 20% of the accessible population is

classes of livestock in columns. Within each cell of the

enough to generate confidence in the data collected and

matrix, participants could specify the relative importance

the subsequent generalization (Ary, Jacob, and Razavieh

of every category by placing between zero and ten maize

1979). It was noted that 30 cases is minimum for

seeds within the matrix. The production objectives,

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

1043

Esena , 2013 farmer’s perceptions of the importance of livestock

from the Department of Geography and Resource

diseases,

Development (University of Ghana, Legon), while

livestock

trypanosomiasis

disease

and

types

cattle

relation

diseases

affecting

Climatological data

were obtained from the Ghana

productivity (i.e. the rows of a matrix) were determined

Meteorological Headquarters (Accra) for analysis.

after discussion and pre-testing with farmers.

Satellite data

The survey was carried out in 75 villages within

Normalised

Difference

Vegetation

Indices

11 districts (Figure 1) as follows: five districts in the

(NDVI) (Rouse et al., 1974) derived from the Advanced

Greater Accra Region, four districts in the Volta Region

Very High Resolution Radiation (AVHRR) on board the

and two districts in the Central Region.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

In each village, participants were asked to divide

(NOAA) satellites were used for the period 1999. The

themselves into groups according to their ethnic origin

indices were simplest and most convenient way to

and wealth relative to cattle herd size: small < 50 herds,

monitor vegetation cover, and allowed rapid estimation

medium 50-99 herds and large > 99 herds (Ghana, 2009).

of vegetation cover properties from remotely sensed

Each

data.

completed

the

matrix

separately.

Contract

herdsmen completed the matrices as groups separate to the owners of the herd.

Herders were also asked to

The significant (p < 0.05) Normalised Difference Vegetation

Index

(NDVI)

band

affecting

tsetse

complete the matrices according to herder types and the

distribution was RANGEDVI and the equation could be

type of ownership (sole ownership, family ownership

represented as,

and communal ownership). Prioritization process was

TSETSEDistribution = - 3.097 + 0.33 RANGEDVI….. (1)

followed by informal discussions to clarify issues relating to the matrices, cattle disease, treatment and

Equation (1) shows that for a unit (1.0 %)

constraints for each type of livestock.

increase in RANGEDVI, the tsetse density increased by

Ground Surveys:

0.0033. The relationship between NDVI and tsetse was

Glossina spp. Tsetse fly sampling was done in

represented by,

the study area (where PRA surveys and parasitological

= 0.993+1.186

RANGEDVI–1.364 MINNDVI…(2)

studies were conducted) using 20 unbaited biconical traps (Challier and Laveissiere, 1973) in each area for

Equation

(2)

shows

MINNDVI

relationships and

between

24 hours. The species, sex and numbers of tsetse were

RANGEDVI,

trypanosomiasis

identified (Geoffoy et al., 1993; WHO, 1988) and

prevalence. A unit increase (1.0 %) of RANGEDVI

photographed, recorded and stored in the database as

increases trypanosomiasis risk by 0.0186 and with a 1.0

flies per trap per day. The data were supplemented with

% decrease in MINNDVI decreases Trypanosomiasis

those of the National Livestock Survey Project. The

risk by 0.01364. Thus the distribution of tsetseflies

Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to locate the

Glossina palpalis and trypanosomiasis risks were

longitudes, latitudes and altitudes of the study sites.

influenced by changes in RANGEDVI and MINNDVI

Land use and climatological data

bands respectively.

It is important to examine the interaction

The indices were simplest and most convenient

between trypanosomiasis risks and agricultural activities

way to monitor vegetation cover, and allowed rapid

such as crop and livestock production. To achieve this,

estimation of vegetation cover properties from remotely

digitized land use maps of the study area were obtained

sensed data.

