Library of Alexandria by Juan Manuel Corredor

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA The Universal Archives

“The city has magnificent public precincts and royal palaces which cover a fourth or even a third of the entire area. For just as each of the kings would, from a love of splendor, add some ornament to the public monuments, so he would provide himself at his own expense with a residence in addition to those already standing.” —Alexander of Macedon, king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon.

City of Alexandria, Egypt, 300 B.C.

CONTENTS

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A L E X A N DE R T H E GR E AT

T H E K I NGDOM OF M ACE DON

P. 24

I N T RODUCTION

P. 14 P. 8

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BI BLIOGR A PH Y

LI BR A RY OF A L E X A N DR I A

P. 84 P T OL E M A IC K I NGDOM

P. 62 P. 52

INTRODUCTION

THE ROYAL LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA OR ANCIENT

responsible for its destruction and when it occurred.

Library of Alexandria in Alexandria, Egypt, was one

The library may in truth have suffered several fires

of the largest and most significant libraries of the

over many years. Possible occasions for the partial

ancient world. It was dedicated to the Muses, the nine

or complete destruction of the Library of Alexandria

goddesses of the arts. It flourished under the patronage

include a fire set by the army of Julius Caesar in 48

of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a major

BC and an attack by Aurelian in the 270s AD.

center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30

After the main library was destroyed, scholars used a

BC, with collections of works, lecture halls, meeting

â&#x20AC;&#x153;daughter libraryâ&#x20AC;? in a temple known as the Serapeum,

rooms, and gardens. The library was part of a larger

located in another part of the city. According to

research institution called the Museum of Alexandria,

Socrates of Constantinople, Coptic Pope Theophi-

where many of the most famous thinkers of the ancient

lus destroyed the Serapeum in AD 391, although it is

world studied.

not certain what it contained or if it contained any significant fraction of the documents that were in

The library was created by Ptolemy I Soter, who was a

the main library. The library may have finally been

Macedonian general and the successor of Alexander

destroyed during the Muslim conquest of Egypt in

the Great. Most of the books were kept as papyrus

(or after) AD 642.

scrolls. It is unknown precisely how many such scrolls were housed at any given time, but estimates range from 40,000 to 400,000 at its height. Arguably, this library is most famous for having been burned down resulting in the loss of many scrolls and books; its destruction has become a symbol for the loss of cultural knowledge. Sources differ on who was

THE LIBRARY WAS PART OF A LARGER RESEARCH INSTITUTION CALLED THE MUSEUM OF ALEXANDRIA, WHERE MANY OF THE MOST FAMOUS THINKERS OF THE

INTRODUCTION

ANCIENT WORLD STUDIED.

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The Great Library of Alexandria, O. Von Corven, 19th Century.

INTRODUCTION

The Great Library of Alexandria.

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Drawing of the Lighthouse of Alexandria, by German archaeologist Prof. H. Thiersch (1909).

THE KINGDOM OF MACEDON

MACEDONIA WAS FIRST INHABITED BY THE MACKEDNOI TRIBE

who, according to Herodotus, were the first to call themselves ‘Hellenes’ (later applied to all Greeks) and who gave the land their name. For centuries the Mackednoi had little to do with southern Greece. Even after the Persian invasion of 480 (during which Macedonia was under Persian rule) Macedon preferred to remain aloof from the rest of Greece and the squabbles and fighting which constantly took place between the Greek city-states. The lands around Aegae, the first Macedonian capital and today’s Vergina, were home to various peoples. Macedonia was at first called Emathia (from king Emathion) and the city of Aegae was called Edessa, the capital of fabled king Midas in his youth. In approximately 650 BC, the Argeads, an ancient Greek royal house led by Perdiccas I, established their palace-capital at Aegae. It seems that the first Macedonian state emerged in the 8th or early 7th century BC under the Argead Dynasty, who, according to legend, migrated to the region from the Greek city of Argos in Peloponnesus (thus the name Argead). Herodotus mentions this founding myth when Alexander I was asked to prove his Greek descent in order to participate in the Olympic Games, an athletic event in which only men of Greek origin were entitled to participate. Alexander proved

T H E K I N G D O M O F M A C E D O N | E A R LY H I S T O R Y

his (Argead) descent and was allowed to compete by the Hellanodikai: “And that these descendants of Perdiccas are Greeks, as they themselves say, I happen to know myself, and not only so, but I will prove in the succeeding history that they are Greeks. Moreover the Hellanodicai, who manage the games at Olympia, decided that they were so: for when Alexander wished to contend in the games and had descended for this purpose into the arena, the Greeks who were to run against him tried to exclude him, saying that the contest was not for Barbarians to contend in but for Greeks: since however Alexander proved that he was of Argos, he was judged to be a Greek, and when he entered the contest of the foot-race his lot came out with that of the first.”

Mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC.

Other founding myths served other agendas: according to Justin’s Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Caranus, accompanied by a multitude of Greeks, came to the area in search of a new homeland, took Edessa and renamed it Aegae. Subsequently, he expelled Midas and other kings and formed his new kingdom. Conversely, according to Herodotus, it was Dorus, the son of Hellen who led his people to Histaeotis, whence they were driven off by the Cadmeians into Pindus, where they settled as Macedonians. Later, a branch would migrate further south to be called Dorians. The kingdom was situated in the fertile alluvial plain, watered by the rivers Haliacmon and Axius, called Lower Macedonia, north of the mountain Olympus. Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon, the Argead Macedonians started to expand into Upper Macedonia, lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae and the Elmiotae and to the West, beyond the Axius river, into the Emathia, Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, Crestonia and Almopia regions settled by, among others, many Thracian tribes. To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north, the Thracians to the northeast, and the Illyrians, with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict, to the northwest. To the south lay Thessaly, with whose inhabitants the Macedonians had much in common both culturally and politically, while to the west lay Epirus, 4th century BC formed an alliance against Illyrian raids.

ACHAEMENID PERSIA DURING THE RULE OF DARIUS HYSTASPES. FOLLOWING THE IONIAN REVOLT, PERSIAN RULE OVER THE BALKANS LOOSENED, INCLUDING OVER MACEDON. AFTER HAVING SUCCESSFULLY SUPPRESSED THE REVOLT, MARDONIUS RE-SUBJUGATED THRACE AND CONQUERED MACEDON, MAKING IT A FULLY SUBORDINATE PART OF PERSIA IN 492 BC DURING THE REIGN OF KING ALEXANDER I (495–450 BC).

In 512/511 BC, Macedon became a vassal state of Achaemenid Persia during the rule of Darius Hystaspes. Following the Ionian Revolt, Persian rule over the Balkans loosened, including over Macedon. After having successfully suppressed the revolt, Mardonius re-subjugated Thrace and conquered Macedon, making it a fully subordinate part of Persia in 492 BC during the reign of king Alexander I (495–450 BC). The state eventually regained its independence during the same long reign of King Alexander I as well, following the Greco-Persian Wars. In the Peloponnesian War Macedon was a secondary power that alternated in support between Sparta and Athens.

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with whom the Macedonians had a peaceful relationship and in the

MACEDON BECAME A VASSAL STATE OF

PRIOR TO THE 4TH CENTURY BC, THE KINGDOM

then at Pella, resembling Mycenaean culture more than

covered a region approximately corresponding to the

classic Hellenic city-states, and other archaic customs,

Western and Central parts of the province of Macedonia

like Philip’s multiple wives in addition to his Epirote

in modern Greece. A unified Macedonian state was

queen Olympias, mother of Alexander.

eventually established by King Amyntas III, though it still retained strong contrasts between the cattle-rich

Another archaic remnant was the very persistence of a

coastal plain and the fierce isolated tribal hinterland,

hereditary monarchy which wielded formidable

allied to the king by marriage ties. They controlled the

and sometimes absolute power, although this was at

passes through which barbarian invasions came from

times checked by the landed aristocracy, and often

Illyria to the north and northwest. It became increas-

disturbed by power struggles within the royal family

ingly Atticised during this period, though prominent

itself. This contrasted sharply with the Greek cultures

Athenians appear to have regarded the Macedonians

further south, where the ubiquitous city-states mostly

as uncouth. Before the establishment of the League

possessed aristocratic or democratic institutions;

of Corinth, even though the Macedonians apparently

the de facto monarchy of tyrants, in which heredity was

spoke a dialect of the Greek language and claimed

usually more of an ambition rather than the accepted

proudly that they were Greeks, they were not consid-

rule; and the limited, predominantly military and sac-

ered to fully share the classical Greek culture by many

erdotal, power of the twin hereditary Spartan kings.

