Dissertation: Hayao Miyazaki's Vision - Julia Remington Sheffield School of Architecture Part 1

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Hayao Miyazaki’s Vision: The Architecture of Studio Ghibli in the Pursuit of Contemporary Utopia

Julia Remington 170157014

University of Sheffield School of Architecture (SSoA) ARC322 Special Study Tutor: Dr. Xiang Ren April 2020

Cover Image - Created by Author; Collaged using stills from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), directed by Hayao Miyazaki

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE

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PART I ESTABLISHING JAPAN’S HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, & THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

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JAPAN’S HISTORICAL TIMELINE History, Architecture, & Film

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JAPAN’S ARCHITECTURAL & FILMIC DISCOURSE: From Metabolism to the Contemporary Era - An Interconnected Reality

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KEY TERMINOLOGIES, PRINCIPLES, & CULTURAL REFERENCES With Relation to Architecture & the Japanese Entertainment Culture

Animation (Anime)

Nature

Technology

Destruction

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PART II HAYAO MIYAZAKI’S VISION

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INTRODUCING HAYAO MIYAZAKI Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) and Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986)

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FILM ANALYSIS:

Appreciation of the Industrial Era and Craftsmanship - A Work of Art

Focus on the Natural and Traditional Patterns of Living

The Consequences of Abusing Superior Technologies

Utopia: Harmony Between Technology, People, and Nature

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CRITICAL COMPARISON OF TWO FILMS

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PART III HAYAO MIYAZAKI AND CONTEMPORARY JAPAN

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CONCLUSION

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BIBLIOGRAPHY & LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to my Special Study tutor, Dr. Xiang Ren for his guidance and support despite the difficulties of the ongoing situation.

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Figure 1 Conceptual Sketch for Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), illustrated by Hayao Miyazaki

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PREFACE

The driving force to explore this subject stems from my personal experience of growing up in Japan. From binge-watching television shows to indulging myself in comic books on a daily basis, Japanese popular culture consumed a huge portion of my childhood - and like many others in Japan, I have always been captivated by the fantastical worlds presented in Hayao Miyazaki’s works. This special study has provided me with the opportunity to place Miyazaki’s works in an academic context and delve into his visions as an animated filmmaker as well as an architect.

In this paper, I study the architectural and urban representation in two of Hayao Miyazaki’s films, Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) and Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), and aim to delineate the key ideologies that are implicit in the filmmaker’s response to postwar Japan’s rapid modernization. The importance of this study lies in its contribution to understanding the interconnected relationship between architectural and urban reality, film, and representation. By examining the works of Miyazaki, a figure of great influence in the development of Japan’s entertainment culture, we can understand the impressions his unique visions have left on the collective Japanese perspective towards images of utopia, and the possible impacts his ideas have had on the development of contemporary architectural ideologies.

This study is divided into three parts. Part 1 establishes Japan’s historical, cultural, and theoretical framework in relation to architecture and film, to understand Japan’s complex and distinctive cultural values that are deep-rooted in historical and religious relationships. Part 2 Analyses two of Miyazaki’s films, Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) and Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), through examining final stills and initial conceptual sketches to extract the filmmaker’s key ideologies. Part 3 will take Miyazaki’s thinking obtained from Part 2, and establish connections between the filmmaker and architectural ideologies in contemporary Japan.

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Figure 2 Image of the Nakagin Capsule Tower (1972) By Kisho Kurokawa

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PART I

ESTABLISHING JAPAN’S HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, & THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK JAPAN’S HISTORICAL TIMELINE History, Architecture, & Film

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JAPAN’S ARCHITECTURAL & FILMIC DISCOURSE From Metabolism to the Contemporary Era - An Interconnected Reality

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KEY TERMINOLOGIES, PRINCIPLES, & CULTURAL REFERENCES With Relation to Architecture & the Japanese Entertainment Culture

Animation (Anime)

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Nature Technology Destruction

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JAPAN’S HISTORICAL TIMELINE History, Architecture, & Film

