201559185
The theory and the application of sustainable design in challenging economic contexts.
An evaluation of the practical application of sustainable architectural strategies in examples of low-income housing in Ahmedabad, India.
UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL
School of Architecture
January 2023
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Architecture.
Word Count: 10975*
*Inclusive of in-text citation. Exclusive of the cover page, acknowledgements, contents, preface, bibliography, list of figures and appendices.
ABSTRACT
Developing countries that set their objectives for developing and expanding their construction environment require immediate intervention. Essential are individualised sustainable development applications that will improve the current living conditions and stop future adverse consequences. For interventions to be effective, they should be implemented socially and environmentally, and the main aspects of green development, society, environment, and economy should be adapted to the local environmental and human requirements.
This paper presents detailed definitions of sustainable development particularly those related to human and environmental aspects. Based on the example of India, it aims to evaluate the processes and potentially reveal some of the flaws in applying the principles of sustainable development in such countries. It also outlines the seriousness of contemporary problems related to housing development, as appropriate and safe living standards should be a fundamental right of all people. Finally, it presents the practical aspects of sustainable architectural strategies in the context of social and economic circumstances. Lessons have been derived from the experiences of working with the marginalised community in low-income housing in Ahmedabad, a city located in a developing country, India.
The collection of data, analysis and conclusion was possible thanks to participating in the Loving Community, a humanitarian project in Ahmedabad. The project was to rebuild the homes of marginalised and poor communities to improve their quality of life. From the beginning, the project was guided by social sustainability processes and involved the community according to the idea of participatory design.
PREFACE DEFINITIONS AND ACRONYMS
Developing Countries - Countries characterised by a low level of industrialisation, an inferior standard of living and low or moderate development of society in relation to other countries (Kerr and Wright 2015).
BRICS Countries - An acronym describing five countries (China, Russia, India, South Africa, Brazil) that were once characterised by potential and rapid development. They are now in a more difficult situation due to the indebtedness of economies that depend on global exports of raw materials. Despite the current low commodity prices, India remains in increasing discourse thanks to less dependence on Western countries (World Economic Forum 2016).
NGO - It is a term for non-governmental organisations, which can refer to various organisations independent from the government, which are often non-profit. Such organisations typically include local and global humanitarian charities, professional associations, and research institutes (Calhoun 2002)
Low-income Housing / Affordable Housing - Housing available and inhabited by individuals or families with low incomes, below the accepted average, and often characterised by a lower quality standard (Manley, Foot, and Davis 2019).
Socio-economic circumstances – Facts, statuses, and circumstances regarding education, income, status, and other economic and social aspects of life. Socio-economic circumstances are qualified under three classes: low, medium, and high. Low socio-economic status is characterised by fewer resources and access to education, finance, health care and achieving a better social status (Scott 2014).
Well-being – A multi-faceted value and quality of an individual's life. It can be perceived individually; however, it is generally accepted that well-being might be broadly understood as happiness, physical and mental health, well-being, having perspectives, and a sense of security. Well-being is also associated with architecture and its tangible and non-tangible impacts on human experience (Rogers, Castree, and Kitchin 2013)
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
The fundamental truth of the existence of every human being is the fact that everyone must live somewhere. Architecture has, however, gone far beyond the framework of being just an element for survival. Human-centred architecture has become the frames of all human existence, links between humans and the environment, a shelter and a sense of security based on built memories, cultures, and values. Thus, architecture and home ownership are elements of survival and dignified life. It is important to possess not only a home but – a home constructed with sufficient quality to positively affect the lives, behaviour, and well-being of the household members Architecture and construction have many meanings and cultural associations, ranging from religious, institutional, and public to distinguishing different social classes. Essentially, people affect the environment, and the environment impacts people (Rethinking The Future, n.d.).
People’s lives and architecture depend primarily on non-renewable resources. The urban landscape constantly affects the quality of their life and the natural habitat. As part of this building landscape and its positive or negative impacts, buildings are responsible for significant resource consumption and affect the environment throughout their lifetime (Asadi and Farrokhi 2015, 11). Whether digging clay for bricks, felling forests for timber or carving away the land for stone, the detrimental reliance on natural resources has put an unbearable strain on the Earth (Fig. 2)
This reliance appeared more perceptible after the Industrial Era. It resulted in the massive usage of fossil fuels and other natural resources. Since then, the burdens imposed by machines on nature are being seen as existential threats to humanity and the environmental balance of the Earth’s complex systems. The biggest adverse effects are climate change, including the worldwide average air and ocean temperature and polluted air. These changes and the progressive population growth are being seen to create critical environmental, social, and economic dangers resulting from human activity and high greenhouse gas emissions (Pelsmakers 2015, 9-11, 24, 45, 117, 159). This has forced humankind to look for new ecological solutions.
The first attempt to establish threats, changes and a definition of positive development in the context of people and the Earth was officially used for the first time in 1987 in the Brundtland Report formulated by the World Commission on Environment and Development. This concept covers the broadly understood effective management, appropriate use of natural and financial resources, and the pursuit of proper consumption behaviour to meet the requirements of present and future generations (United Nations 1987).
1.2 RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
It has been suggested that there are broadly three dimensions to the idea of sustainable architecture; society, environment, and economy. These approaches influence the perception of sustainability in a specific country, city, or community. While the economic aspect is the most fundamental in any project, environmental and social factors are often ignored or incomprehensible (Pocock, Steckler, and Hanzalova 2016, 288). This manifests itself, especially in developing countries, caused by several reasons.
o The first reason is the actions of architects who translate economic over environmental and social values because sustainable development practices and technology may be expensive or unfamiliar and, therefore, more challenging to deliver, not to mention the reimbursement of costs (Plessis 2002, 1719, 36).
o The second is the reckless copying of the idea of ecology and sustainable development as a rescue of humanity and the environment from developed countries, which leads to the loss of culture and history that are essential for creating and maintaining a society's identity (Asadi and Farrokhi 2015, 12-14).
o The final reason is a lack of education and extreme social, environmental, and economic poverty, broadly understood as deprivation that restricts people's rights and access to resources and fundamental standards of living, and social exclusion (Cobbinah, Erdiaw-Kwasie, and Amoateng 2015, 20-25). People face significant problems, such as poverty, lack of basic shelter, and are only concerned
with solving problems quickly without focusing on higher values, such as health, empowerment, or sustainable development (Cobbinah, Erdiaw-Kwasie, and Amoateng 2015, 23-25, 29-30).
Along with a country’s and social development, it is necessary to care for and provide a healthy, non-polluted and comfortable environment, with possibilities and facilities that enable an energy-saving way of life. A built-up space should combine culture and history, the natural environment, form beauty, and respond to people's needs. Building design should involve future users (Asadi and Farrokhi 2015, 12). Negative results of poor resource management, inappropriate habits or unethical design towards the environment and people have been proven to exist both in developed, industrialised countries and developing countries (Muhammad et al. 21789-21793). There is an urgent need to solve environmental problems. This is essential for ecology and human communities to cope with climate change.
1.3 METHODOLOGY, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
My experience and literature review helped to identify a gap in knowledge about the definition of specific social sustainability processes. It showed the frequent lack of practising them in developing countries while ignoring the values of recognising users' opinions about the building and drawing conclusions. The vast and complex issues involved in this topic make it practically impossible to explore all aspects of a paper of this length. Therefore, a helpful strategy that has been followed is to use a case study to explore some fundamental principles.