of the inhabitants of the southern city states, because they did not share the polis-based style of government. As noted above, Herodotus recounted a founding-myth intended to establish the Greek credentials of Macedon. Over the 4th century Macedon became more politically

T H E K I N G D O M O F M A C E D O N | E A R LY H I S T O R Y

involved with the south-central city-states of Ancient Greece, but it also retained more archaic features like

OVER THE 4TH CENTURY MACEDON

the palace-culture, first at Aegae (modern Vergina)

BECAME MORE POLITICALLY INVOLVED WITH THE SOUTH-CENTRAL CITY-STATES OF ANCIENT GREECE, BUT IT ALSO RETAINED MORE ARCHAIC FEATURES LIKE THE PALACE-CULTURE, FIRST AT AEGAE (MODERN VERGINA) THEN AT PELLA, RESEMBLING MYCENAEAN CULTURE MORE THAN CLASSIC HELLENIC CITY-STATES, AND OTHER ARCHAIC CUSTOMS, LIKE PHILIP’S MULTIPLE WIVES IN ADDITION TO HIS EPIROTE QUEEN OLYMPIAS, MOTHER OF ALEXANDER.

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The Growth of Macedonia under Philip.

A M Y N TA S H A D T H R E E SONS ; T H E F I R ST T WO,

border and gaining much prestige as a warrior. He next

Alexander II and Perdiccas III reigned only briefly.

turned east, to the territory along the northern shore of

Perdiccas III’s infant heir was deposed by Amyntas’

the Aegean. The most important city in this area was

third son, Philip II of Macedon, who made himself

Amphipolis, which controlled the way into Thrace

king and ushered in a period of Macedonian dominance

and also was near valuable silver mines. This region

in Greece. Under Philip II (359–336 BC), Macedon

had been part of the Athenian Empire, and Athens

expanded into the territory of the Paeonians, Thracians,

still considered it as in their sphere. The Athenians

and Illyrians. Among other conquests, he annexed the

attempted to curb the growing power of Macedonia, but

regions of Pelagonia and Southern Paeonia (Macedo-

were limited by the outbreak of the Social War. They

nian Paeonia).

could also do little to halt Philip when he turned his armies south and took over most of Thessaly.

Philip redesigned the army of Macedon adding a number of variations to the traditional hoplite force to make

Control of Thessaly meant Philip was now closely

it far more effective. He added the hetairoi, a well-

involved in the politics of central Greece. 356 BC saw

armoured heavy cavalry, and more light infantry, both

the outbreak of the Third Sacred War that pitted Phocis

of which added greater flexibility and responsiveness

against Thebes and its allies. Thebes recruited the

to the force. He also lengthened the spear and shrank

Macedonians to join them at the Battle of Crocus

the shield of the main infantry force, increasing its

Field where Phillip decisively defeated Phocis and

offensive capabilities.

its Athenian allies. As a result, Macedonia became the leading state in the Amphictyonic League and Phillip

Philip began to rapidly expand the borders of his kingdom.

became head of the Pythian Games, firmly putting

He first campaigned in the north against non-Greek

Macedonia at the centre of the Greek political world.

T H E K I N G D O M O F M A C E D O N | E A R LY H I S T O R Y

peoples such as the Illyrians, securing his northern

PHILIP BEGAN TO RAPIDLY EXPAND THE BORDERS OF HIS KINGDOM. HE FIRST CAMPAIGNED IN THE NORTH AGAINST NON-GREEK PEOPLES SUCH AS THE ILLYRIANS, SECURING HIS NORTHERN BORDER AND GAINING MUCH PRESTIGE AS A WARRIOR. HE NEXT TURNED EAST, TO THE TERRITORY ALONG THE NORTHERN SHORE OF THE AEGEAN.

In the continuing conflict with Athens Philip marched east

Thus, inspired by Persian achievements, Philip estab-

through Thrace in an attempt to capture Byzantium

lished a Royal Secretary and Archive, and aimed at the

and the Bosphorus, thus cutting off the Black Sea grain

elevation of the political as well as religious level, and he

supply that provided Athens with much of its food.

used a special throne borrowed from the Achaemenid

The siege of Byzantium failed, but Athens realized the

court to demonstrate his elevated rank. The institution

grave danger the rise of Macedon presented and under

of the Royal Pages was probably inspired by Achaeme-

Demosthenes built a coalition of many of the major

nid prototype - among their duties, Arrian mentions

states to oppose the Macedonians. Most importantly

mounting the king on his horse “in the Persian style”.

Thebes, which had the strongest ground force of any

The status of Thrace in 342-334 under the Macedonian

of the city states, joined the effort. The allies met the

sway as a kind of regular satrapy resembled Achaeme-

Macedonians at the Battle of Chaeronea and were

nid administrative practices, and the organization of

decisively defeated, leaving Philip and the Macedonians

the royal court, generally, followed in a fashion of the

the unquestioned masters of Greece.

Achaemenid tradition. Some scholars deny Philip’s

international borrowings from Persian tradition, but Though Persian rule in the Balkans and Eastern Europe

it must be said that states do not develop in a vacuum.

proper had ended for over a century, their influences,

For an increasingly powerful Macedonia, the most

especially on the Macedonians and their Balkan neigh-

immediate model of a great monarchy was Persia.

bours (especially Thracians), remained strongly visible. As historians Roisman and Worthington state, to Macedonian rulers, the Achaemenids stood as an example of statehood and mores. This is especially true of Philip II as he built his power and created many institutions to imitate those known from the Achaemenid Empire.

Archaeological evidence indicating Persians engaged in archery competitions.

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Standard of Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire.

“Oh, how small a portion of earth will hold us when we are dead, who ambitiously seek after the whole world while we are living!.”

T H E K I N G D O M O F M A C E D O N | E A R LY H I S T O R Y

—Philip II of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon.

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Bronze statue of the ancient warrior king, Philip of Macedon, at the Macedonian capital Skopje.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT

ALEXANDER III OF MACEDON, COMMONLY KNOWN

as Alexander the Great, was a king the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander succeeded his father, Philip II, to the throne at the age of twenty. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa, and by the age of thirty he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history’s most successful military commanders. During his youth, Alexander was tutored by the philosopher Aristotle until the age of 16. After Philip’s assassination in 336 BC, Alexander succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father’s Panhellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia. In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire, and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Following the conquest of Asia Minor, Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He subsequently overthrew the Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety. At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E AT

Seeking to reach the “ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea”, he invaded India in 326 BC, but eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, the city he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death,

A painting by Charles Le Brun depicting Alexander and Hephaestion (in red cloak), facing Porus, during the Battle of the Hydaspes.

a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander’s surviving generals and heirs. Alexander’s legacy includes the cultural diffusion his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander’s settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and military academies throughout the world still

Fragment of the mosaic from the House of the Faun in Pompeii, showing Darius and Alexander at Issus.

teach his tactics. He is often ranked among the most influential people in human history, along with his teacher Aristotle.

HE BECAME THE MEASURE

LEADERS COMPARED THEMSELVES, AND MILITARY ACADEMIES THROUGHOUT THE WORLD STILL TEACH HIS TACTICS. HE IS OFTEN RANKED AMONG THE MOST INFLU-

Mosaic from the House of the Faun in Pompeii, showing Darius and Alexander at Issus.

ENTIAL PEOPLE IN HUMAN HISTORY, ALONG WITH HIS TEACHER ARISTOTLE.

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AGAINST WHICH MILITARY

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E AT

A painting by Charles Le Brun depicting Alexander and Hephaestion (in red cloak), facing Porus, during the Battle of the Hydaspes.

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ALEXANDER WAS BORN ON THE SIXTH DAY OF THE

the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day,

ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably

the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven

corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is

Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias

disputed, in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon.

of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because

He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his

Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander.

fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus

Such legends may have emerged when Alexander

I, king of Epirus. Although Philip had seven or eight

was king, and possibly at his own instigation, to show

wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time,

that he was superhuman and destined for greatness

likely a result of giving birth to Alexander.

from conception.

Several legends surround Alexander’s birth and childhood.

In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike,

According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch,

sister of Alexander’s future general Cleitus the Black.