1044

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5):1041-1053

Esena , 2013

Fig 1. The study area showing Gomoa, AES, Ga, AMA, Tema, Dangbe West, Dangbe East, Sogakope (Tongu) Akatsi, Keta and Denu (Ketu) Districts in Ghana Trypanosome identification in cattle

The identification of trypanosome species were

The techniques adopted (Murray et al., 1983) are

made on morphology of the parasites (Hoare, 1972;

based on the premise that following blood centrifugation,

Itard, 1989) the behavioural pattern observed in the

trypanosomes are concentrated mainly in the buffy coat

buffy coat dark ground illuminated preparations, and

zone. Each animal was bled from the jugular vein into a

mensural characteristics: The species identified were:

herparinized vacutainer tube (10 mls) and from the ear

Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax and T. brucei.

vein into a haematocrit capillary tube which were

Trypanocide usage and the constraints in the control

transported to the laboratory on ice at 4° C. The capillary

of trypanosomiasis by livestock keepers

tubes containing blood were microscopically examined

Knowledge

diagnosis

and

treatment

for trypanosomes using the Buffy Coat Technique, BCT

procedures of trypanosomiasis by herdsmen was

[Woo method] (Woo, 1969). The buffy coat prepared in

assessed by questionnaire and results presented in

a microhaematocrit capillary tube and centrifuged as for

Figure 2. Respondents, were interviewed on the use of

measurement of Packed Cell Volume (PCV) was

trypanocides to treat cattle trypanosomiasis. Records

examined for trypanosomes as follows:

included the volume of Berenil® administered to cattle.

The capillary tube was cut with a diamond

The data were supplemented by relevant records and

pointed pen 1mm below the buffy coat to include the

information from the following sources: Department

upper layer of the red blood cells, and 3cm above to

of Veterinary Services, Veterinary Technical officers

include the plasma. Using a microhaematocrit capillary

(Community Animal Health Officers/Frontline Staffs),

tube holder, the contents of the capillary tube were

District veterinary doctors and the National Head of

gently expressed on a slide, mixed and covered with a

Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Unit.

cover slip (22 x 22 mm). The preparation was then

Quality of care of Veterinary drug services

examined

using the following microscopic set up:

Farmers were asked to rank quality of drug

A Leitz SM microscope, periplan GF x 10 eyepieces,

services using Likert scale. The farmers’ view of drug

P.V. 25/0.50m objective and Heine phase contrast

services were presented in tabular form and ranked

condenser. The entire coverslip area was then examined

as follows: excellent [5], good [4], fair [3], undecided [2]

for about five minutes.

and poor [1]. The variables used were: general satisfaction, coverage of needs, satisfaction of needs,

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

1045

Esena , 2013

Fig 2. Trypanocide (Berenil®) usage in relation to Trypanosomiasis prevalence in Ghana’s coastal savannah presentation

treatment

methods,

effectiveness

similar. For example, one group of farmers might only

of treatment, information given, understanding of

use a range of zero to five maize seeds, whereas another

drugs, language gap, seller’s follow up and regularity of

group the full range of zero to 10. In the first group, a

follow up.

trait with a score of five is the most important, although

Data processing and analysis

it will be an intermediate score in the second group. The

Participatory Rural Assessment (PRA)

data for each herd and animal group were transformed

The data were analyzed using a linear-mixedmodel that included the effects of regions,

districts,

using the formula: Ystd = Yorg/(n/∑Yorg

villages within districts, ethnic groups, herd size and whether the respondents were cattle owners or herdsmen, business-ownership of cattle (sole, family, communal) and vegetation type of each study site.

Where Yorg = original score of trait n = number of recorded traits Thus the standardized trait

measures the

Yijklmno = Regioni + districtj + villagek + ethnic groupl +

importance of this trait relative to all scored traits within

herd sizem + ownershipn+ vegetationo+ eijklmno

each herd. An F-test was used to test the significance of the various factors and the LSD-test to investigate the

regions, districts, ethnic group, herd size and vegetation

differences of levels within a factor. The results are

were regarded as fixed factors, whereas village within

presened in Table 1 and clearly shows that among

district was regarded as a random factor. The data were

herdsmen, the production objectives were ranked as

standardized to ensure that relative ranking of objectives

milk, acquisition of cattle, beef, manure and hides. The

and disease type by different groups of respondents was

importance attached to milk by herdsmen might be

1046

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

2.03

3.71

0.84

1.98

2.96

motivating factor to control trypanosomiasis without 0.63

Mean rank

Esena , 2013

technical guidance.