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JAPAN’S ARCHITECTURAL & FILMIC DISCOURSE

From Metabolism to the Contemporary Era - An Interconnected Reality

The historical development of Japan’s urban and architectural environment took a unique course. Having been afflicted with numerous catastrophes through the past few centuries, such as by the Great Fire of Meireki1, a multitude of earthquakes, and war-induced destruction, the Japanese were repeatedly prompted to reconstruct their urban lifestyles. Their approach was unprecedented in the way urban life was reimagined after each incident, rather than reviving what had previously existed - resulting in the introduction of various new architectural and urban thinking overtime, as well as “a culture that accepts cycles of destruction and renewal as a natural part of life”.2 Japan’s architecture and urban environment are consequently defined by their flexible and transient nature, one that is directly contrary to Western ideology aspiring to permanence. As Toyo Ito stated: “If we compare the architecture of Western civilization to a museum, Japanese architecture [can be likened to] a theatre”.3

The continuous cycles of destruction and renewal have produced many opportunities for the Japanese to devise new architectural theories and philosophies and put them into practice.

Metabolism is a key movement in Japan’s architectural history which took such a course.

Introduced by a group of postwar Japanese architects during the early 1960s, Metabolism represented a radical conceptualization of architecture and urban landscape inspired by new discoveries in the fields of biology and biological engineering. These architects, the Metabolists, were fascinated by the idea that similar to an organism’s natural metabolism, cities can hold the potential for continual growth, change, and renewal.4 They state in their original manifesto, Metabolism: The Proposals for New Urbanism:

“We regard human society as a vital process - a continuous development from atom to nebula. The reason why we use such a biological word, metabolism is that we believe design and technology should be a denotation of human society.”5

Metabolists embraced the notion of utopian futurism holding the belief that architects are capable of improving modern society and enhancing the quality of people’s lives using the power of technology, overall asserting to reconstruct postwar Japan’s broken image through such ideologies.6

In the Contemporary era, concepts of architecture and the urban environment, as well as images of the “future city” in Japan faced a paradigm shift in its way of thinking. Following the decline of Japan’s economic bubble during the 1990s came a need to seek for architecture appropriate for its sobered world, where Metabolist expectations of a utopian future had vastly 1 A catastrophic fire that occured in 1657, destroying the city of Edo (now known as Tokyo) 2 Tom Morris, “Understanding Japan’s Unique ‘Scrap And Build’ Design Culture”, CNN Style, 2017 <https://edition.cnn.com/ style/article/how-japan-makes-houses/index.html> [Accessed 27 February 2020].

3 Botond Bognar, “What Goes Up, Must Come Down”, Harvard Design Magazine, 1997 <http://www.harvarddesignmagazine.org/issues/3/what-goes-up-must-come-down> [Accessed 27 February 2020].

4 Zhongjie Lin, Kenzo Tange And The Metabolist Movement (London: Routledge, 2010), p. 22.

5 Ibid., p. 24.

6 Tomoko Tamari, “Metabolism: Utopian Urbanism And The Japanese Modern Architecture Movement”, Theory, Culture & Society, 31.7-8 (2014), 206 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276414547777>.

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diminished. “Those [Modernist] times, people believed that they would have utopia someday.

But we know that it’s not true. There’s no utopia.” stated Shigeru Ban.7 With the contemporary realization that Japan’s unstable environment complicates the contextualizing, theorizing, and hypothesizing of new urbanism schemes, the architectural focus shifted from the urban realm to private domains and its individual inhabitants, as well as to revisiting vernacular techniques.8 Especially evident after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, tsunami, and Fukushima Power Plant disaster, a case where destruction was brought by both nature and technology, the need for designs that negotiate, interchange, and harmonize with Japan’s environmental reality became more apparent than ever. In an interview, one of the leading architects of the new generation, Kengo Kuma, stated: “After the tsunami, we [architects] finally found that we were so weak compared to the power of nature.” He additionally emphasized that “the criteria for architecture after the tsunami is humbleness”.9 Consequently, the new generation of architects in Japan exhibit a focus towards designs concerned with individualization, self-control, and sustainability, as a haven from Japan’s hostile environment. This approach, involving a humbleness in the presence of nature, explores the relationship between people and entities in the environment through revisiting vernacular techniques - an attitude which was previously replaced by the avant-garde and self-confident thinking of Metabolists during the late 20th century.