Olympias, on the eve of the consummation of her

Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the

marriage to Philip, dreamed that her womb was struck

strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysi-

by a thunder bolt, causing a flame that spread “far and

machus of Acarnania.[15] Alexander was raised in the

wide” before dying away. Sometime after the wedding,

manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read,

Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing

play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.

his wife’s womb with a seal engraved with a lion’s image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of

When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly

these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her

brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for

marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that

thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted and

Alexander’s father was Zeus. Ancient commentators

Philip ordered it away. Alexander however, detecting

were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias

the horse’s fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the

promulgated the story of Alexander’s divine parentage,

horse, which he eventually managed. Plutarch stated that

variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that

Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition,

she dismissed the suggestion as impious.

kissed his son tearfully, declaring: “My boy, you must find

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E A T | E A R LY L I F E

a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a

small for you”, and bought the horse for him. Alexander

siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chal-

named it Bucephalas, meaning “ox-head”. Bucephalas

cidice. That same day, Philip received news that his

carried Alexander as far as India. When the animal

general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian

died (due to old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty),

and Paeonian armies, and that his horses had won at

Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.

When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle’s hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile. Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and

Aristotle tutoring Alexander, by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris.

the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the ‘Companions’. Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle’s tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.

ARISTOTLE TAUGHT ALEXANDER AND HIS COMPANIONS ABOUT MEDICINE, PHILOSOPHY, MORALS, RELIGION, LOGIC, AND ART.

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Bust of a young Alexander the Great from the Hellenistic era, British Museum.

AT AGE 16, ALEXANDER’S EDUCATION UNDER ARISTOTLE

Concerned that other Greek states might intervene,

ended. Philip waged war against Byzantion, leaving

Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to

Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent. During

attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians

Philip’s absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against

invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.

Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a city named Alexandropolis.

Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E A T | E A R LY L I F E

stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They Upon Philip’s return, he dispatched Alexander with a small

went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days’

force to subdue revolts in southern Thrace. Campaign-

march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians,

ing against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is

led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with

reported to have saved his father’s life. Meanwhile,

Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip

the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were

sent embassies to win Thebes’ favour, but Athens won

sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave

the contest. Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly

Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek

acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League),

affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he ordered Alexander

capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes

to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece.

and accepting the city’s surrender. Philip then returned

to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.

After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed

by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him

were refused, but did not resort to war. At Corinth,

near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle

Philip established a “Hellenic Alliance” (modelled on

of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and

the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars),

Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip’s

which included most Greek city-states except Sparta.

trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the

Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated

two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip delib-

as “Supreme Commander”) of this league (known

erately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on

by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and

the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking

announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire.

their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip’s generals. Having damaged the enemy’s cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.

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The Macedonian phalanx, in its fighting formation of 256 men, the syntagma.

WHEN PHILIP RETURNED TO PELLA, HE FELL IN LOVE

with and married Cleopatra Eurydice, the niece of his general Attalus. The marriage made Alexander’s position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir. Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians. He continued to Illyria, where he sought refuge with the Illyrian king and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties. In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander’s half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus. Olympias and

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E AT | E X I L E A N D R E T U R N

several of Alexander’s friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter’s hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him. Philip exiled four of Alexander’s friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.

37 AT THE WEDDING OF CLEOPATRA, WHOM PHILIP FELL IN LOVE WITH AND MARRIED, SHE BEING MUCH TOO YOUNG FOR HIM, HER UNCLE ATTALUS IN HIS DRINK DESIRED THE MACEDONIANS WOULD IMPLORE THE GODS TO GIVE THEM A LAWFUL SUCCESSOR TO THE KINGDOM BY HIS NIECE. THIS SO IRRITATED ALEXANDER, THAT THROWING ONE OF THE CUPS AT HIS HEAD, “YOU VILLAIN,” SAID HE, “WHAT, AM I THEN A BASTARD?” THEN PHILIP, TAKING ATTALUS’S PART, ROSE UP AND WOULD HAVE RUN HIS SON THROUGH; BUT BY GOOD FORTUNE FOR THEM BOTH, EITHER HIS OVER-HASTY RAGE, OR THE WINE HE HAD DRUNK, MADE HIS FOOT SLIP, SO THAT HE FELL DOWN ON THE FLOOR. AT WHICH ALEXANDER REPROACHFULLY INSULTED

MAN WHO MAKES PREPARATIONS TO PASS OUT OF EUROPE INTO ASIA, OVERTURNED IN PASSING FROM ONE SEAT TO ANOTHER.”

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OVER HIM: “SEE THERE,” SAID HE, “THE

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E AT | K I N G O F M A C E D O N

Battle of Gaugamela (Macedonians vs Persians)

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PHILIP WAS MURDERED IN OCTOBER 336 BC, AT

book of Diodorus’ history, Pausanias had been a lover

Aegae, the ancient capital of the kingdom of Macedon.

of Philip, but became jealous when Philip turned his

The court had gathered there for the celebration of

attention to a younger man, also called Pausanias. The

the marriage between Alexander I of Epirus and

elder Pausanias’ taunting of the new lover caused the

Cleopatra of Macedon, who was Philip’s daughter by

youth to throw away his life, which turned his friend

his fourth wife Olympias. While the king was entering

Attalus against the elder Pausanias. Attalus took his

unprotected into the town’s theatre (highlighting his

revenge by inviting Pausanias to dinner, getting him

approachability to the Greek diplomats present), he

drunk, then subjecting him to sexual assault.

was killed by Pausanias of Orestis, one of his seven bodyguards. The assassin immediately tried to escape

When Pausanias complained to Philip, the king felt unable

and to reach his associates who were waiting for him

to chastise Attalus, as he was about to send him to

with horses at the entrance to Aegae. He was pursued

Asia with Parmenion, to establish a bridgehead for his

by three of Philip’s bodyguards; tripping on a vine, he

planned invasion. He also married Attalus’s niece, or

died by their hands.

daughter, Eurydice. Rather than offend Attalus, Philip tried to mollify Pausanias by elevating him within the

The reasons for the assassination are difficult to expound

bodyguard. Pausanias’ desire for revenge seems to have

fully: there was already controversy among ancient

turned towards the man who had failed to avenge his

historians. The only contemporary account in our pos-

damaged honour, so he planned to kill Philip. Some

session is that of Aristotle, who states rather tersely

time after the alleged rape, while Attalus was already

that Philip was killed because Pausanias had been

in Asia fighting the Persians, he put his plan in action.

offended by the followers of Attalus, uncle of Philip’s wife Cleopatra (renamed Eurydice upon marriage).

Other historians suggested that Alexander and/or his

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E AT | K I N G O F M A C E D O N

mother Olympias were at least privy to the intrigue, if Fifty years later, the historian Cleitarchus expanded and

not themselves instigators. The latter seems to have

embellished the story. Centuries later, this version was

been anything but discreet in manifesting her gratitude

to be narrated by Diodorus Siculus and all the histori-

to Pausanias, according to Justin’s report.

ans who used Cleitarchus. According to the sixteenth

IN SUMMER 336 BC, WHILE AT AEGAE ATTENDING THE WEDDING OF HIS DAUGHTER CLEOPATRA TO OLYMPIASâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BROTHER, ALEXANDER I OF EPIRUS, PHILIP WAS ASSASSINATED BY THE CAPTAIN OF HIS BODYGUARDS, PAUSANIAS.

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Philip II of Macedon Tomb | Vergina in Central Macedonia, Greece.

ALEXANDER BEGAN HIS REIGN BY ELIMINATING

potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed. He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra’s uncle. Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra’s murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive. Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias. News of Philip’s death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E AT | K I N G O F M A C E D O N

Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander’s force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese. Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander’s stay.

Alexander the Great visits Diogenes at Corinth.