0.43

2.17

with

the

control

trypanosomiasis by herdsmen To empirically estimate the marginal effect of constraints affecting the control of trypanosomiasis,

1.32

1.87

1.76

2.15

0.81

multiple regression equations were run on the PC-SPSS programme by the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) analysis.

In this analysis, the “general to specific”

4.33 2.56

8.97 3.10

0.65 1.30

4.19 4.70

6.73 2.80

0.88

1.09

approach of Hendry (Johnston and DiNardo, 1997; Kennedy, 1998; Koutsoyiannis, 1977; Thomas, 1993; Zar, 1984) was adopted in order to arrive at coherent regression results. The results as presented in Table 2 shows the factors and relative impacts.

0.48

2.41

Quality of care of drug services 0

Ceremonial Use Own Consumption Ceremonial Use

Mean rank

Cash

The data were transformed semi-quantitatively by assigning values to the variables. The qualities of the

2.08

2.64

4.49

5, good = 4, fair = 3, undecided = 2 and poor = 1. The 2.32

Own Consumption

likert-scale were assigned values as follows: excellent = 0.95

Owner Herdsman

associated

PC Programme SPSS was used to run multiple regression to test the significance of the impact of the

5.11

6.89

1.27

9.61

6.08

1.68

Furthermore, the Spearman’s rho (ρ) was used

1.66

1.88

0.94

3.27

1.95

for a two-tailed test for possible correlations between the 0.28

Mean Rank

Cash

farmers’ view of the qualities of drug services.

variables. The results showed that

although cattle

0.28

1.38

of treatment” using trypanocide drugs purchased, yet their perception on drug effectiveness is not very satisfactory. In some districts, the cattle farmers ranked

0.87

0.74

1.96

1.27

0.36

drug services as “poor” or “undecided”. Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis surveys The GIS ArcView and ArcInfo Programmes (Figure 3) and trypanosomiasis (Figure 4) in the study 3.85

4.26

2.08

7.85

4.59

were used to map the current distribution of the flies 0.47

Cash

Own Consumption

Ceremonial Use

farmers were generally satisfied with the “effectiveness

area. Glossina palpalis was the only species found in the

Mean Usage

Whole Cow

Manure

Milk

Beef

Hide

area Trypanosomiasis vivax was found in 61% of cattle. Products

Drovers

Table 1: Farmer Perceptions of Cattle Production Objectives and the Importance of Hide, Beef, Milk, Manure and Ceremonial Uses

Constraints

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

1047

Esena , 2013

Fig 3. Glossina palpalis distribution (catches/trap/day) in relation to mean for decadal NDVI for year 1999 in the Coastal savannah;

Table 2: Re-estimated profit model of herdsmen Variables

stabilate codes and frozen in liquid nitrogen by

Beta

t-value

p-value

progressively sinking the tubes in the vapourphase of the

Constant (K)

2.342

24.219

0.001

liquid nitrogen container.

Farm size

0.176

7.488

0.001

Management experience

0.264

3.545

0.001

DISCUSSION AND POLICY IMPLICATION OF

Prophylaxis

0.0082

2.761

0.006

STUDY

Management experience

0.1680

2.655

0.008

Multimethod approach, convergence of results and

Dosage of Berenil速

0.0074

3.105

0.002

tests for validity and reliability

Extension training

-0.0071

-2.376

0.018

Business/cattle ownership)

0.0035

2.117

0.035

The

various

mixed-method

techniques

comprising data sources, methods, analysis theory and instruments generated a rich and comprehensive picture

Cryopreservation of Trypanosome-infected blood

of trypanosomiasis prevalence in the study area. It is a

samples for future drug (trypanosome) susceptibility

range of quantitative and qualitative perceptions

analysis

designed to converge results. The output of the analysis

This section was conducted at The Noguchi

were presented as maps, tables, graphs, statistical

Memorial Institute of Medical Research (Legon-Accra,

analysis, and models then tested for validity and

Ghana) as follows:

reliability.