The shifts in Japan’s architectural focus exhibit a parallel to those in the narrative of films throughout Japan’s historical timeline. From the exploration of themes of urban destruction in postwar Japan, the explicit focus towards technology and wealth during Japan’s Metabolist and Postmodernist era, to the humbled ideas seeking the relevance of tradition and nature in the contemporary times - film and architecture are intertwined with the collective national responses to Japan’s concurrent reality. Along with these responses exist those that diversely use film as a medium to express individual criticisms and desires in reaction to reality, demonstrated through the utopian portrayals in Hayao Miyazaki’s earlier films, or the dystopian narrative in Akira (1988) by Katsuhiro Otomo; both are generated in retaliation to the dissonant effects of Japan’s rapid modernization.

7 Nikil Saval, “Shigeru Ban”, T: The New York Times Style Magazine, The Greats 2019 <https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/10/15/t-magazine/the-greats.html> [Accessed 28 February 2020].

8 Tomoko Tamari, “Metabolism: Utopian Urbanism And The Japanese Modern Architecture Movement”, Theory, Culture & Society, 31.7-8 (2014), 216 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276414547777>.

9 James Pallister, “”The Criteria For Architecture Is Humbleness,” Says Kengo Kuma”, Dezeen, 2020 <https://www.dezeen. com/2014/03/11/kengo-kuma-interview-architecture-after-2011-japan-tsunami/> [Accessed 28 February 2020].

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KEY TERMINOLOGIES, PRINCIPLES, AND CULTURAL REFERENCES With Relation to Architecture & the Japanese Entertainment Culture

ANIMATION (ANIME)

Anime is the Japanese equivalent of animated media, a distinct form of animation in its unique Japanese-disseminated style often characterized by vibrant graphics, characters with exaggerated features, and imaginative themes. The origins of anime and its comic counterpart, manga, trace back to the production of Ukiyo-e woodblock prints during the Edo period.10 The widespread distribution of Ukiyo-e marked Japan’s earliest case of mass consumption, captivating a large audience through its beautified portrayal of mundane observations in life.11 Similar to its predecessor, the combination of anime’s accessibility with its ability to provide pure pleasure and entertainment has historically attracted many fans nationwide.12 Consequently, the existence of anime is embedded in the daily lives of the Japanese and is primarily consumed as a means of escaping from the pressures of reality. In the contemporary era, the celebration of this Japanese animation style is an international phenomenon - increasing in transnational circulation and production, anime has more recently gained a lot of popularity and attention from a global audience.13

Anime is often used in the contemporary world to envision spaces, architecture, and cities without being restricted by the constraints of reality. It is powerful in its ability to construct and present a three-dimensional spatial experience to its viewers, whilst playing with notions of fantasy vs. reality. Consequently, various film producers over time have used anime as a medium to communicate their desires and fears in response to the reality surrounding them.

“It may be that animation in general - and perhaps anime in particular - is the ideal artistic vehicle for expressing the hopes and nightmares of our uneasy contemporary world”14

10 A period between 1603-1868 in Japanese history 11 Robin E Brenner, Understanding Manga And Anime (Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited, 2007), p. 2.

12 Mark Wheeler Macwilliams, Japanese Visual Culture: Explorations In The World Of Manga And Anime (Routledge, 2008), p. 10.

13 Thomas LaMarre, The Anime Machine: A Media Theory Of Animation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), p. 8.