NEWS OF PHILIP’S DEATH ROUSED MANY STATES INTO REVOLT, INCLUDING THEBES, ATHENS, THESSALY, AND THE THRACIAN TRIBES NORTH OF MACEDON. WHEN NEWS OF THE REVOLTS REACHED ALEXANDER, HE RESPONDED QUICKLY. THOUGH ADVISED TO USE DIPLOMACY, ALEXANDER MUSTERED 3,000 MACEDONIAN CAVALRY AND RODE SOUTH TOWARDS THESSALY. HE FOUND THE THESSALIAN ARMY OCCUPYING THE PASS BETWEEN MOUNT OLYMPUS AND MOUNT OSSA, AND ORDERED HIS MEN TO RIDE OVER MOUNT OSSA. WHEN THE THESSALIANS AWOKE THE NEXT DAY, THEY FOUND ALEXANDER IN THEIR REAR AND PROMPTLY SURRENDERED, ADDING THEIR CAVALRY TO ALEXANDER’S FORCE.

THE PELOPONNESE.

Attalus, important courtier of Macedonian king Philip II of Macedonia.

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HE THEN CONTINUED SOUTH TOWARDS

ALEXANDER’S ARMY CROSSED THE HELLESPONT

in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000, drawn from Macedon and various Greek citystates, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander’s eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father’s preference for diplomacy. After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E AT | C O N Q U E S T A N D C A M PA I G N S

Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander. From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander “undid” the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future “king of Asia”. According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.

The Victory of Alexander the Great on the river Hydaspes, by Brian Palmer.

FROM HALICARNASSUS, ALEXANDER PROCEEDED INTO MOUNTAINOUS LYCIA AND THE PAMPHYLIAN PLAIN, ASSERTING CONTROL OVER ALL COASTAL CITIES TO DENY THE PERSIANS NAVAL BASES.

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Alexander the Great, painting by Giuseppi Rava.

ALEXANDER THEN CHASED DARIUS, FIRST INTO

Media, and then Parthia. The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. Alexander buried Darius’ remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral. He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius. Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate (“The Furthest”) in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E AT | C O N Q U E S T A N D C A M PA I G N S

and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia. Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander’s trusted companions, and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.

ALEXANDER VIEWED BESSUS AS A USURPER AND SET OUT TO DEFEAT HIM. THIS CAMPAIGN, INITIALLY AGAINST BESSUS, TURNED INTO A GRAND TOUR OF CENTRAL ASIA. ALEXANDER FOUNDED A SERIES OF NEW CITIES, ALL CALLED ALEXANDRIA, INCLUDING MODERN KANDAHAR IN AFGHANISTAN, AND ALEXANDRIA ESCHATE (“THE FURTHEST”) IN MODERN TAJIKISTAN. THE CAMPAIGN TOOK ALEXANDER THROUGH MEDIA, PARTHIA, ARIA (WEST AFGHANISTAN), DRANGIANA, ARACHOSIA (SOUTH AND CENTRAL AFGHANISTAN), BACTRIA (NORTH AND CENTRAL AFGHANISTAN), AND SCYTHIA.

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Silver coin of Alexander wearing the lion scalp of Herakles, British Museum.

ON EITHER 10 OR 11 JUNE 323 BC, ALEXANDER DIED

The strongest argument against the poison theory is

in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at

the fact that twelve days passed between the start

age 32. There are two different versions of Alexander’s

of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons

death and details of the death differ slightly in each.

were probably not available. However, in a 2003 BBC

Plutarch’s account is that roughly 14 days before his

documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo

death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus, and

Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre

spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of

proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum

Larissa. He developed a fever, which worsened until

album), which was known in antiquity, may have been

he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious

used to poison Alexander. In a 2014 manuscript in the

about his health, were granted the right to file past him

journal Clinical Toxicology Schep suggested Alexan-

as he silently waved at them. In the second account,

der’s wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that

Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain

this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the

after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour

course of events described in the Alexander Romance.

of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not

Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged

develop a fever and died after some agony. Arrian also

course and it was suggested that if Alexander was

mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifi-

poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible

cally denied this claim.

cause. Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death

Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to

were compatible with poisoning by water of the river

assassination, foul play featured in multiple accounts

Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece)

of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all

that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound

mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned.

produced by bacteria.

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E AT | D E AT H A N D S U C C E S S I O N

Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fab-

Several natural causes have been suggested, including

rication, while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that

malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New

they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.

England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to

The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in

typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and

designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedo-

ascending paralysis. Another recent analysis suggested

nian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head

pyogenic spondylitis or meningitis. Other illnesses fit the

of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to

symptoms, including acute pancreatitis and West Nile

Babylon as a death sentence, and having seen the fate

virus. Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize

of Parmenion and Philotas, Antipater purportedly

that Alexander’s health may have been in general decline

arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas,

after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The

who was Alexander’s wine-pourer. There was even a

anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion’s death

suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.

may also have contributed to his declining health.

The Death of Alexander the Great by Karl von Piloty (1886).

TOCRACY TO ASSASSINATION, FOUL PLAY FEATURED IN MULTIPLE ACCOUNTS OF HIS DEATH. DIODORUS, PLUTARCH, ARRIAN AND JUSTIN ALL MENTIONED THE THEORY THAT ALEXANDER WAS POISONED.

The Death of Alexander by AndrÃ© Castaigne.

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GIVEN THE PROPENSITY OF THE MACEDONIAN ARIS-

ALEXANDER’S BODY WAS LAID IN A GOLD ANTHROPOID

Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the

sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in

tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, acci-

turn placed in a gold casket. According to Aelian, a

dentally knocked the nose off. Caligula was said to

seer called Aristander foretold that the land where

have taken Alexander’s breastplate from the tomb for

Alexander was laid to rest “would be happy and unvan-

his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius

quishable forever”. Perhaps, the successors may have

Severus closed Alexander’s tomb to the public. His

seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy,

son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited

since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.

the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.

While Alexander’s funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to

The so-called “Alexander Sarcophagus”, discovered near

Memphis. His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus,

Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum,

transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where

is so named not because it was thought to have contained

it remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX

Alexander’s remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict

Lathyros, one of Ptolemy’s final successors, replaced

Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians

Alexander’s sarcophagus with a glass one so he could

and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the

convert the original to coinage. The recent discovery of

sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of

an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis,

Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following

dating from the time of Alexander the Great has given

the battle of Issus in 331. However, more recently, it

rise to speculation that its original intent was to be

has been suggested that it may date from earlier than

the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the

Abdalonymus death.

A L E X A N D E R T H E G R E AT | D E AT H A N D S U C C E S S I O N

intended destination of Alexander’s funeral cortege.

Detail of Alexander on the Alexander Sarcophagus.

Alexander Sarcophagus” by Adeline Coe.

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“I had rather excel others in the knowledge of what is excellent, than in the extent of my power and dominion.” —Alexander of Macedon, king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon.

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The Horse Man, Statue of Alexander the Great, at the Macedonian capital Skopje.

PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM

ALEXANDER’S DEATH WAS SO SUDDEN THAT WHEN

reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander’s death. According to Diodorus, Alexander’s companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was “tôi kratistôi”—”to the strongest”. Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story. Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him. Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane’s baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander’s half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were

P TOLE MAIC KING DOM | PTO LEM Y I

appointed joint kings, albeit in name only. Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between “The Successors” (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocks: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia, Attalid Anatolia, and Antigonid Macedon.

Perdicas, general in Alexander the Great’s army and participated in Alexander’s campaign against Persia.

The break-up of the Empire of Alexander at the close of the Fourth century.

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PTOLEMY I SOTER (366 BCE – 282 BCE) WAS ONE OF

In Persepolis, Ptolemy was linked to the burning of

the successor kings to the empire of Alexander the

the city. At one of Alexander’s celebrations, Ptolemy’s

Great. He served not only as king of Egypt but also the

mistress Thais suggested the palace should be burned.

founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty, a dynasty which

In his World History Diodorus made mention of this

included the infamous Cleopatra VII.

incident:

Ptolemy was a Macedonian nobleman, son of Lagos.