This research is based on a long-term project carried out in the low-income housing community in India, in which I had the pleasure of participating in 2018 Functional applications of sustainable architectural strategies are presented, and how organisations, architects, constructors, and local communities in developing countries can apply them to obtain the most satisfactory design. This can provide affordable housing that considers mental and physical comfort, improve the quality of life and community development, and minimise negative environmental effects.
Presented applications are supported by literature and the previous project study in the context of socioeconomic circumstances. In addition, the research was enriched with an analysis of the design of new houses, the methodology of the design team, and an analysis of the process of community involvement in the entire process.
This dissertation thesis and research are prepared according to the literature review method, supplemented with a technique called autoethnography. It is based on my own experiences, observations, and feelings, as well as on archival material such as journaling and photos taken by myself in India and later during the following months of lectures and individual home design at Loving Community in the second year of study (See Appendix A) The collected experiences enabled self-reflection, considered conclusions,
and helped define this paper’s purpose Through a combination of autobiography, which reflects the past and memories, and ethnography, that consists of observing and participating in a particular event; I hope to have achieved a balanced foundation to this dissertation Although, I am aware of this method's limitations, which can involve private feelings and views distorting the overall narrative (See Appendix B).
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL CONTEXT
One of the first attempts to define the concept of "sustainable development" was at the International Conference on Sustainable Construction in Tampa in 1994 Charles Kibert believed it is the formation of a healthy building environment and its reasonable management according to ecological principles. Other definitions state sustainable architecture as a responsible design process and accountable choice of building materials to reduce harmful gas emissions or articulate buildings to ensure that their formation and lifetime do not adversely affect the environment and human health. Then, in Agenda 21, the International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) specified that sustainable construction is the production, use, maintenance, demolition of a building and reuse of building materials. Each sustainable building is one of the many elements that make up global sustainable development (Gunatilake and Liyanage 2010, 1457-1459).
The General Assembly of the United Nations in 2000 introduced a ground-breaking document that pledged unconditional aid to one billion people living in extreme poverty. Key subsections announced goals such as reducing the number of slums and ensuring better sanitation and access to clean water for half of the world's population by 2020 (United Nations, 2000). In 2002, Johannesburg Plan was implemented by the United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development, which is a commitment to improving the state of underdevelopment through the following aspects. The provision of clean water, energy, decent sanitation, and housing is essential to achieving this plan (World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002, 20-40). Both declarations are historic in characterising the term "sustainable development" as they have redefined green global action by focusing more on addressing the problems highlighted in the Brown Agenda rather than the Green Agenda (Fig. 3) The Green Agenda focuses on long-term environmental effects and future generations, which is legitimate and valuable in developed countries. In contrast, the most critical aspects of the Brown Agenda are urbanisation and support for low-income housing in developing countries (International Institute for environment and development 2001, 27-30). Some places require more intervention from one of the agendas. However, they are two distinct views that cannot function separately. A short-term approach and a quick solution, which is the task of the Green Agenda, will not bring positive results without the long-term vision characteristic of the Brown Agenda (McGranahan
and Satterthwaite 2000, 76, 82-83). Failure to cooperate creates more problems that are harmful to the environment and people and disrupt social and environmental sustainability. Sustainable architecture improves the quality of the environment and life, which is the connecting point between the two agendas.
The abovementioned definitions are only a tiny part of a comprehensive attempt to understand sustainable development (Fig. 4) It is a demanding process requiring a multi-dimensional approach from the very early design stage to the end of life.
2.2 DEFINING SUSTAINABILITY IN THE CONTEXT OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Sustainable construction and design approaches in developing countries are evolving due to constantly changing knowledge and environmental, social and economic processes. Sustainability ensures the integration of technological, political, economic, social, and ecological factors (Barbier 1987, 101), identifying differences and adjusting them to each location and community's needs, cultural and value norms (Plessis 2007, 70). The intelligently sustainable project should consist of no less critical aesthetic and moral factors and then manifest questions such as sustainability, suitable materials, durability, economic limitations, and the creation of a sense of place (Gunatilake and Liyanage 2010, 1458-1459).
EMPOWERMENT
In the case of developing countries and poorer communities, all these characteristics of sustainable design should also be coherent under one main goal, which is striving for the empowerment of place and people. It is a natural result of respect for cultural values, behaviour, customs, and jointly agreed goals and cooperation (Asadi and Farrokhi 2015, 12-13).
Empowerment is threatened by external Western influences that impose their regulations and current trends. Developed countries, their increasingly popular modern movements and high-tech architecture are an indirect threat to the cultural identity of any society. Modern architecture does not always consider the good of nature and culture and is often driven by the cult of power and consumerist motives. Architects also spread these trends to developing countries, which are usually unaware of the threat. Most communities have no right to decide and are helpless to defend their values (Asadi and Farrokhi 2015, 1112).
The essence of empowerment is community collaboration, shared values and working on change, starting from the inside out, which is the opposite of importing trends and modern solutions from developed countries. The mechanism of empowerment in sustainable development and poverty focuses on people as objects of development, acquiring skills, and making good decisions to improve existing social, environmental, and economic conditions for the community and the future generation (Asadi and Farrokhi 2015, 12-13)
THREE DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainable development is a dynamic correlation between architecture, the environment and the three dimensions: environmental, economic, and social. The ecological dimension includes the limited and well-regulated use of natural resources, renewable resources, minimisation of pollutants introduced into the environment and thus, protection of goods such as air, water, and soil. Environmental sustainability combines green architecture, ecological awareness and the preservation of natural resources and energy to significantly reduce the harmful impacts on the natural habitat. The challenge is to apply these terms while maintaining the aesthetics of the building and respect for local and global culture, history, and traditions (Asadi and Farrokhi 2015, 13-14).
The second factor is the economic dimension, which depends on local and global factors. The most important values and targets are the improvement of the efficiency of the building as related to operational and embodied energy. The first type of energy includes energy use during its lifetime and service, as well as heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting. The second type is primarily the type of used building materials, their production method and transport to the construction site, and the possibility of their reuse (LETI 2020, 8, 16-20). All these aspects have a significant impact on the building's maintenance costs, its lifespan, and the attractiveness of its use (Asadi and Farrokhi 2015, 14).
In the case of the social perspective of sustainable development, it is most important to consider all social factors before undertaking any actions or projects. They include social and economic status, disease, access to education, tradition, communication, goodwill and needs, which can then be assessed and improved. The environment created by such activities will provide potential users with well-being, satisfaction, and a
sense of security and belonging. These factors promote empowerment and rebuild identity by respecting culture, increasing motivation and knowledge, and ensuring physical and mental health (Asadi and Farrokhi 2015, 14).
The so-called three rings of sustainable design began to be created based on the world's first Brundtland Report in 1987, which familiarised sustainable development for the first time. Many versions and interpretations of the three rings are widely known as the representation of the foundations of sustainable development worldwide (Fig. 5). They all derive from the same approach, representing a combination of architecture and three dimensions. However, although the results are very similar, their conclusions may differ. The two diagrams and research presented below are useful and representative examples. The first one was portrayed in 1987 by Edward Barbier, suggesting that sustainability is at the heart of the complexity of all three aspects. A building design will succeed when we achieve a harmonious environmental positioning, stressing that developing countries must modulate and adapt these aspects to the needs and circumstances of a given country, region, or community. It is usually not possible to optimise all three dimensions. It is nice to build the cheapest home, but at the same time, it is also not always good to build the cheapest house, and it is also not great to make the most expensive house. The most beautifullooking and most costly fabrics will not always be the most sustainable. There is always a middle ground between costs, efficiency, quality, appearance features, and user satisfaction (Barbier 1987, 101-104).