Trypanosome-infected blood samples from cattle

In seeking explanations for diverse results, the

in selected areas were treated with anticoagulant, heparin

researcher may come out with unexpected findings. For

(0.005%). One volume of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)

example the Participatory Rural Appraisal [PRA] data in

sterilized stock (20%) solution was added to three

this research helped to explore the reason for

volumes of blood, to give a final concentration of 5%

indiscriminate use of trypanocides by herdsmen: they

and mixed well. The samples were aliquoted in 0.8 mls

were rewarded mainly with milk (by cattle owners) as

[8 x 10-3 litres] cryotubes, screwcapped, labelled with

the main source of remuneration. The ground surveys

1048

ournal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

Esena , 2013

Fig. 4 Trypanosomiasis prevalence (%) in relation to mean of decadal NDVI for year 1999 in the study area

together with satellite data made it possible to accurately

Validity and Reliability

map areas most affected by trypanosomiasis for

The issue of validity is to draw attention to the

predictions, it was also a relevant information for land

extent that the findings really measure the concept that it

use patterns. The cryopreservation of Trypanosome-

purports to measure and reliability (repeatability)

infected samples was for future drug susceptibility

measures the accuracy and consistency of the tests. All

analysis and to test for probable identifications of

approaches to investigate validity have been designed to

resistant strains associated with the control procedures.

establish convergent validity (Campbell and Fiske

In effect, multi-method approach gives a holistic view of

(1959). But this notion of validity is currently

the disease and identifies the appropriate strategies for

controversial (Trochim, 2002) and has been argued as the

targeting control.

best available approximation to the truth of a given

In effect, the triangulation seeks a logical pattern

proposition, inference or conclusion (Trochim, 2002).

in results and to test for validity and reliability of the

But the concept of validity and reliability should be seen

findings. The belief is that once the researcher merges

as a collective whole (comprising all components) with

qualitative and quantitative methodologies, the internal

the view to ensuring consistencies. This paper therefore

validity of the research is strengthened (Bowen, 1996).

examines the tests and accuracies of these measurements.

It has been argued that one can rely on the use of only

In this research, the reliability of the tests

two methods for maximizing the credibility of research

(internal validity) were calculated

using Crobanchâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

findings (Bowen, 1996), But expanding on this notion,

alpha (a) for possible split-half reliability (Bryman and

some researchers have suggested the need to statistically

Cramer, 1997) and found to be 0.81. For convergent

test the validity and reliability of research findings

validity of this research the maximum possible validity

(Schmidt, Hunter, and Urry, 1976).

coefficient test (French and Michael, 1966) was used to test for the internal validity of the samples. The result was 0.78 and indicates a good validity.

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

1049

Esena, 2013 Residual (difference between the observed and expected)

probability

plots

followed

inappropriate criteria for treatment and wrong treatment

normal

intervals. Constraints associated with quality of drug

distribution; the data were found to fit the assumptions of

services were inadequate information given to farmers,

the research model. Residual analysis was used to

language gap, and inability of drug sellers to follow up

identify individual subjects whose values on the outcome

and the lack of presentation of treatment methods.

variable do not fit with other subjects (outliers). With

An aspect of this research focused on the quality

large samples, (250 as in this research) multivariate

of drug services among the 250 farmers. Some of the

models are sufficiently robust (Katz, 1999) and therefore

variables were: general satisfaction of services, coverage

the results can be generalized to another situation in the

of needs, presentation of methods and effectiveness of

new situation.

treatment. Others were: information given, understanding

In this study, econometric model was developed to explore the views of herdsmen on the quality of drug

of drugs, language gap, seller’s follow up and regularity of follow up.

use and the impact of control procedures on profit

Contrary to the relevance of validity and

margins. In this model, the test of significance of

reliability for ensuring the strengths of researches, some

parameter estimates was carried out by the use of the

writers (Trochim, 2002) have criticized the notion of

student t-test. In econometric applications, researchers

validity as measures, and that samples and designs don’t

(Koutsoyiannis, 1977) test the null hypothesis for each

have validity; only propositions, inference or conclusions

parameter against the alternative hypothesis. The

can “have” validity. Instead, Trochim (2002) subdivided

decision rule (for significance tests) is that the t-values

validity into four types as (external, construct, internal,

associated with independent variables that are equal to or

conclusion) that build on one another. The external

greater than theoretical value (t.05 (2)n-k) are considered to

validity relates the ability to generalize to other persons,

have significant effects on the dependent variables and

places and time; the construct validity concerns the

are retained in the model. While the t-values determine

ability to generalize to other constructs and the internal

the significance of the respective independent variables,

validity concerns the causal relationships.

the F-values determine the overall significance of the independent variables of the results. In this study, only

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

certain variables turned out as expected in the equations.