When the Companions were feasting, and intoxi-

Rumors circulated, however, that he was actually

cation was growing [...] a violent madness took

the illegitimate son of Alexander’s father Phillip II, a

hold of these drunken men. One of the women

possibility that would have made him Alexander’s half-

(Thasis) declared that it would be Alexander’s

brother. Although older than Alexander and many of

greatest achievement in Asia to join in their pro-

the other generals who followed Alexander into Persia,

cession and set fire to the royal palace. [...] Others

he still became a close friend, advisor and later one of

joined in the cry and said that only Alexander

his seven personal bodyguards. Following Phillips II’s

was worthy of this deed [... and] a quantity of

death at the hands of Pausanias, Alexander embarked

torches was quickly collected. [...] The king led

on his quest to meet, defeat and conquer Darius III

them to the revel, with Thais the courtesan con-

and the Persian Empire. Although historians are in

ducting the ceremony. She was the first after the

disagreement concerning Ptolemy’s role in the Persian

king to throw her blazing torch into the palace.

campaign, they do agree that he did participate in a number of battles. This disagreement stems from the

Although his role is unclear, most historical accounts

fact that Ptolemy was also a historian of sorts and his

are in agreement that Ptolemy was with Alexander

biography of Alexander may have exaggerated his

in both Egypt and India. He was in Egypt in 332 BC

own contributions.

at Siwa and Memphis, but his History of Alexander

P TOLE MAIC KING DOM | PTOLEMY I

has him playing a vital role in a number of conflicts Ptolemy’s name first appears during Alexander’s defeat of

in India while others have him as only a minor if not

Memnon, the Greek mercenary general in the service

insignificant participant. One story which may or may

of Persia, at Halicarnassus. Supposedly, Alexander left

not be true has Ptolemy’s life being saved during the

Ptolemy with a force of 3000 men to finish subjugat-

campaign into India. After Ptolemy was struck by a

ing the city while he moved on to Gordium. Ptolemy

poisoned arrow, it was Alexander who saved his life

next appears at the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. At

by using various native herbs to extract the poison. It

Issus he served in the left flank under the command

was during this time, after a failed conspiracy to kill

of Parmenio. Next, when the Persian king Darius

Alexander was discovered, that Ptolemy was named

III was found dying after his defeat at Gaugamela

one of the king’s personal bodyguards.

and his assassin Bessus had been identified, it was Ptolemy who was sent to collect the assassin. He

Unlike the other generals, Ptolemy’s major concern and

brought him to Alexander naked, in chains, and

ambition did not go far beyond the borders of Egypt.

wearing a dog collar.

While he became involved in the in-fighting among

the others and eventually acquired lands in the eastern Mediterranean, his major concern was Egypt. When Antigonos invaded Babylon, Selecuos sought asylum in Egypt with Ptolemy, but after Ptolemy’s defeat of Antigonos’s son Demetrios at Gaza, Selecuos was able return to Babylon. Following a brief peace, Ptolemy was involved in a series of conflicts with both Antigonos and Demetrios, finally aiding in their defeat and Antigonos’s

DURING PTOLEMY’S RULE OF EGYPT,

death at Ipsus in 301 BC. By then Ptolemy had assumed

HE PUT THE COUNTRY ON SOUND

the title of king as well as being named Soter meaning

ECONOMIC AND ADMINISTRATIVE

“savior” for his defense of Rhodes against Demetrios.

FOOTING. SINCE HE DIDN’T WANT TO FALL UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE

During Ptolemy’s rule of Egypt, he put the country on

PRIESTS AND OFFICIALS AT MEMPHIS,

sound economic and administrative footing. Since he

PTOLEMY’S FIRST DECISION WAS TO

didn’t want to fall under the influence of the priests

MOVE THE COUNTRY’S CAPITAL TO ALEX-

and officials at Memphis, Ptolemy’s first decision was to

ANDRIA. HE PREFERRED THE LOCATION

move the country’s capital to Alexandria. He preferred

OF ALEXANDRIA: SINCE IT WAS ON THE

the location of Alexandria: Since it was on the Medi-

MEDITERRANEAN SEA, IT WAS STRATE-

terranean Sea, it was strategically better, providing

GICALLY BETTER, PROVIDING EASIER

easier access to both the sea and his homeland of Greece.

ACCESS TO BOTH THE SEA AND HIS

Because of this move, Alexandria became more of a Greek

HOMELAND OF GREECE.

rather than Egyptian city. Greek became the language of both government and commerce. Amazingly, the only was Cleopatra VII. Ptolemy I or II, perhaps Terenuthis, Egypt, Early Ptolemaic Period, 323-246 BC.

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member of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to ever learn Egyptian

WHILE HE GAVE RESPECT TO THE EGYPTIAN PRIESTS

and even rebuilt temples destroyed by the Persians, he believed he needed another way to connect with the Egyptian people. One of his first actions was to establish a cult of Alexander; of course, by doing this, he established himself as a legitimate heir. Alexander became a “state god” and his “priest” the highest clerical position in Egypt. Next, he created a new religion with a new god Serapis, the god of healing. This new religion was a combination of both Greek and Egyptian influences, although the Egyptians saw it as more Greek than Egyptian. It never achieved much success and government funding was eventually withdrawn. Ptolemy made Alexandria the intellectual center of the Mediterranean when he built a massive library and museum there. The museum contained a covered arcade, seating for quiet contemplation as well as a dining hall. The library contained thousands of papyrus scrolls and attracted men of literature and science from all over the Mediterranean area for years to come, Euclid and Archimedes being two of the more notable. It became the center of Hellenistic culture. Ptolemy began the construction of Pharos, a lighthouse (to be completed by his son Ptolemy II). The lighthouse was a massive structure of three stories with a statue of Zeus atop. A beacon was visible for

P TOLE MAIC KING DOM | PTOLEMY I

miles and was lit day and night. It became one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

The pharos of Alexandria. Coloured engraving, ca. 1804-1811.

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City of Alexandria, Egypt, 300 B.C.

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LIBR ARY OF ALEXANDRIA

THE ROYAL LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA OR ANCIENT

Arguably, this library is most famous for having been

Library of Alexandria in Alexandria, Egypt, was one

burned down resulting in the loss of many scrolls and

of the largest and most significant libraries of the

books; its destruction has become a symbol for the

ancient world. It was dedicated to the Muses, the

loss of cultural knowledge. Sources differ on who was

nine goddesses of the arts. It flourished under the

responsible for its destruction and when it occurred.

patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned

The library may in truth have suffered several fires

as a major center of scholarship from its construction

over many years. Possible occasions for the partial

in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of

or complete destruction of the Library of Alexandria

Egypt in 30 BC, with collections of works, lecture halls,

include a fire set by the army of Julius Caesar in 48

meeting rooms, and gardens. The library was part of

BC and an attack by Aurelian in the 270s AD.

a larger research institution called the Musaeum of Alexandria, where many of the most famous thinkers

After the main library was destroyed, scholars used a â&#x20AC;&#x153;daughter libraryâ&#x20AC;? in a temple known as the Serapeum,

of the ancient world studied.

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | INTRODUCTION

located in another part of the city. According to Socrates The library was created by Ptolemy I Soter, who was a

of Constantinople, Coptic Pope Theophilus destroyed

Macedonian general and the successor of Alexander

the Serapeum in AD 391, although it is not certain what

the Great. Most of the books were kept as papyrus

it contained or if it contained any significant fraction

scrolls. It is unknown precisely how many such scrolls

of the documents that were in the main library. The

were housed at any given time, but estimates range

library may have finally been destroyed during the

from 40,000 to 400,000 at its height.

Muslim conquest of Egypt in (or after) AD 642.

Nekhbet Vulture.

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Egyptian Relief.

THE EXACT LAYOUT OF THE LIBRARY IS NOT KNOWN,

A single piece of writing might occupy several scrolls, and

but ancient sources describe the Library of Alexandria

this division into self-contained “books” was a major

as comprising a collection of scrolls, Greek columns,

aspect of editorial work. King Ptolemy II Philadelphus

a peripatos walk, a room for shared dining, a reading

(309–246 BC) is said to have set 500,000 scrolls as an

room, meeting rooms, gardens, and lecture halls,

objective for the library. Mark Antony supposedly

creating a model for the modern university campus.

gave Cleopatra over 200,000 scrolls for the library

The library itself is known to have had an acquisitions

as a wedding gift, taken from the great Library of

department (possibly built near the stacks, or for utility

Pergamum, but this is regarded by some historians

closer to the harbor) and a cataloguing department. A

as a propagandist claim meant to show Antony’s alle-

hall contained shelves for the collections of papyrus

giance to Egypt rather than Rome. The library’s index,

scrolls known as bibliothekai. According to popular

Callimachus’ Pinakes, was lost with the rest of the

description, an inscription above the shelves read: The

library, and it is not possible to know with certainty

place of the cure of the soul.

how large and how diverse the collection may have been. At its height, the library was said to possess nearly half

The library was but one part of the Musaeum of Alexandria,

a million scrolls, and, although historians debate the

which functioned as a sort of research institute. In

precise number, the highest estimates claim 400,000

addition to the library, the Musaeum included rooms

scrolls while the most conservative estimates are as

for the study of astronomy, anatomy, and even a zoo

low as 40,000, which is still an enormous collection

containing exotic animals. The classical thinkers who

that required vast storage space. This library, with the

studied, wrote, and experimented at the Musaeum

largest holdings of the age, acquired its collection by

include the great names of mathematics, astronomy,

laborious copying of originals. Galen spoke of how all

physics, geometry, engineering, geography, physiology,

ships visiting the city were obliged to surrender their

and medicine. These included notable thinkers such as

books for immediate copying. The owners received

Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Herophilus, Erasis-

a copy while the pharaohs kept the originals in the

tratus, Hipparchus, Aedesia, Pappus, Theon, Hypatia,

library within their museum.