In contrast, the second model proposed by WHO placed people's health and well-being at the centre. According to them, it is related to the atmospheric threats arising from climate change and for the benefit and safety of future generations (WHO 1997, 33-39). This is a fascinating observation that, at first, seems counterintuitive. However, it is well known that rapid industrialisation contributed to the degradation of the natural environment. At the same time, sustainable architecture can minimise or even ultimately reduce the negative effect on the environment. Moreover, people's health and well-being depend largely on living conditions. With the help of architecture, we can improve the standard of life and enrich the environment.
SUMMARY
Housing is the most common factor influencing human health due to the frequency of time spent there and identifying with it. A place as ubiquitous and essential as a home can positively or negatively affect a person, depending on its features and quality. It is essential to look at the condition of often neglected low-income housing in the context of sustainable development in poorer developing countries. It is worth considering it in the context of such a significant value because sustainable development supports the environment's and people's positive and healthy growth.
3.0 CASE OF INDIA
3.1 IDENTYFING THE PROBLEM
Architecture and construction shape our present and future and provide shelter, growth, and jobs, among other things, but many people still lack this convenience (Plessis 2002, i). Estimations show that construction in developing countries has a much worse and more direct impact on the environment due to more fragile industrialisation and rapid urbanisation. However, in developed countries, construction uses half of the natural resources, consumes up to 50% of domestic energy and produces lots of waste (Plessis 2002, i, 13). Sustainable development and construction pose different challenges in developed and developing countries and require different approaches adapted to their specific socio-economic contexts
This is justified because both types face different problems, potentials and knowledge and have other priorities. While these challenges are a fundamental aspect to be addressed in developed countries, they represent the next layer of an already complex situation in developing countries (Plessis 2002, iii, 17). While in developed countries, the attempt to protect the environment is more thoughtful and manifested using
high-tech energy systems or recycled materials, BRICS countries lack such resources and need to make fast, socially, and ecologically conscious decisions to protect their future (Plessis 2002, 1).
Developing countries face challenges that limit their sustainability, such as rapid urbanisation, extreme poverty, lack of access to knowledge and resources, poor political governance, unstable economic conditions, and environmental degradation. These factors create challenging conditions for development and make it difficult to distinguish whether the development plan being implemented will be beneficial and consistent with the principles of sustainable development (Plessis 2007, 70-71). Perhaps one of the reasons, confirmed by many scientific papers and case studies, is that the plans and forms of action fail at the level of combining the three basic dimensions of sustainable development (Cobbinah, Erdiaw-Kwasie, and Amoateng 2015, 19). Most of the projects are based on the previously mentioned model of three dimensions created by Barbier in 1987, but the essence of effective, sustainable development is the mutual correlation between social, environmental, and economic aspects, not their individual implementation. Sustainable development must not be about creating economically efficient buildings at the expense of a degraded environment and the social aspects of its potential users and contrariwise. It is necessary to have a multi-dimensional approach and to think about the overall result (Plessis 2007, 71-72).
Understanding the relationship between humankind and the environment requires the analysis of several aspects (Fig. 6) First, it is necessary to assess basic needs and quality of life as fundamental human rights to have decent living conditions. The community's economic, technological, or political choices that shape the family or society and their values and daily life should also be analysed. The way of life and choices have a positive or negative impact on the natural environment, which in turn determines people's lives through its possibilities and limitations. These processes will vary depending on the context, culture, and whether it is a developed or developing country project (Plessis 2007, 70) The biggest challenge in developing countries is finding the middle ground between the three values and adapting them to regional and local needs that vary according to social status and geographic location. These guidelines should be implemented according to human needs and local and global environmental requirements considerations (Plessis 2007, 71)
SUMMARY
Nish Tailor, who actively participated in the Loving Community project from the beginning, during the meetings confirmed the importance of considering the welfare of people and the natural habitat and emphasised the need to combine economic, social, and environmental elements. In developing countries, the protection of the environment has a broader meaning. In times of globalisation and modernisation, it brings identity, hope, well-being, and security. Developing countries should make sustainable decisions now, as they develop, in harmony with ecology and society, to change their future for the better (Plessis 2002, 68). Decisions must be tailored to local and national needs, and in most cases, should avoid uncritically following and copying the actions of Western countries. It also seems that the initiation of new changes should be implemented, starting with the residential sector, which is responsible for the enormous exploitation of the environment and may also have positive or negative influences on society.
3.2 GROWING PROBLEMS IN INDIA AND THREATS TO SUSTAINABILITY, PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Despite many decrees, development plans and implemented changes, there are growing concerns about whether sustainable development goals minimise the problems of developing countries. These fears are justified by the issues these countries face. India, among other developing countries, plays a crucial part in implementing sustainable actions and achieving success because it is a sizeable global factor that encumbers the environment (Khalid, Sharma, and Dubey 2020, 303-304). Currently, overpopulated India faces many socio-economic challenges. Growing population (See Appendix C), rapid urbanisation, dynamic GDP growth and the transformation of the economy from agriculture to industrial services are just some factors that limit India from achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals of the United Nations (Gupta et al. 2019, 779-780). India accounts for about 17% of the earth's population and is accountable for 5% of CO2 emissions, which puts this country in the top five of the world's emissions and is the fourth largest energy consumer (Devi and Palaniappan 2018, 257). Above 300 million people in India live in extreme poverty, and approximately 50% of households do not have access to fundamental socio-economic amenities (Gupta et al. 2019, 780). Moreover, residential buildings in India use fifty times more electricity than in 1971, and the demand continues to grow (Chunekar and Sreenivas 2019, 75). Due to these problems, India has been unable to cope with sustainable goals for many years. However, under the Paris agreement, the Indian government submitted the Nationally Determined Contribution and thus undertook low-carbon emission pathways. Among others, they promise to promote a healthy lifestyle and environment, reduce the intensity of GDP emissions by 40% by 2030 and replace 50% of fossil fuels with other renewable energies (United Nations Climate Change 2022, 1-3).
Is India going in the right direction? According to a study by Khalid, Sharma, and Dubey from the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, every third expert believes that sustainable goals are ineffective in India because the methods are based on too many principles that do not support the underlying realities. According to them, it would be much more effective to focus all resources and activities on primary infrastructure, education, healthcare, well-being, and the fight against poverty and gender ruggedness. These are the building elements of sustainable development success. They also suggest that a nationwide survey considering the views of each group at all levels would be valuable and useful Thus, the classifications of sustainable development, such as sustainable cities, prudent consumption and production, strong institutions, and economic development, appeared less important (Khalid, Sharma, and Dubey 2020, 305-307).