14 Susan J Napier, Anime From Akira To Howl’s Moving Castle (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 11.

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Figure 3 - Ukiyo-e Painting by Utagawa Hiroshige Mount Fuji in the Morning from Hara (c.1833-4)

Figure 4 - Still from Howlâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Moving Castle (2004), directed by Hayao Miyazaki Fantasy portrayed with the castleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s steampunkinspired design layered on a beautiful scenery.

A powerful balance of futurism and organic matter.

Figure 5 Film & Representation is a medium to connect architectural visions with reality & fantasy

Figure 6 Is architectural representation a medium to shape how people perceive reality vs. utopian fantasy?

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Figure 7 - Image of the interior of a traditional Japanese house Wood as a predominant construction material; used in its natural form to appreciate its grain.

Blurring of inside/outside threshold through adjustable screens & doors

Figure 8 - Image of the exterior of a traditional Japanese house Traditional Japanese Houses and Gardens have an Integral Relationship

Figures 9~11 Stills from Kimi No Nawa (2016), directed by Makoto Shinkai Portraying the beauty of nature & Japanese traditional culture in a contemporary setting, an age with extensive technological access

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NATURE

The concept of nature in Japan is complex and constantly developing. Common conceptions of Japan’s harmonious relationship with nature is reflected in their closest translation of the term, shizen (自然), in which the former kanji,15 shi, stands for oneself. To the Japanese, nature is unified with oneself - a concept which directly contrasts with the Western ideology of confronting and conquering nature. Furthermore, instead of perceiving nature as the untouched phenomena of the physical world, the Japanese interpret nature as one in which human interception, contribution, and adjustment are included in its meaning.16 The Japanese affinity with nature can be traced back to Japan’s geographic and climatic environment, with its leisurely change of seasons being optimum for agricultural activities and its mountainous landscape bringing simple aesthetic pleasure. A deep appreciation for nature is further emphasized through Japanese religious ideologies as both Shinto and Buddhist philosophies highlight a strong respect for nature.17 Consequently, Japanese traditional architectural forms, materials, and construction all demonstrate a full integration of the natural environment.

Through the use of locally-sourced natural materials, a contextually-sensitive approach, and designs that communicate immense respect for nature - traditional architecture and nature in Japan are inseparable.18

Despite the nation’s unified appreciation for nature, various incidents of environmental degradation and destruction are evident throughout Japan’s historical timeline. An example is postwar Japan’s efforts of expansive urbanization, during which a vast amount of natural features were swept out of Japan’s landscape. Nevertheless, images of nature have been continuously provoked throughout history in the Japanese arts and entertainment culture, ranging in media from traditional literature to even its modern popular culture - further asserting the nation’s affinity with it.19 Perhaps, Japan’s traditional affinity with nature is timeless; it is one in which the Japanese perceive a conventionalized, instead of an empirical, nature, created as a result of “the aesthetic fusion of nature, religion and art.”20 Moreover, Japan’s cultural value of impermanence establishes the perception of nature as a process, where the Japanese find beauty in its transient sequence of growth and decay as demonstrated in their appreciation of the four seasons.21

15 Characters used in the Japanese writing system adopted from the Chinese language 16 Pamela J Asquith and Arne Kalland, “Japanese Perceptions of Nature: Ideals and Illusions”, in Japanese Images Of Nature: Cultural Perspectives (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), pp. 10.

17 Ibid., pp. 2-3.

18 Mira Locher, Traditional Japanese Architecture: An Exploration Of Elements And Forms (New York: Tuttle Publishing, 2012), p. 17.

19 Haruo Shirane, Japan And The Culture Of The Four Seasons (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013), xi.

20 Karen Colligan-Taylor, The Emergence Of Environmental Literature In Japan (New York: Garland, 1990), p. 9.

21 Peter Ackermann, “The Four Seasons: One Of Japanese Culture’s Most Central Concepts”, in Japanese Images Of Nature: Cultural Perspectives (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), p. 49.