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | INTRODUCTION

and Aristarchus of Samos. As a research institution, the library filled its stacks with It is not possible to determine the collection’s size in any

new works in mathematics, astronomy, physics,

era with any certainty. Papyrus scrolls constituted the

natural sciences and other subjects. Its empirical

collection, and although codices were used after 300 BC,

standards applied in one of the first and certainly

the Alexandrian Library is never documented as having

strongest homes for serious textual criticism. As the

switched to parchment, perhaps because of its strong

same text often existed in several different versions,

links to the papyrus trade. (The Library of Alexandria

comparative textual criticism was crucial for ensuring

in fact was indirectly causal in the creation of writing

their veracity. Once ascertained, canonical copies

on parchment — due to the library’s critical need for

would then be made for scholars, royalty, and wealthy

papyrus, little was exported and thus an alternate

bibliophiles the world over, this commerce bringing

source of copy material became essential.)

income to the library.

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | THE UNIVERSAL ARCHIVES

Ancient Scrolls.

THE LIBRARY WAS ARGUABLY ONE OF THE LARGEST

and most significant libraries of the ancient world, details about it are a mixture of history and legend. Its main purpose was to show off the wealth of Egypt, with research as a lesser goal, but its contents were used to aid the ruler of Egypt. According to the earliest source of information, the pseudepigraphic Letter of Aristeas composed between c.180

IN CHARGE OF COLLECTING ALL THE

and 145 BC, the library was initially organized by

WORLD’S KNOWLEDGE, AND MOST OF

Demetrius of Phaleron, a student of Aristotle, under the

THE STAFF WAS OCCUPIED WITH THE

reign of Ptolemy I Soter (c.323 BC—c.283 BC). Other

TASK OF TRANSLATING WORKS ONTO

sources claim it was instead created under the reign

PAPYRUS PAPER. IT DID SO THROUGH AN

of his son Ptolemy II (283–246 BC). The Library was

AGGRESSIVE AND WELL-FUNDED ROYAL

built in the Brucheion (Royal Quarter) in the style

MANDATE INVOLVING TRIPS TO THE

of Aristotle’s Lyceum, adjacent to (and in service of)

BOOK FAIRS OF RHODES AND ATHENS.

the Musaeum (a Greek Temple or “House of Muses”, whence the term “museum”). The Library at Alexandria was in charge of collecting all the world’s knowledge, and most of the staff was occupied with the task of translating works onto papyrus paper. It did so through an aggressive and well-funded royal mandate involving trips to the book fairs of Rhodes and Athens. According to Galen, any books found on ships that came into port were taken to the library, and were listed as “books of the ships”. Official scribes then copied these writings; LIB R ARY OF ALE X AN DRIA | HISTORY

THE LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA WAS

the originals were kept in the library, and the copies delivered to the owners. Other than collecting works from the past, the library served as home to a host of international scholars, well-patronized by the Ptolemaic dynasty with travel, lodging, and stipends for their whole families.

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | THE UNIVERSAL ARCHIVES

Alexandria Library Inscription.

ACCORDING TO GALEN, PTOLEMY III REQUESTED

permission from the Athenians to borrow the original scripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, for which the Athenians demanded the enormous amount of fifteen talents (1,000 pounds, 450 kg) of a precious metal as guarantee. Ptolemy III happily paid the fee but kept the original scripts for the library. This story may also be construed erroneously to show the power of Alexandria over Athens during the Ptolemaic dynasty. This detail is due to the fact that Alexandria was a man-made bidirectional port between the mainland and the Pharos island, welcoming trade from the East and West, and soon found itself to be an international hub for trade, the leading producer of papyrus and, soon enough, books. The editors at the Library of Alexandria are especially well known for their work on Homeric texts. The more famous editors generally also held the title of head librarian. These included Zenodotus, Apollonius of Rhodes, Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, and Aristarchus of Samothrace, among others. (While Callimachus—the first bibliographer and developer of the “Pinakes”, which is popularly considered the first library catalog—did his most famous work at the Library of Alexandria, he was never the head librarian there. In the early 2nd century BC scholars began to

LIB R ARY OF ALE X AN DRIA | HISTORY

abandon Alexandria for safer areas with more generous patronage, and in 145 BC Ptolemy VIII expelled all foreign scholars from Alexandria.

Callimachus, native of the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya.

73 THE EDITORS AT THE LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA ARE ESPECIALLY WELL KNOWN FOR THEIR WORK ON HOMERIC TEXTS. THE MORE FAMOUS EDITORS GENERALLY ALSO HELD THE TITLE OF HEAD LIBRARIAN.

Ptolemy VIII relief, Temple of Kom Ombo, Egypt.

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | THE UNIVERSAL ARCHIVES

THE DISPARITY BETWEEN, ON THE ONE HAND, THE

quarrelsome” and “extremely inaccurate. . . . His uncor-

grandeur and importance of this library, both in its

roborated evidence is accordingly viewed with much

reality in antiquity and in its image both ancient and

suspicion” or “quite unjustifiably conceited about his

modern, and, on the other, our nearly total ignorance

own attainments.” Tzetzes, like the ancient tradition

about it, has been unbearable. No one, least of all

generally, treated Ptolemy II Philadelphos as the

modern scholars, has been able to accept our lack of

king who created the Library. He describes how three

knowledge about a phenomenon that embodies so

men, Alexandros of Aetolia, Lykophron of Chalkis,

many human aspirations. In consequence, a whole

and Zenodotos of Ephesos, worked with Ptolemy to

literature of wishful thinking has grown up, in which

acquire books.

scholars—even, I fear, the most rigorous—have cast aside the time-tested methods that normally constrain

One might then think that the foundation by Philadelphos

credulity, in order to be able to avoid confessing defeat.

was secure. But no. Tzetzes, like other sources, also

After sketching briefly the main lines of our ignorance

mentions that Ptolemy collected the books “through”

of the Library’s history, I shall talk about three types

Demetrios of Phaleron. Now this Demetrios, a pupil

of dreams that have beguiled commentators ancient

of Theophrastos and earlier of Aristotle, had ruled

and modern: dreams about the size of the Bibliotheca

Athens for the Macedonian king Cassander for a decade

Alexandrina; dreams about placing the blame for its

(317–307); after Cassander’s death, he fled to Egypt,

destruction; and dreams about the consequences of

joining the court of Ptolemy I Soter, the father of Phila-

its loss. But there are some positive lessons as well, as

delphos, where he certainly contributed much to the

I hope to show.

royal project of making Alexandria a worthy rival to Athens. He made, however, the strategic miscalcula-

There is no ancient account of the foundation of the

tion of supporting as Soter’s successor the older half-

Library. We have only brief and glancing references.

brother of Philadelphos, and when the latter came to

The nearest thing to even a brief history appears in the

the throne instead, the sexagenarian Demetrios paid for

preface to a commentary on Aristophanes written by

his mistake with internal exile, dying soon thereafter.

the Byzantine polymath John Tzetzes in the twelfth

He is, in short, not a good candidate for collaborator

century. Kinder critics say that Tzetzes “preserves

with Ptolemy II.