Inefficiency in actions has a powerful effect on preserving the environment and climate, which are continuous processes that mutually induce each other (Fig. 7). Climate change is one of the primary global problems. It threatens natural habitats, the quantity of freshwater, food production, forests, and air quality. These are the challenges facing humanity that threaten their health and well-being. India has a lot to worry about as its vast population depends on climate-vulnerable industries such as agriculture, fishing, and forestry (Verma 2021, 39-40, 45-46). Due to the increase in overall average temperature observed for many years in India, as a country dependent on agriculture, which provides food for millions of citizens, they may soon be faced with a lack of good soil, water, and biodiversity. In addition, there is an increased activity of fierce weather phenomena such as droughts and floods (Verma 2021, 46). In 2015, a heatwave killed around 2,500 people across India (Rush 2015). Depending on the region, individual adverse effects may be more or less intense, as well as threats to human health and life (Verma 2021, 47).
3.3 LOW-INCOME HOUSING IN INDIA
In many developing countries, low-income housing design and investment in this sector receive little attention, and slum reconstruction guidelines remain unexplored. As a result, poor-quality informal shelters are created, with unstable structures, in unsafe locations, and with no access to water, sanitation, and other conveniences. Slums are also characterised by the concentration of many people living in a relatively small area, a very high percentage of poverty and economic and social exclusion. The slum and low-income housing areas are inhabited primarily by people excluded from society, often unemployed, and stigmatised due to their diseases. According to the United Nations, in 2001, 32% of the global urban population can be classified as slum dwellers, estimated at 924 million people. In developing countries, as much as 78% of the population are slum dwellers, the richer societies are a minority, and they are the ones who must fence off the gates of their estates (United Nations 2003, vi-vii, 5).
In India, since 1990, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation has coordinated the ministries' and regional governments' activities related to housing and urban development. The government began to influence this development through reforms and national anti-poverty policies supporting private sectors, projects investing money in housing, NGOs, and promoting environmentally friendly materials. In 1992, under the constitution, the role of local institutions was strengthened, and they are responsible for housing and poverty alleviation (Sharadbala and Sohail 2013, 1-2).
Approximately sixty million homes in India are not adapted to a dignified life, and their renovation or replacement will result in enormous costs and CO2 emissions (Mastrucci and Rao 2019, 8). In 2012, there was an estimated shortage of over eighteen million housing units in India. In Gujarat, India's most economically developed region, the housing shortage was almost one million. Only 5% of this shortage
concerns high and middle-income groups; therefore, to meet the housing needs of the poorest, their demand must be increased by reducing prices so that even the poorest buyer can meet financially without undesirable consequences (Sharadbala and Sohail 2013, 2). Ahmedabad, located in Gujarat, is the fifth biggest city in India, with six million residents. In the nineties, the city experienced rapid development and investment in construction and is characterised by various housing types, such as residences with courtyards and gardens, bungalows, apartment blocks, tenement houses, chawles for the working class and slums. The total number of homes and apartments in this area in 2001 was one million (Sharadbala and Sohail 2013, 5).
Ahmedabad, in the 1960s, despite promising changes in the city's urban planning and paying attention to the need for housing as an element needed to achieve a modernist city, did not save its inhabitants from the progressive housing crisis. Research conducted in the 1960s found that 88% of residents lived in no more than two rooms. Usually in a ratio of four people per one room, making living conditions difficult and inhuman (McGowan 2013, 397). The reforms were not enough to deal with the problematic situation. The regime's reform, the lasting policy of ruling British India focused on industry, politics, public buildings, and the working class introduced chaos and a lack of consistent action. The defeat caused a shortage of adequate housing, for which the struggle continues today and highlighted India's real shortages in material and financial resources (McGowan 2013, 398-401).
SUMMARY
Rapid urbanisation and attempts at modernisation have led to the mass displacement of people living in overcrowded slums into low-income family buildings in many towns in developing countries. The large surplus of people and the lack of available land and funds placed these people in an even smaller area. It led to a deterioration in the quality of their environment and thus worsened their health and wellbeing (Jana, Sarkar, and Bardhan 2022, 268-269). Unsuccessful attempts to improve the situation in Ahmedabad have led to an even greater division of society, and the condition of housing for the lower classes remains low. Improving the quality and availability of homes is a multidimensional topic. Despite the changes introduced for several decades, it requires time and reliable socio-economic solutions. It should not be planned exaggerated reforms in advance but instead, focus on more tangible aspects. Government programmes must perceive and honestly respond to the needs and problems of the poorest.
4.0 WELL - BEING
4.1 CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE, ENVIRONMENT, AND PEOPLE’S WELL-BEING
The expansion of cities significantly impacts the physical aspects of the environment, people, and well-being. Also, individual homes are often viewed as powerful stimulants affecting health, both in the
absence of housing and in the case of housing with poor living conditions (Jana, Sarkar, and Bardhan 2022, 268-270). However, the relationships from political economy mechanisms through the housing to health are complex, as are the dependences between health and social factors. Therefore, many observations still need to be specified logically or empirically (WHO 2010, 3, 5-6, 24).
There is strong evidence of environmental burdens of disease due to inadequate housing. The ecological liability of illnesses resulting from poor living conditions consists of four aspects: the physical structure of the house, the house as a household forming the psychological, social, cultural, and economic basis, the neighbourhood and its infrastructure, and the closest community. Each of these aspects, directly and indirectly, impacts physical and mental health. The relationship between the physical and visible aspects of home and design and deteriorated health is apparent and generally understood. Among other things, there is ample evidence regarding the harmful effects of toxins in building materials and paints, indoor mould, the lack of ventilation and heating or heating with harmful substances and dangerous house conditions affecting mental health and physical injuries (WHO 2011, 1, 3-4, 6).
On the contrary, scientific research on the health effects of physically invisible things is less extensive. Papers about the home in the context of empiricism are the best point of reference, emphasising the psychological and social importance of the house. A place of residence is something more than a physical structure. The living phenomenon is related to the life process of the inhabitants and their shared history and therefore constitutes a significant relationship between people and this micro-environment. Their relationship affects people, their subconscious, and their immediate world in a physical, economic, and social context. Therefore, a home should be a place that provides stability, security, and a sense of status and develops identity and socialisation (Karjalainen 1993, 65-66, 68-70).
In the Indian context, natural ventilation is one of the most important elements related to the physical aspects of the home and its impact on humans. An often overlooked, natural ventilation plays a significant role in homes due to the hot climate. Malfunctioning or lack of it may contribute to many diseases and malaise. A poorly designed house in terms of room layout, solar orientation, and inappropriate materials significantly worsens individual thermal comfort and environmental satisfaction, which then affects the daily functioning of the household members (Jana, Sarkar, and Bardhan 2022, 269, 272-273).
Natural ventilation is closely related to achieving thermal comfort inside the building. Thermal comfort, especially in extreme climates, plays a significant role in the design of sustainable buildings, improving the productivity of its users and human health. In the case of India, there are not many studies on this subject, but it seems necessary considering the number of slums and the emergence of mass affordable housing. In contrast, studies from other countries suggest that lower-income households avoid using mechanical ventilation because of bills, and their adapted resistance to high temperatures far exceeds healthy human standards (Malik and Bardhan 2022, 385-387).
SUMMARY
People belonging to the low-income group often do not have much influence on their environment. Unfavourable living conditions are a factor in anxiety, frustration, isolation, and chronic stress development. Essentially, stress is caused by the constant fear of threats, lack of security, and the constant fear of incurred costs and finances (WHO 2011, 7). The health consequences of substandard housing can be critical, ranging from physical injury to mental illness, respiratory disease, and fatal injury or illness.