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TECHNOLOGY

Japan’s historical reputation as a technological borrower-imitator derives from the Japanese pre-eminent ability of assimilating and adjusting ideas from other cultures to adapt to their own circumstances.22 Despite similar approaches utilized by other developing nations throughout history, Japan has demonstrated an unprecedented technological progression due to the country’s unique indigenous cultural structures and religious philosophies which have been applied to this process of absorbing and improving foreign techniques. An example is the application of Buddhist principles emphasizing self-dependence, value in manual work, and a continuous strive for excellence, which had fuelled the disassembling of foreign technologies with great precision, persistence, and motivation.23 As a result, Japan stands at the top of the scientific and technological worlds in this contemporary era.

The power of Japan’s rapid advancements in technology has been mirrored in its drastic changes of architectural traits overtime. The fast adoption of newly introduced materials and techniques during Japan’s modernization period provided the ability to update existing methods of construction, replacing many traditional techniques at a very quick pace.24 Urban landscapes were continuously transformed through the use of technological innovations with each catastrophe calling for a need to rapidly reconstruct cities. During the Metabolist and Postmodernist era, the further development of technology in combination with rapid economic growth enabled intense creativity - resulting in the production of radical proposals heavily embracing the possibilities of technology. This era can consequently be characterized by an overconfidence embodied through an almost aggressive use of technology in the architectural and urban proposals that were introduced.

Figure 12 - Image of the Nakagin Capsule Tower (1972) by Kisho Kurokawa Metabolist housing focusing on growth & modularity. Japan’s love for concrete evolved out of a need for resilience, after war & natural disasters

Figure 13 - Image of Plan for Tokyo Bay (1960) by Kenzo Tange Proposing to create an artificial island to accommodate the city’s expansion & regeneration

22 Meg Greene, The Technology Of Ancient Japan, 1st edn (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2006), p. 4.

23 Arunoday Saha, “Culture And The Development Of Technology In Japan”, Technology In Society, 16.2 (1994), 225-241 <https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-791x(94)90030-2>.

24 James Steele, Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tracing The Next Generation, 1st edn (London: Routledge, 2017), pp. 45-46.

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Nevertheless, postwar Japan’s optimistic outlook painted technology as a savior, an image which was further emanated and celebrated nationwide through the Japanese media culture. Popular entertainment through films and shows demonstrated a catering towards the era’s focus on technology, in which idols and icons were fostered and continuously promoted to reconstruct Japan’s defeated image.25 On the other hand, many dystopian film reactions arose to this nationwide sentiment linking hope with the possibilities of technology - bringing warning towards the dangers that may result from the abusive use of technology. Post-apocalyptic Neo-Tokyo portrayed in Katsuhiro Otomo’s iconic cyberpunk film Akira (1988) is a striking example, as he uses his animated film to implicitly criticize the overconfident urban reality of Japan during this era.

Figure 14 Still from Astro Boy (1963), a television series directed by Osamu Tezuka An embodiment of the Japanese dream of technology

Figures 15 & 16 Stills from Akira (1988), directed by Katsuhiro Otomo Post-apocalyptic NeoTokyo is portrayed as a place with monstrous urban chaos

25 E. Taylor Atkins, A History Of Popular Culture In Japan. From The Seventeenth Century To The Present (London: Bloomsbury Publishing Ltd, 2017), pp. 195-6.

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DESTRUCTION

The continuous cycles of destruction and renewal throughout Japanese history has developed a culture with respect for the ephemeral qualities of life, rather than one fearful of the constant threat of annihilation. The result is an appreciation for impermanence and the acceptance of imperfection, reflected in the traditional Japanese view Wabi-sabi. Nature and technology both undertake significant roles in developing this unique attitude towards destruction - their historical relationships with Japan’s experiences of destruction and renewal are compelling in the way they have been observed to clash with each other at different points of time. There have been several instances where nature had dominated over technology, such as the during the urban annihilation of the Tokyo-Yokohama metropolitan areas as a result of the 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake; and vice versa, exemplified in the mass environmental degradation during the postwar era of extensive urbanisation. The case of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami is unique as it demonstrates a situation of destruction caused both by nature and technology - a combination of natural disasters and the Fukushima Nuclear incident.26