LIB R ARY OF ALE X AN DRIA | HISTORY

much valuable, though to be sure not always correctly reported, information on ancient literature and cultural

Demetrios is already present, however, in the earliest

history.” The less charitable call him “copious, careless,

surviving text to talk about the Library, namely the

curious Letter to Philocrates, a work of the second

Strabo that Aristotle taught Ptolemy the formation of a

century b.c. that claims to be the work of a courtier of

library. This remark, which can hardly be literally true,

Ptolemy II named Aristeas. As far as we know, there

is taken to mean that the idea of such a library, broad

was no such person as this Aristeas. Although some

and scientific in character, was Peripatetic and came to

competent modern scholars have been at pains to praise

Ptolemy through Demetrios. That is not unreasonable,

Pseudo-Aristeas’s knowledge of the Ptolemaic milieu,

but it hardly shows that Ptolemy I took any specific

to the extent that he reflects any reality it is that of the

action. And, to be sure, Alexander, Lycophron, and

second century, not the third, and the work is full of

Zenodotos, the trio mentioned by Tzetzes, were active

incredible things. The court detail is, indeed, “merely

during Philadelphos’ reign. So much for our lack of

corroborative detail, intended to give artistic verisimili-

precise information about the foundation and early

tude to an otherwise bald and unconvincing narrative,”

growth of the Library. It must be added that we are

as Pooh-Bah would put it. It was Demetrios, according

hardly in better shape concerning the famous Mouseion,

to Pseudo-Aristeas, who persuaded Ptolemy II to com-

the relationship of which to the Library is also a matter

mission the translation of the Jewish scriptures that we

of speculation.

call the Septuagint in order to help complete the royal library’s holdings; this story, indeed, is the centerpiece of this piece of Jewish propaganda. Now most philologists, faced with texts full of misinformation and a flat contradiction such as the juxtaposition between Demetrios and Philadelphos offers, would normally be extremely skeptical, or dismiss Demetrios’ role as fiction. Not here, however. Everything reported the reaction has been to suppose that Ptolemy I was the real founder of the Library, assisted by Demetrios, while Zenodotos was either a subordinate or came to the fore after Philadelphos came to the throne. The only real basis for such a view, other than a desperate desire not to abandon the sources, is a statement of

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | THE UNIVERSAL ARCHIVES

must be kept in some fashion. So, almost unanimously,

Letter to Philocrates.

IT IS TO PSEUDO-ARISTEAS ALSO THAT WE OWE THE

earliest surviving figures for the size of the Library. He has Demetrios tell Ptolemy that the Library now has more than 200,000 books, but he hopes to bring it up to 500,000 before long. Tzetzes tells us that the Palace Library contained 400,000 “mixed” (symmigeis) books and 90,000 “unmixed” (amigeis). He also reports that there was an “external library” with 42,800 books. Although there has been much controversy, it is likely that “mixed” refers to rolls containing more than one work (and perhaps more than one author), “unmixed” to works occupying book-rolls (often multiple rolls) by themselves. Later writers give other figures: Aulus Gelliussays 700,000 rolls. Seneca reproaches Livy for showing regret at the destruction of 40,000 volumes (an excessive luxury, in Seneca’s view) in the Alexandrine War; modern scholars, with a bent for gigantism, have suspected this of being an error for 400,000, on the basis of a figure in the late historian Orosius, where once again some manuscripts give 40,000 instead of the majority 400,000. Ammianus Marcellinus, writing of the Serapeum, tells us that it contained a library and that “the unanimous testimony of ancient records declares that 700,000 volumes, brought together by the unremitting energy of the Ptolemaic kings, were burned in the Alexandrine war”. He has of course been reproached by moderns for confusing the Palace and

LIB R ARY OF ALE X AN DRIA | HISTORY

Serapeum libraries—more on this later. It is reasonably obvious that the ancient sources thought the libraries were enormous but had no good figures to work with. In any case, figures in ancient texts were easily corrupted in transmission and often survive in multiple readings. We have already seen that Pseudo-Aristeas has that least attractive quality in a source: to be trusted only where corroborated by better evidence, and there unneeded. The quality of the rest of the later tradition about the

ALTHOUGH THERE HAS BEEN MUCH CONTROVERSY, IT IS LIKELY THAT “MIXED” REFERS TO ROLLS CONTAINING MORE THAN ONE WORK (AND PERHAPS MORE THAN ONE AUTHOR), “UNMIXED” TO WORKS OCCUPYING BOOK-ROLLS (OFTEN MULTIPLE ROLLS) BY THEMSELVES. LATER WRITERS GIVE OTHER FIGURES: AULUS GELLIUSSAYS 700,000 ROLLS. SENECA REPROACHES LIVY FOR SHOWING REGRET AT THE DESTRUCTION OF 40,000 VOLUMES (AN EXCESSIVE LUXURY, IN SENECA’S VIEW) IN THE ALEXANDRINE WAR; MODERN SCHOLARS, WITH A BENT FOR GIGANTISM, HAVE SUSPECTED THIS OF BEING AN ERROR FOR 400,000, ON THE BASIS OF A FIGURE IN THE LATE HISTORIAN OROSIUS, WHERE ONCE AGAIN SOME MANUSCRIPTS GIVE 40,000 INSTEAD OF THE MAJORITY 400,000.

size of the Library is not much better. But let us turn to asking about the inherent plausibility of the numbers. The basic questions we should ask are, how many books probably existed in the early third century, how likely it is that large-scale collecting continued under the later Ptolemies and the Romans, and whether these figures are at all in line with what we know of other ancient libraries. The computer databank of ancient Greek literature, the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, contains about 450 authors of whom at least a few words survive in quotation and whose lives are thought to have begun by the late fourth century. No doubt there were authors extant in the early Hellenistic period of whom not a line survives today, but we cannot estimate their numbers. Of most of these 450, we have literally a few sentences. There are another 175 known whose lives are placed, or whose births are placed, in the third century b.c. Most of these authors probably wrote what by modern standards was a modest amountâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a few book-rolls full, perhaps. Even the most voluminous authors of the group, like the Athenian dramatists, probably filled no more than a our known authors to the end of the third century would have produced 31,250 rolls. We must then assume, to save the ancient figures for the contents of the Library, either that more than 90 percent of classical authors are not even quoted or cited in what survives, or that the Ptolemies acquired a dozen copies of everything, or some combination of these unlikely hypotheses. If we were to use a lower average output figure per author, the hypotheses needed to save the numbers would become proportionately more outlandish.

Old Papyrus.

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | THE UNIVERSAL ARCHIVES

hundred rolls or so. If the average writer filled 50 rolls,

TO LOOK AT MATTERS ANOTHER WAY, JUST 2,871,000

An amusing sidelight to such reflections is provided by a

words of Greek are preserved for all authors known

block of granite, in the top of which is a hollowed-out

to have lived at least in part in the fourth century or

space measuring 19.5 by 23 centimeters and 8 centime-

earlier. Adding the third and second centuries brings

ters deep. Found in 1847 and now in Vienna, it has the

the total to 3,773,000 words (or about 12,600 pages of

legend “Dioskourides, 3 rolls” inscribed on its face. It

300 words each). At an average of 15,000 words per roll,

has generally been seen as a storage container for three

this corpus would require a mere 251 rolls. Even at an

papyrus rolls; because it was found near where the

average of 10,000 words per roll, the figure would be

Library is thought to have been located, it was quickly

only 377 rolls. It was estimated by one eminent ancient

identified as part of the Library’s equipment. Although

historian that the original bulk of historical writings in

others rejected this identification, almost everyone

ancient Greece amounted to something like forty times

has agreed that it was indeed a book-storage device.

what has survived. If so, our estimate would run to an

A library of a half-million rolls would have required

original body of 10,000 to 15,000 rolls. This may be too

166,667 of these containers. It is not easy to imagine a

low, but is it likely that it is too low by a factor of thirty

structure and shelving system in which such granite

or forty, and that only one word in 1,500 or 2,000 has

containers would have stood; there is no lid, either. No

survived? Again, we would be required to believe that

wonder one scholar hastily assures us, although without

we do not even have the names of the vast majority of

any evidence, that “only rare manuscripts would have

ancient authors, or that the Library possessed thirty or

required such custom-made stone bins for their preserva-

forty copies not only of Homer but of every single author.

tion.” Actually, there is no reason to think that it held papyrus rolls at all. Its traditional depiction in drawings

We cannot save the figures by supposing that growth after

no doubt helped encourage such ideas, but a sober look

the third century, or even after the second century,

at the real thing shows that only a small fraction of

accounts for the difference. For one thing, none of

the block consisted of this hollow space. It was in fact

our evidence for book acquisition is later than the

surely a base for a statue or bust.