5.0 CASE STUDY
5.1 LOVING COMMUNITY HISTORICAL CONTEXT
The case study, Loving Community, is a colourful (See Appendix D) but impoverished housing colony in Vastral, Ahmedabad, India (Fig. 8) The history of the community relates to the history of Leprosy disease. This disease and infected people have been stigmatised and marginalised since ancient times. It was no different in India. In 1968, the Gujarat state government granted them an area by the Sabarmati River to settle and thus forced them to leave their shelters. At the start of the project in 2018, the community consisted of approximately 500 people, including 100 still affected by leprosy. Loving Community was established on the periphery (Fig. 9).
MARGINALISED LOCATION, BUILDING ABOVE AGRICULTURAL LAND
The area is formed much lower than the level of roads and nearby infrastructure. Once, the land intended for agricultural cultivation was transformed into a residential and industrial area due to rapid urbanisation, separating the place of a marginalised minority.
It is a common phenomenon in India today. The newly emerging housing groups are located on the city’s outskirts with limited access to infrastructure. The adverse effects are the isolation of people from the rest of the communities, depriving them of the possibility of creating a sense of place, mobile and socioeconomic limitations such as improving social and financial status (Coelho, Mahadevia, and Williams 2020, 544-550).
ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE AND AIMS OF THE LOVING COMMUNITY PROJECT
The site is close to the river, and each house gets flooded during the yearly monsoon season (Fig. 10). All the people must move to a nearby community centre with all their belongings and raise them above the floor level. Thus, the biggest challenges are flooding and the fact that existing homes have no natural light or ventilation, which is very important in a hot, semi-air climate (See Appendix E).
5.2 HIERARCHY OF INTENTIONS
Most projects in developing countries face many challenges. Challenges may vary by context and country, but the most common problems are bureaucracy and top-down regulations that restrict operations, limited finances, and the fact that sustainable architecture is not always profitable. In addition, there is a lack of reliable information and opportunities, and the term sustainable construction has been presented in developing countries relatively recently. Local communities, social and technical institutions
and architects have minimal knowledge of sustainable technology and design fundamentals, resulting in a lack of interest and willingness to implement them (Plessis 2002, 17-18, 34-39)
The Loving Community project aims to improve residents’ quality of life by producing houses that embrace social and environmental design, construction, and function characteristics. Social and environmental constraints and a precise budget are the main drivers during the project, resulting in exceptional attention to detail and the search for alternative methods. Thus, a team is designing and building shelters with sustainable characteristics. Their intentions and the importance of individual aspects are presented below, starting with the most important. This hierarchy was prepared based on the experience from the trip to India and was confirmed by Nish Tailor, an architectural assistant and active participant.
1. Sustainable characteristics and environmental limitations.
Before the project finalises the budget aspects, it is crucial to understand site constraints, environmental impacts, and groundwork. Determining a given site's needs and capabilities will allow for predicting the financial need. Anticipating that ground works will require a lot of work and financial effort may save the project from failure, and it may even result in displacement of the community elsewhere, with their consent and with the help of the charity, for a larger contractor to enter the site. Everyone benefits from such a situation; the community often gets a better place to live, and the city’s slum area is revitalised.
2. Funds and baseline.
The architect negotiated the budget based on the house's construction and labour costs. This was not a limiting factor as the UK university funded it, but the intention was to have it fundraised or financed by other sources hence private donors (See Appendix F).
3. Housing (design) quality.
This type of project requires the architect and other people involved in the project to construct buildings or revitalise the area to be associated with improving the existing infrastructure. Designing with the longterm use of the building in mind is also an important aspect. In Loving Community, houses are built to be durable and usable even after 20 years. The existing dwellings are not structurally safe. They were built directly on the street, wall to wall with the neighbouring house. They gave the impression of being unstable, capable of collapsing at any moment. New projects provide the possibility of expanding each house or removing the roof and adding another floor level over time when the family has enough money.
4. Engaging and educating the whole community and local contractors in basic construction and sustainable design aspects.
The whole team believe it is essential to build a future legacy. A good example is a tile-making workshops. Tiles are used in every home design, and their sale has expanded to other projects around Ahmedabad. In
the future, with the completion of the project, the community will have the skills to develop itself and support others.
5.3 RECOMMENDED APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY PROCESSES
Whether new buildings in developing countries are designed and built by local people, international companies, or non-governmental organisations, they still do not demonstrate the adequate characteristics of sustainable construction. This is due to downplaying the social aspect of sustainable development. The environmental factor, especially the economic one, is much more emphasised and understood due to the lack of knowledge, resources, and prosaic definitions of sustainability (Pocock, Steckler, and Hanzalova 2016, 288, 294-295) Loving Community is one of the few examples that has incorporated social sustainability processes into the design and construction process from the beginning.
To better understand this approach and the purpose of these processes, all the choices of the project team, local NGO and other people involved should be analysed.
The first obvious observation is that the community has long needed immediate help with resources and improved quality of life. The following problems and dire living conditions endanger health and life. The main issues are floods during monsoons. The problem is further exacerbated by the fact that the dwellings do not have gutters. Rainwater flows straight into the streets, and existing homes are built directly at road level. Moreover, the existing structure is poor, there are only asbestos roofs, and the brick walls are only 11 centimetres thick (Fig. 11). Another issue is the lack of natural ventilation and lighting. The houses are densely built-up; each home is enclosed from three sides by other houses, resulting in a lack of fresh air flow (Fig. 12). The reasons mentioned above are sufficient reasons to answer the question of why it was decided to help this community.
Related recommended applications to projects in developing countries, according to Pocock et al. (2016, 292, 294), is to preserve terrain in a way that is lawful and empathetic to local culture and design buildings that local people can safely and efficiently construct, thanks to the training In the case of securing the territory, the team did everything in their power to improve this aspect. According to the official drawings created by the architect and my knowledge gained during the volunteering, new homes have a gutter system, and they are raised 75cm above street level, and the interior part is raised another 15cm (90cm in total, above the ground). The houses have a courtyard that is raised around the edges. Thanks to this, it creates another wall between the water collected inside the courtyard and the interior. Water naturally flows into the street instead of inside the house. All these design solutions turned out to be successful and fulfilled their tasks.
However, in many developing countries around the world and the Loving Community, residents, as homeowners, do not own the land. Usually, it belongs to the state, and the matter sometimes becomes
even more complicated when local customs and culture are involved (Pocock, Steckler, and Hanzalova 2016, 292) In the case of the Loving Community, the area is largely neglected by the government. Poor plumbing, insufficient electricity, and poor transport connections are significant problems. Hence, the project did not involve using larger and heavy construction elements but used local businesses and materials, so the transportation issue was minimised. Moreover, according to information obtained from Nish Tailor, the project team did not address other problems due to a lack of resources and power
On the contrary, according to my observations, the teaching and involvement of local people were carried out at a very high level. New methods of communicating with the community were developed to help them better understand the architect's design intent. Unique models of houses were prepared, including furniture and existing families' possessions, supplemented by many discussions about the new design so future users could visualise the final effect and make informed decisions. Unique models for the contractor were also prepared, which presented the form of the building and all technical dimensions (Fig. 13). The reason for this was the contractor's inability to read technical information. Additionally, many workshops (tile making, ferrocement preparation) were organised, which taught the local community how to make construction elements from available and natural materials. Because of economic constraints, it was impossible to hire high-standard contractors, but it was not an issue. Another purpose of this project, underlined by Nish Tailor, is to use local contractors and other employers rather than give the project to the highest and most expensive person that builds the cheapest possible house. In terms of their knowledge, it was essential from the beginning to make sure that they understand not perfectionism but knew how to build to the quality rather than just put a few bricks together. Knowledge and development give people better prospects. Therefore, education and making the poorer community aware are effective methods of empowering the powerless.