Destruction is consequently a very common theme discussed in Japan’s entertainment culture overtime, to reflect its peoples’ sentiments, desires, and concerns in response to the country’s urban reality. An example is postwar Japan’s efforts of representing the nationwide optimism felt during its reconstruction period through the production of Kaijuu27 and Sentai28 films like Godzilla (1954) and Ultra Man (1966). Depicting the conquering of monstrous creatures tearing down Japan’s urban landscape by almighty heros, such films captivated the national audience through embodying the hope advertised throughout the era. They essentially served as a visual manifestation of the Japanese fascination towards ideas of urban destruction, as well as their confidence in overcoming such catastrophes.29

26 A nuclear accident caused by the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami, at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Ōkuma, Fukushima Prefecture. It is marked as the most severe nuclear accident since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 27 Japanese live-action films with intense special effects involving kaijuu, which are giant monsters 28 Japanese live-action films with intense special effects involving almighty superhero figures 29 William M Tsutsui, “Oh No, There Goes Tokyo”, in Noir Urbanisms: Dystopic Images Of The Modern City (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), pp. 113-4.

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Figure 17 - Still from Godzilla (1954), directed by Ishiro Honda

Figure 18 - Still from Ultra Man (1966), a television series created by Eiji Tsuburaya

The destruction of Japanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban cityscape in such films echo the annihilation experienced during WWII due to nuclear and conventional firebombing attacks.

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Figure x Still from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986) An aerial view showing details of the Caslte

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PART II

HAYAO MIYAZAKI’S VISION INTRODUCING HAYAO MIYAZAKI

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FILM ANALYSIS:

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CRITICAL COMPARISON OF TWO FILMS

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Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) and Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986)

Appreciation of the Industrial Era and Craftsmanship Focus on the Natural and Traditional Patterns of Living The Consequences of Abusing Superior Technologies Utopia: Harmony Between Technology, People, and Nature

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INTRODUCING HAYAO MIYAZAKI

Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) and Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986)

Hayao Miyazaki is an internationally-acclaimed Japanese filmmaker, screenwriter, animator, author, and artist. He is well-known for his animated films released by Studio Ghibli, a film and animation studio which Miyazaki co-founded in 1985. With his films having critical commercial success in Japan, Miyazaki’s works have made a huge contribution to the cultivation of Japan’s animation industry which is now globally popular. His international recognition follows the critical appraisal of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) and Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), both written and directed by Miyazaki. Their unique plots and fantastical visuals were received with fascination and left great influences on popular culture, not only in Japan but worldwide.

Whilst there are numerous iconic films produced by Miyazaki across the past few decades, the films: Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Laputa: Castle in the Sky were mainly selected to explore due to the placement of its production periods within Japan’s historical timeline. Both films were released during the economic bubble in Japan, a time where real estate and stock market prices rose tremendously, bringing unhinged wealth to the country. This was following the Metabolist era, in which postwar Japan experienced great advances in technology, economic growth, and expansive urbanisation - stimulating a lot of self-confidence, intense architectural creativity, and radical ideas of a utopian future. With the original manga production of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind overlapping with the concluding times of the Metabolist movement, as well as with both film productions occuring within the period of the economic bubble, Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Laputa: Castle in the Sky revolve around interconnecting themes concerning the relationship between nature, technology, humanity, and destruction, which were commonly discussed during this era.

Through the exploration of such themes within his films, Miyazaki essentially communicates his personal critique of Japan’s architectural and urban reality at the time.