LIB R ARY OF ALE X AN DRIA | HISTORY

third century, and most of it concerns Ptolemy II and Ptolemy III, the latter being the subject of the famous,

In sum, the ancient figures for the size of the Library or

but probably unbelievable, anecdotes in Galen about

the number of volumes lost in the Alexandrine War do

seizing books from passing ships and hijacking the

not deserve any credence. They do not appear to rest

originals of the tragedians from Athens. It is most

on any good ancient authority, they were repeated

unlikely, at all events, that an active acquisitions policy

from author to author, and when their consequences

was pursued in the wake of the expulsion of most of

are examined, they lead to impossibilities and absurdi-

the Mouseion’s intellectuals in 145 b.c. Moreover, if we

ties. The actual numbers were probably lower, perhaps

are to give any credence to these numbers, why should

by as much as one order of magnitude. The Library of

we not be consistent in our credulity and believe that

Alexandria, however comprehensive for its time, was

Demetrios of Phaleron already had amassed 200,000

not on a scale comparable with the great research

volumes in the first decade of the third century b.c., as

libraries of the twentieth century.

Pseudo-Aristeas says?

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | THE UNIVERSAL ARCHIVES

The Library of Alexandria - Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey Video.

THE FAMOUS BURNING OF THE LIBRARY OF ALEX-

andria, including the incalculable loss of ancient works, has become a symbol of the irretrievable loss of public knowledge. Although there is a mythology of “the burning of the Library at Alexandria”, the library may have suffered several fires or acts of destruction of varying degrees over many years. Ancient and modern sources identify several possible occasions

BOLSTERING THIS CLAIM, IN THE 4TH

for the partial or complete destruction of the Library

CENTURY BOTH THE PAGAN HISTORIAN

of Alexandria.

AMMIANUS AND THE CHRISTIAN HISTORIAN OROSIUS WROTE THAT

During Caesar’s Civil War, Julius Caesar was

THE BIBLIOTHECA ALEXANDRINA HAD

besieged at Alexandria in 48 BC. Many ancient

BEEN DESTROYED BY CAESAR’S FIRE.

sources describe Caesar setting fire to his own

HOWEVER, FLORUS AND LUCAN CLAIM

ships and state that this fire spread to the library,

THAT THE FLAMES CAESAR SET BURNED

destroying it.

ONLY THE FLEET AND SOME “HOUSES NEAR THE SEA”.

When the enemy endeavored to cut off his communication by sea, he was forced to divert that danger by setting fire to his own ships, which, after burning the docks, thence spread on and destroyed the great library. — Plutarch, Life of Caesar

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | DESTRUCTION

Bolstering this claim, in the 4th century both the pagan historian Ammianus and the Christian historian Orosius wrote that the Bibliotheca Alexandrina had been destroyed by Caesar’s fire. However, Florus and Lucan claim that the flames Caesar set burned only the fleet and some “houses near the sea”. The library seems to have continued in existence to some degree until its contents were largely lost during the taking of the city by the Emperor Aurelian (AD 270–275), who was suppressing a revolt by Queen Zenobia of Palmyra. During the course of the fighting,

the areas of the city in which the main library was

were destroyed at this time. However, it is not known

located were damaged. Some sources claim that the

how many, if any, books were contained in it at the

smaller library located at the Serapeum survived, though

time of destruction, and contemporary scholars do not

Ammianus Marcellinus wrote of the library in the

mention the library directly.

Serapeum temple as a thing of the past, destroyed when Caesar sacked Alexandria.

In AD 642, Alexandria was captured by the Muslim army of ‘Amr ibn al-’As. Several later Arabic sources describe

Paganism was made illegal by an edict of the Emperor

the library’s destruction by the order of Caliph Omar.

Theodosius I in AD 391. The temples of Alexandria were

Bar-Hebraeus, writing in the 13th century, quotes

closed by Patriarch Theophilus of Alexandria in AD

Omar as saying to Yahya al-Nahwi: “If those books are in

391. The historian Socrates of Constantinople describes

agreement with the Quran, we have no need of them; and

that all pagan temples in Alexandria were destroyed,

if these are opposed to the Quran, destroy them.” Later

including the Serapeum. Since the Serapeum had at one

scholars are skeptical of these stories, given the range

time housed a part of the Great Library, some scholars

of time that had passed before they were written down

believe that the remains of the Library of Alexandria

and the political motivations of the various writers.

The Burning of the Library at Alexandria.

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | THE UNIVERSAL ARCHIVES

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | DESTRUCTION

The Burning of the Library at Alexandria.

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | THE UNIVERSAL ARCHIVES

THIRD, AND PROBABLY MOST IMPORTANT OF ALL, the

Library of Alexandria bequeathed the image of itself, the idea of a large, comprehensive library embracing all of knowledge. As James O’Donnell has put it, “the library at Alexandria has long loomed as a chimera of power and mystery on the horizon of our culture.” The sources tell us that this reach extended beyond Greek culture to the literature of its neighbors, ranging from the Jews to India. They probably exaggerate, but it is still significant that already within a century or so of its founding the Library had become a symbol of universality of intellectual inquiry and of the collection of written texts. Even if Pseudo-Aristeas’s story of the creation of the Septuagint is fictitious, it shows us that inclusion in the Library was a kind of universally recognized validation to which people would aspire. The Library was so far beyond anything else antiquity had known up to that point that it embodied these aspirations and appealed to the imagination of all who wrote about it. Its grip on the minds of all who contemplated it was already in antiquity as great as it was later, and it hardly mattered what fanciful numbers they used to express its greatness. Although the authors whose works survived antiquity told posterity little of any concrete substance about the Library, they transmitted

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | CONCLUSION

its indelible impression on their imaginations. This image was passed on to the Renaissance and the modern world, and every one of our great contemporary libraries owes something to it. By way of example, the paper of Carmela Franklin describes how a Vatican librarian of the fifteenth century wrote a Latin version of Tzetzes’ potted history of the Library in the margin of a manuscript of Plautus. The contemporary attempt to create a new universal library in Alexandria itself, which has received enormous press coverage, is only the latest representative of this tradition. Many aspects of

Interior of the new Library of Alexandria.

this project have been criticized, perhaps with reason, but we will have the right to denigrate the aspirations it

embodies only when we become willing to give up our own pursuits of the Alexandrian dream. Thankfully, I see no signs of such renunciation. Although it is too late to recover much of the reality of the Ptolemaic library, its dream is very much still with us.

Interior of the new Library of Alexandria.

LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA | THE UNIVERSAL ARCHIVES

BIBLIOGR APHY

Canfora, Luciano (1990). The Vanished Library. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520072558. Empereur, Jean-Yves (2002). Alexandria: Jewel of Egypt. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0810991019. Gibbon, Edward (1776–1789). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Publications. ISBN 978-1-60606-083-4. MacLeod, Roy (2004). The Library of Alexandria: Centre of Learning in the Ancient World (2 ed.). I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1850435945. Phillips, Heather (2010). “The Great Library of Alexandria?”. Library Philosophy and Practice. University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on 26 July 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2012. Trumble, Kelly; MacIntyre Marshall, Robina (2003). The Library of Alexandria. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0395758328. Bagnall, Roger S. (Professor of Classics and History Columbia University). Alexandria: Library of Dreams. Submitted by Jan van der Crabben, published on 04 June 2012 under the following license: Creative Commons: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike. http://outline-of-history.mindvessel.net/

Collection of Papyrus Scrolls.

“It is not that the disappearance of a library led to a dark age, nor that its survival would have improved anything. Rather, the dark ages show their darkness by the fact that the authorities both east and west lacked the will and means to maintain a great library. An unburned building full of decaying books would not have made a difference.” —Alexandria: Library of Dreams by Roger S. Bagnall.

Interior of the new Library at Alexandria.

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Library of Alexandria, the most famous library of Classical antiquity. It formed part of the research institute at Alexandria in Egypt that is known as the Alexandrian Museum (Mouseion, “shrine of the Muses”). Libraries and archives were known to many ancient civilizations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece, but the earliest such institutions were of a local and regional nature, primarily concerned with the conservation of their own particular traditions and heritage. The idea of a universal library, like that of Alexandria, arose only after the Greek mind had begun to envisage and encompass a larger world view. The Greeks were impressed by the achievements of their neighbors, and many Greek intellectuals sought to explore the resources of “Oriental” knowledge.