It is crucial to provide the relevant skills and knowledge regarding materials, costs, measurements, and other technical data because, in countries such as the BRICS (World Economic Forum 2016), poor education systems cannot specialise people in the building field to make informed decisions or predict the resulting risks (Plessis 2002, 32)
The following two critical observations, and at the same time, questions that should arise while studying this project, are the choice and purpose of using selected building materials and construction methods. These are inherent elements of the environmental dimension of sustainability and, simultaneously, important in the context of social sustainability processes. Socially sustainable development requires using inexpensive and sustainable materials of local origin and structures and technologies that local people understand (Pocock, Steckler, and Hanzalova 2016, 294). A poorly planned process and the construction of the building itself waste environmental resources and adversely affect endusers by reducing their quality of life. In this context, sustainable development aims to minimise resource consumption, enhance building processes and materials conditions, and ensure safety (Plessis 2002, 1819, 24, 39)
In the case of Loving Community, alternative construction techniques had to be found due to economic constraints such as budget and place conditions (See Appendix F) According to the architect and Nish Tailor, building materials, such as straightforward brick construction, concrete walls and floor and ceiling structures, were selected by the design team because they are locally known and widely used. A simple form and a double height characterise the new houses. Plainness in design and construction is the key to saving money and quickly training residents to help with the building so that they can duplicate projects themselves and develop economically in the future. Some windows and doors were saved during the demolition of existing structures. Preserved elements and stones were renovated and reused. Furthermore, all building materials are locally sourced and manufactured on-site by hand. Beginning with handmade tiles (Fig. 14), among others made of sand and natural pigment, through the mixture needed to create ferrocement (Fig. 15), to ecological rat trap bond, a brick bonding system (Fig. 16). That also reduces costs and reinforces community self-efficiency.
In most local projects in deprived BRICS regions, the hired people only know local building techniques. Although they are provided with information and drawings of alternative methods, they will strive for what they know and can do. Therefore, it is a good idea to use familiar materials, provide educational assistance, as well as to involve people more educated in the construction field in construction work and even involve young students from foreign countries Such people will bring many fresh ideas, gladly help on the site, establish a mutual relationship, and acquire knowledge.
The final observation is that each newly built house has a similar layout and an internal and external courtyard. This is closely related to the last sustainable recommendations but no less important. First, design for the safety of users, following local regulations while considering international safety, environmental and quality standards (Pocock, Steckler, and Hanzalova 2016, 293). An example of this is the use of ecological ferrocement provided a more stable and safer structure, and the previously mentioned use of brick, a local standard material, which was used in a more economical and modernist way as it befits the standards in developed countries.
Then it is essential to create a design that achieves good results in terms of energy efficiency and thermal comfort, as well as to respect the local culture (Pocock, Steckler, and Hanzalova 2016, 292-293). All these aspects were considered in Loving Community through fundamental analyses of the environment and atmosphere, geographic location, and a desire to understand the lifestyle and history of the community. The site and environmental analysis help create healthy and comfortable interiors, helps to save money, and reduce emissions and resource exploitation. In a country like India, site location, maximising the natural wind and sun is necessary (Lynch and Hack 1984, 1-2, 12-13, 369). The climate of India creates ideal conditions for sufficient lighting of rooms with natural light in the case of poorer households with a lack of electricity. They are also ideal conditions for using solar panels and solar water heaters, promoted by the Indian government (Government of India 2021). Gujarat state is one of the areas most developed in solar energy use (See Appendix G). New homes in the Loving Community allow the family to install such a system over time with the saved resources. The new design is primarily efficient cross ventilation and natural light inside the house. This was achieved, among others, by carefully placed windows, canopies, and in later designs, by a wind-only vent turbine (Fig. 17).
Other elements enhancing the positive, natural effects are bright facades, plinths, and courtyards, which also embody another sustainable recommendation - designing with sensitivity to local culture (Pocock, Steckler, and Hanzalova 2016, 292). Courtyards are the most characteristic element of the hot climate and Indian houses (See Appendix H) Usually not sheltered from above, located in the centre of the house, it provides natural light and ventilation, reduces high temperatures during the night and combines architecture with nature that soothes the harsh climate. It also fulfils utility functions such as rest and socialisation (Prashad and Chetia 2010, 18, 189, 190, 202-203, 315)
The results are positive and promising for the future. However, can be noticed a few negatives, such as housing density and the fact that a possible expansion in the future is practically impossible and was not considered when designing.
SUMMARY
Despite studies, the value of social sustainability, as opposed to economic and environmental sustainability, is being undermined in developing countries. This is due to a lack of familiarity and comprehension of the extensive definition of sustainable development in the face of more serious
problems. Local people do not have much influence on the construction development of the city or individual buildings. These processes are controlled by foreign investors or higher local institutions, which do not always consider the people's welfare. Following the social sustainability processes outlined above in a developing country will help restore the balance between these three aspects and promise long-lasting results.
5.4 POST-OCCUPANCY EVALUATION
Most people in developing countries might be argued to be exposed to the problems of urbanisation and rapid population development. Thus, architectural aspects and, even more, sustainable development features often do not exist. The resulting mindset is common and unequivocal: why bother with architecture when facing such serious problems? As a result, the low household income sector is neglected, architects are typically not involved in the design, and no one involves users. Homes are built to a minimum standard; basic, safe, clean, and nothing more (Plessis 2002, 21-24, 27-30).
The massive production of this type of housing that does not embrace environmental features is causing increasing problems of climate change, ignoring the considerations of local cultures and social conditions (Asadi and Farrokhi 2015, 13-15). Moreover, there is a growing belief that low-income housing requires immediate technological and social changes to contain the harmful effects of climate change and detrimental relations between the occupant and the building (Shove et al. 2008, 307-308) Therefore, the fact of not practising post-occupancy evaluation (POE) in the case of this sector is not surprising and only escalates the problems and dissatisfaction of users. From the beginning, the entire design team involved in the Loving Community project aimed to improve the community's quality of life while involving them in the whole process from the very start.