Figure 19 (Left) Advertisement poster of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) Figure 20 (Right) Advertisement poster of Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986)

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Figure 21 Placing the production and release of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Laputa: Castle in the Sky in Japanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s historical timeline

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SYNOPSIS OF TWO FILMS

Figure 22 (Left) Historic image of aerial view of Rhondda Valley a former coal mining area in South Wales Figure 23 (Right) Historic image of a superstructure at a colliery in Rhondda Valley a striking silhouette on its local skyline

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Figure 24 - Still from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), External view of Pazuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s workplace Pazu runs across the colliery chasing after Sheeta, who is descending from the sky.

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Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind is an epic science fantasy adventure film, evolving around a young princess of the Valley of the Wind named Nausicaä. The film is set in a post apocalyptic world, 1000 years after a war which annihilated civilization during the Seven Days of Fire, caused by the use of lethal humanoid bioweapons called “Giant Warriors”. The destruction of civilization had created a vast Sea of Decay, a poisonous jungle swarmed with mutant insects including the giant armed Ohm. Whilst Nausicaä explores this jungle and its creatures to further understand it, aiming to find a way for human beings and the jungle to coexist in harmony, she becomes entangled in a conflict with the Tolmekian kingdom who attempt to revive an ancient Giant Warrior to eradicate the toxic jungle.

Laputa: Castle in the Sky, on the other hand, is a steampunk fantasy-adventure film set in the late 20th century, following the adventures of a young girl and boy named Sheeta and Pazu in search of a legendary floating castle, Laputa. Their quest begins as Pazu finds Sheeta floating down from the sky with a mysterious magical crystal hanging from her neck, containing the secrets of the castle in the clouds. The two go on an adventure to seek for Laputa whilst trying to keep the crystal from air pirates and the military, who are also after the castle in search of its treasures.

FILM ANALYSIS: Hayao Miyazaki’s Vision Through Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Laputa: Castle in the Sky APPRECIATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL ERA AND CRAFTSMANSHIP - A WORK OF ART

Miyazaki displays a fascination for the industrial era through his attention towards the mechanical details of industrial power and the work of nameless craftsmen, as illustrated in the opening scenes of Laputa: Castle in the Sky. The setting of the film itself is heavily inspired by Rhondda Valley, a coal mining town in South Wales which Miyazaki visited prior to the making of the film in 1984. While he was there, he observed the effects of the decline in its mining industry and became absorbed by “the way the miners’ unions fought to the very end for their jobs and communities”; as a result, Miyazaki “wanted to reflect the strength of those communities in [his] film.”1

In the opening scenes of the film, the audience is presented with views of Slagg Ravine, a mining town where Pazu works as a coal mining apprentice. Here, Miyazaki marks each individual colliery with voids that dot the landscape, 1 Steve Rose, “’A Full English Every Morning’: How UK Food And Weather Inspires Japanese Anime Directors”, The Guardian, 2018 <https://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/may/04/hiromasa-yonebayashi-interview-studio-ghibli-mary-and-the-witchs-flower> [Accessed 3 April 2020].

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Figure 25 Stills from the early scenes in Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986) from top to bottom: 8:38, 8:42, 9:00, 9:02, 9:22, 9:28

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Figure 26 Concept sketch of Pazu’s workplace, drawn by Hayao Miyazaki

portrayed with a sense of romanticism and warmth in its exaggerated forms accompanied by a mining superstructure shed with mellow light projected from within. Miyazaki then reveals a scene in which Pazu takes part in the process of mining, being given the responsibility to control a vertical shaft carrying miners returning from underground. While such activity can be seen as one that is very mundane in reality, the detail and emotion Miyazaki applies to this scene constructs an ultimate sense of beauty in its process. In the scene, there is an elaborate visual emphasis towards the industrial era through the images of steel, steam engines, and coal heating boilers - all which are portrayed with sensitive details in its motion. Through such details, Miyazaki highlights the beauty of visible technological mechanisms which were lost after the introduction of more advanced technologies such as electricity. Miyazaki additionally demonstrates a focus towards the individual emotions of the craftsmen through the manner in which Pazu responds to each detail of the process, making it humane and personal. Every action in the scene is accompanied by Pazu’s expressions filled with nervousness, excitement, and relief. Miyazaki ultimately conveys the liveliness of craftsmanship through an emphasis of human-machine interaction, as he explains in The Original Proposal for Castle in the Sky: “[t]he story is set in an era when machines are still exciting and enjoyable, and science does not necessarily make people unhappy”2