This article has discussed the need for multiple

Apart from variables that were dropped by the computer

triangulation methods and exemplified the theory of

itself (probably due to collinearity) variables with very

triangulation and analysis to enhance the quality and

low t-values (p 0.05) were also dropped from the

validity of research findings. Each taps a different

subsequent equation to re-estimate the model.

dimension of a problem and captures a more complete

Findings of the PRA indicate that milk is the

and holistic view of research. An illustration of a mixed-

dominant

farmers

methodological triangulation involved the use of

(normally sold for cash or savings) and were most

Participatory Rural Appraisal technique (PRA) to

affected by trypanosomiasis. Some of the constraints

explore farmer’s production

identified as associated with the use of trypanocide were

perceptions of the importance of diseases in relation to

most

inappropriate

production

Berenil®

and

objectives and their

“pour-on”

trypanocide use. Ground surveys (using unbaited

techniques, the lack of extension training and wrong

Challier-Laveissier biconical traps) determined the

dilution methods of trypanocide drugs.

distribution and density of Glossina palpalis and

1050

dosage

objective

Others were

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

Esena , 2013 trypanosomiasis

prevalence

obtained

from

cattle.

Econometric model assisted in identifying the constraints associated with drug use by cattle farmers while The Geographical Information System (GIS) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ArcView programme was used to map the risk areas for accurate targeting and control. All these multi-method approach helped to give a holistic view of cattle trypanosomiasis in the study area and convergence of information on trypanosomiasis risk areas for predictions, monitoring and planning of policy and control. method approach is the most appropriate strategy for disease control because it enhances the validity and reliability of the findings. Furthermore, it gives all-round information to inform decision in planning and policy for

integrated disease

(2nd ed)," Free Press, New York, p. 553 Bowen KA. 1996. The Sin of Omission - Punishable by Death to Internal Validity: An Arguement for Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods

Strenghen

Internal

Validity.

http://

www.socialresearchmethods.net/Galler y/ Bowen/ hss691.htm) Bryman A and Cramer D. 1997. Quantitative data

It is evident from this research that, the multi-

appropriate

Bailey KD. 1982. "Methods of Social Research

control

programmes.

analysis with SPSS for Windows: A guide for Social Scientists Routledge Publishers, London. Campbell DT and Fiske DW. 1959. "Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix".

Psychological

Bulletin

56(2):81-105.

Catley A. 1997. ""Adapting Participatory Appraisal (PA) for the Veterinary Epidemiologist: PA tools for use

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge the following people for various contributions to this work: Professor D.H. Molyneux, of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, UK for his comments on this project. I also wish to express my thanks to Dr David Haran and Julia Kemp both at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine for their good advice and useful comments on the qualitative aspects of this research. I thank Professor Bob Cheke of the NRI, UK for useful advice and comments on the ecological aspects of this work and to Dr J. J. Bennison, Livestock specialist formerly at NRI, who assisted with technical advice and for introducing me to the Linearâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Mixed Model and

in livestock disease data collection". Chester, Society for Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine.",. 246-257. Challier A and Laveissiere C. 1973. Un nouveau piege pour la capture des glossines (Glossina: Diptera, Muscidae): description et essais sur le terrain. Cahiers O.R.S.T.O.M,

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1983. Livestock Productivity and Trypanotolerance ILCA, Addis Ababa. Nowosielki-Splepowron BAT. 1962. Biology and Control of Tsetse flies in Ghana, PhD Thesis, St Andrews University. Rouse JW Jr, Haas RH, Schell JA and Deeringt DW. 1974. "Monitoring Vegetation Systems in the Great Plains with ERTS", Washington, DC., NASA, pp. 309317. Schmidt FL, Hunter JE and Urry VW. 1976.. "Statistical power in criterion-related validation studies", Journal of Applied Psychology, 61(4):473-485. Stewart JL. 1937. The Cattle of the Gold Coast. Journal of Experimental Agriculture P. 1406. Stewart JL. 1946. Northern Territories, Gold Coast

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