5.5 PARTICIPATORY DESIGN PROCESS
Participatory design in architecture, as opposed to the conventional design method, involves not only specialists such as architects and builders but also the future users of the building, for example, residents. The participatory approach is closely related to empowerment and embodies the proper development of cities, buildings, and communities in developing countries. Thanks to it, it is possible to achieve high quality while satisfying people's needs, strengthening poorer communities, and through a common goal and education creates vital processes of unification and awareness. This approach significantly increases the chances of end-user satisfaction and creates an ideal everyday environment for them. The participatory design process was initiated to provide for the basic needs of the poor by assessing conditions and modernising housing (Michener 1998, 2105-2108). In India, the participatory approach developed on a larger scale in the 1980s in the context of urban planning. The latest programmes, such as Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission or the National Slum Development Programme,
provided a participatory design approach (Basu 2016, 41-50) However, such initiatives in the 21st century only provide essential consultations to obtain information used for a political game, which often does not consider citizens' welfare (Salamah 2021, 137, 139-140, 144)
Stage 1: Project Beginning: The Loving Community has been a small and very connected community for several generations. Everyone knows everyone and everyone knows about everything. Due to this factor, it was decided to rebuild the houses in the order obtained through the lottery. Fifty-five homes were written on paper, and the whole draw event occurred in front of the entire community gathered in the circle. The lottery system provided a factor of fairness and no harm to anyone. This way, the first four houses were selected. Houses 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 were also selected using the lottery system but were selected between road numbers to build homes in pairs to minimise costs and create more robust structures through sharing foundations and external walls. From this first stage, everyone involved was aware of the value of the project and the fact that the project would be experimental.
Stage 2: Design Process: The architect wanted to solve all these critical aspects and problems by proposing a new design. Another essential element in the design process is community involvement. New methods of communicating with the community were developed to help them better understand the architect's design intent. Unique models of houses were prepared, including furniture and existing families’ possessions, supplemented by many discussions about the new design so future users could visualise the final effect and make informed decisions. Remarkable models for the contractor were also prepared, which presented the form of the building and all technical dimensions. The reason for this was the contractor's inability to read technical information. Additionally, many workshops were organised, which taught the local community how to make construction elements from available and natural materials.
Stage 3: Project Execution: Local contractors and the inhabitants were involved in the construction of the houses. They learned together and participated in moving building materials and construction. It is an important social, economic, educational, and developmental factor that will benefit future generations.
Stage 4: Evaluation: After completing the construction of the first two houses, it was decided to evaluate and redesign them. Feedback obtained after some time of their owners' use showed that they noticed an improvement in thermal comfort while having an open space in the inner courtyard was not pleasing for everyone. All comments and conclusions from the construction of the house were very quickly considered and revised to meet the community's requirements. The new solutions were immediately implemented in the next homes (Fig. 18).
The participatory design process is closely related to the design and construction process. It shapes all operations and has a significant impact on the final effect. In the case of Loving Community, which is a long-term project, it affects all successively constructed houses (See Appendix I).
5.6 INITIAL OUTCOMES AND ISSUES WITH COURTYARDS
Courtyards have always been a traditional and inseparable element of buildings in India due to the hot and dry climate (Prashad and Chetia 2010, 189-190, 201, 203) According to the pictures observed while staying in the Loving Community, internal courtyards serve as an extension to the bedroom and kitchen. This is a space for women and activities that require more privacy, such as bathing and sleeping. Whereas the front courtyards are an expansion of the entire house. At night they serve as a place to sleep for men, and during the day, they are a place for trading and housework. According to information from Nish Tailor, old houses in Loving Community did not have such courtyards. The residents used the home’s front space, which is a public space next to the road, to socialise with the community and perform economic and housework activities during the day (Fig. 19). In keeping with the culture and respect for local customs, houses are designed to contain a front courtyard to support socialisation and promote economic activities. Due to the larger plot, houses 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 also have an internal or back courtyard, providing more privacy and space for washing and storing larger items.
The inhabitants greatly appreciated cultural and social respect. However, Nish Tailor admitted that a few saw the disadvantages of having an internal courtyard. The first problem was that the kitchen space was devoted to creating an internal courtyard (Fig. 20), which is needed when having a larger family. Others believed that the inner courtyard, initially designed to create cross ventilation, would not provide sufficient weather protection. They were also concerned about monkeys stealing things and food. Despite achieving near-perfect thermal comfort, the lack of knowledge about environmental and passive strategies, misconceptions about new methods, and cultural demands for space have caused people to be concerned about having inner open-air courtyards. Also, residents using public spaces for reasons such as lack of space or high temperatures inside their homes consider some roads and streets in front of their shelters as their private territory. They preferred to maximise internal space and have more storage areas. Well-being has been improved, and new homes have become a symbol of higher status in society, which resulted from the change in sociocultural views, and they started to demand more
Due to these negative aspects of the feedback, the design team rearranged the following designs. It was decided to postpone the idea of internal courtyards, leaving it up to the resident whether he wanted one.
This is what happened in the case of house number 4, inhabited by one woman. Due to respect for the opinion of the residents, the team left it to everyone to explain the advantages and disadvantages of having this architectural element. In this case, additional protection in the form of a metal mesh was installed, curved to avoid claustrophobia. Subsequent houses without an internal courtyard have a more prominent front courtyard to maintain the dressing factor while lengthening this element to provide more protection and privacy. Meanwhile, houses 5 and 6 built together have accessible rooftops, which act as a place to rest, hang clothes, store larger items, and grow plants. Thanks to the stable structure, they enable the addition of an extension in the future.
It realises that thermal comfort, environmental aspects, and spatial requirements do not always coincide. Architects wishing to meet the spatial requirements in subsequent projects had to sacrifice social and environmental performance and stop effectively addressing poverty and ecological threats.
Thanks to POE and community involvement, better results were achieved regarding residents' satisfaction in terms of comfort, safety, and overall improvement of the quality of life. These results were confirmed during conversations between Nish Tailor and the architect with the community. New houses provide solid shelter, better thermal comfort, sufficient daylight, and more interior space than old ones. Environmental efficiency has also been improved through houses' appropriate design forms and traditional elements. However, the POE also highlighted some negative results. They are related to population density,
lack of storage space and, in the beginning, no possible future expansion, which has generated little dissatisfaction.
The lack of enforced regulations, ineffective help for the poorest from the government and the nature of humankind resulted in the fact that the inhabitants began to care more for their good. This bottom-up approach starts to harm the whole community. Instead of long-standing sustainable improvements, it only brings short-lasting local gains. Examples of slums prove that top-down building and spatial solutions combined with bottom-up spatial, economic, and social conditions in the middle can provide better results for inhabitants. Mandatory, including all the constraints resulting from the slum context (Tiwari, Winters, and Trivedi 2020, 127-147).
SUMMARY
PEO can produce conflicting results in keeping people happy and healthy while failing to achieve positive sustainability and environmental outcomes. This is due to the community marginalisation, lack of specialist knowledge, a sense of threat and the desire for social promotion. In the future, it is also worth considering not only everyday behaviour and cultural values but also focusing on future socio-economic needs, such as the desire to enlarge the family or increase economic activity. This is especially important in low-income housing and can be achieved by incorporating adaptive flexibility into house plans and gradual development opportunities.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
This paper offers some insights into the advantages and disadvantages of specific socio-economic implications in a real-life project geared towards sustainable development and helping the poorest. The study demonstrates and underlines the importance of the undervalued application of social sustainability values in developing countries.
The foundation for presented applications - protecting land following the law and local empathy, providing local people with building skills training, using locally sourced sustainable building materials and familiar construction techniques familiar to local people, designing and building with user safety and comfort in mind, designing in line with culture and ensuring energy efficiency and thermal comfort - demonstrates that investing time, attention and funds in users and sustainable solutions are essential to achieve good economic and environmental performance. Social sustainability is primarily user-centred action, considering the needs of people that will use the building throughout its life span.
Therefore, it is essential to follow the participatory design in architecture, which responds to users’ perceived needs. In the context of local minorities in developing countries, their feelings and opinions are authentic and conditioned by experience, not imposed by science. Their sincere needs significantly increase the chance of achieving a satisfying project because they can fill and improve many elements of their daily lives. The value of these aspects is often underestimated by project teams and reluctantly funded.
To achieve high-quality outcomes, design and execution stakeholders should continuously evaluate the project's impact on the individual user and the community throughout the project. Thereby underlining a more comprehensive commitment to all of them. The identified concepts can be applied to other types of architectural design, and these rules can be adapted to the particular context of each project. Ideas such as respect for local culture, the local way of life, and the involvement of future users should be inseparable elements.
The Loving Community project is an excellent example of effectively meeting the needs of the residents while allowing for the spontaneous evolution of the implemented ideas and design solutions. Among other things, it turned out that some residents needed more storage space, and others questioned the location of bathrooms and toilets. In addition, some negatively assessed having a courtyard, despite its noticeable lighting, ventilation and cultural advantages. In later constructions, other solutions were proposed, maintaining the quality of natural processes, among other things, by sharing stairs to terraced roofs by two neighbouring houses, reducing overall costs. Constant conversations between the architect and the community allowed for a better adjustment of space requirements and a better understanding of its usefulness.
This document draws attention to essential aspects of contemporary design in developing countries and raises awareness of human processes and their implementation in the planning, design and construction phases. Implementing social strategies from the beginning of program development significantly increases the chances of positive integration with environmental and economic processes. It increases the chances of satisfaction of contractors, future users, and the entire community.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A
House proposal in Loving Community. The 2nd-year project, BA Architecture, was designed by Julia Grzesiak after the trip to Loving Community
Appendix B
The following illustrations explain what autoethnography is and the purpose of its use. The illustrations are excerpts from the article: Adams, Tony E., Stacy H. Jones, and Carolyn Ellis 2017. “Autoethnography.” The International Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods (August): 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118901731.iecrm0011
Appendix C
India is one of the countries with the highest increase in the number of people in the last few decades. The image below shows the Indian population between 1950 and 2015 and the significant growth trend.
Image Source:
Worldometers. n.d. India Population. Accessed October 29, 2022. https://www.worldometers.info/world population/india-population/
Appendix D
Site Appraisal and key landscape aspects of Loving Community, prepared by Julia Grzesiak during the volunteer trip of students in 2018.
• Locally sourced building materials: brick, wood, cement.
• Colourful facades
• Rectangular windows and doors with painted ledges
• Decorative features are mostly painted onto the house’s exterior rather than carved designs
• Places to sit and rest are often located at the front of the house (porches, balcony spaces, benches, roof overhangs).
In India, specific colours have religious and social significance. They are used both in religious and public architecture and private homes. In addition, the commonly used bright colours on building facades absorb solar radiation to minimise the absorption and heating of the rooms.
The illustrations are excerpts from the book: Prashad, Deependra, and Saswati Chetia. 2010. New architecture and urbanism. Development of Indian Tradition. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publisher.
https://liverpool.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=cdi_askewsholts_vlebooks_9781443818926& context=PC&vid=44LIV_INST:44LIV_INST&lang=en&search_scope=MyInst_and_CI&adaptor=Primo%20Central&tab= Everything&query=any,contains,Prashad%20%26%20Chetia,%202010&offset=0
Appendix E
According to research and the most widely used climate classification system, Ahmedabad is in a hot semi-arid climate. This climate is characterised by hot to scorching summers and warm to slightly cool winters. Three seasons are distinguished in India; winter and summer, characterised by very dry air, and the monsoon season, an extremely humid period.
Information Source:
Arnfield, A. John. 2020. "Köppen climate classification." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.britannica.com/science/Koppen-climate-classification
Appendix F
The budget and information about the electricity was confirmed by Nish Tailor (architectural assistant involved in the project).
Each project had to be considered within a specific budget of INR 400,000 (around £4000) per house, with individual solutions to suit individual needs. Additionally, families had the open offer to self-fund an additional £500.
In the case of Loving Community, there was electricity on-site. However, it is still not ideal to have electricity everywhere because there is not enough electricity going to that community. The site's history, leprosy, migration, and the fact that the city grew in the southwest away from the marginalised community, thereby cutting it off from
the infrastructure. Currently, the situation is constantly improving. New power lines were installed, and they started to be recognised as an actual place to live and as a "full settlement" rather than a "gipsy village". Solar panels were never installed in the Loving Community, which is still a massive expense in India. However, their installation is possible, while the family should take care of the whole house, a good job, and savings.
Appendix G
The image shows the use and distribution of solar energy systems in various states in India. More information on the Indian Government's activities and plans in the context of renewable solar are available at:
https://mnre.gov.in/solar/current-status/
Image Source:
Government of India. 2021. “Solar Energy.” Accessed September 24, 2022. https://mnre.gov.in/solar/currentstatus/
Appendix H
The illustrations below provide detailed information about courtyards. Their importance in the history of India, the community's culture, the architecture, and the environment have been presented. Also, this information presents the architectural elements used in the new Loving Community houses. It explains their use and role in the culture, architecture, thermal comfort, and everyday life of residents.
The illustrations are excerpts from the book:
Prashad, Deependra, and Saswati Chetia. 2010. New architecture and urbanism. Development of Indian Tradition.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publisher.
https://liverpool.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=cdi_askewsholts_vlebooks_9781443818926& context=PC&vid=44LIV_INST:44LIV_INST&lang=en&search_scope=MyInst_and_CI&adaptor=Primo%20Central&tab= Everything&query=any,contains,Prashad%20%26%20Chetia,%202010&offset=0
Appendix I
The design and building process was confirmed by Nish Tailor (architectural assistant involved in the project).
• HOUSES 1 & 2
Straightforward brick and concrete walls, floor, and ceiling structures. The first four houses were done singular and were designed in a very similar way. They are characterised by a simple form and a double height.
• HOUSE 3
During the building process, the team began to use a ferrocement as the new construction technique. Also, turbo ventilation was used in House 3 for the first time, which operated with hot air rising and propelling air out, which was a good way of reducing the number of openings in the design of the house. Later this was slowly adapted with a mix of natural ventilation and with the use of high-level openings designed into the metal roof of one of the options.
• HOUSE 4
Regarding construction, form and approach, house number four is the same as houses 1 and 2.
• HOUSES 5 & 6
Regarding the construction process, the team started to think about how to make it cheaper in terms of economy (shared walls and foundations).
• HOUSE 7
Single building.
• HOUSES 8, 9 & 10
The team started to develop two or three houses in a row, and they became interested in vector ventilation and metal roof, but metal can attract much heat, which was not an ideal solution. The question was how to refuse the heat and still provide shelter and cooling. One option was to raise the metal roof higher and have an opening on both sides, allowing ventilation to come through but still providing for high-level lights to go through.
• HOUSES 13 & 14
Those houses are a mix between Houses 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. The team is slowly starting to get to the point where they know what works best, what’s the cheapest, what’s practical, and what they can change or adapt. They already know that the construction of the walls will not be changed in terms of bricks because the contractor knows how to use this material appropriately. Also, in terms of weight and size, brick is one of the most accessible materials to carry out and move. According to the roof, the design aspects and ways things must be moved around could always change. What remains the same is the aspect of people's needs; they always want a house. Making models with furniture inside will never end; people must understand what they will get.