Miyazaki’s soulful and artful expression of industrial craftsmanship in this scene contrasts with the architectural reality of Japan at the time, where architects aggressively indulged in ideas of technological advancement to produce grand, radical proposals. By applying such warmth and romanticism in the craft of the industrial era, Miyazaki denotes his empathy for the heart and soul of the industrial craftsmen whose works were replaced with cheap, mass-produced solutions in the urban cityscape of postwar Japan.

2 Hayao Miyazaki, Beth Cary and Frederik L Schodt, Starting Point 1979-1996 (San Francisco, California: VIZ Media, 1996), p. 253.

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FOCUS ON THE NATURAL AND TRADITIONAL PATTERNS OF LIVING

In addition to expressing his appreciation for the craftsmanship of the industrial era, Miyazaki conveys his likening for natural and traditional approaches to housing construction as highlighted in the portrayal of the materials, details, and assembly of houses in his films.

In Laputa: Castle in the Sky, Slagg Ravine takes inspiration from the vernacular styles of traditional welsh housing which were often made by its inhabitants with locally available materials and individual interpretation, as exemplified by Pazu’s house. The house is built using natural materials, visible by its timber panel walls and slate roof tiles, constructed as an extension on top of an older retained brick building. His newly attached cottage mirrors the rebuilding of welsh houses around the industrialisation in the 19th century, in which houses on farmsteads were often rebuilt at a local level adjacent to preserved older buildings. The conical brick structure housing Pazu’s doves additionally imitates a unique Welsh vernacular architectural feature, the conical chimney. The interior of Pazu’s cottage is tight and simple; yet, Miyazaki illustrates a warmth in its atmosphere through the way he inhabits the space with used furniture and decor, evoking the audience to envision Pazu’s everyday life and interactions within the building.

The architectural language of the Valley of the Wind’s central castle (which houses Nausicaä and her family) in Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind is much more grand than Pazu’s house; however, the castle is no different in its portrayal of Miyazaki’s appreciation for natural and traditional patterns of living. In this film, Miyazaki takes inspiration from the rock-cut architecture of Cappadocia, Turkey, an ancient

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Figure 27 & 28 - Stills from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), Exterior and Interior Views of Pazu’s House

settlement created by carving out the natural terrain for shelter.3 The exterior and interior of the castle consequently comprises rock that seems to grow out of the natural landscape, uneven and textured in form to bring emphasis to its untouched nature. The interior space of the castle as seen by Nausicaä’s room also mimics the dark and narrow chambers of Cappadocia’s rock-cut shelter, inhabited with furniture carved out from natural rock in semi-circular shapes and filled with simple antique decor.

As demonstrated through Pazu’s house and the castle of the Valley of the Wind, Miyazaki communicates his appreciation of the natural and traditional patterns of living, a trait seen to be lost during postwar Japan’s expansive urbanization projects and their intensive use of technology during the Metabolist era. He conveys his attraction towards vernacular shelter and the ideas of localization and personalization through his attention towards the details in materiality and construction of Pazu’s house, portraying it with warmth and domestic comfort. The architecture of Nausicaä’s castle is a captivating choice considering how the film is set 1000 years after a destructive conflict between extremely technologically-advanced civilizations. Through the use of an ancient rock-cut architectural style, Miyazaki illustrates the beauty of shelter that incorporates and is one with the natural environment, a characteristic relating to the elements of traditional Japanese architecture. Essentially, the audience are presented with Miyazaki’s obsession with returning to the values of traditional and vernacular architectural styles, an approach which was replaced with mass-produced materials and ideas of modularity in the age of Metabolism.

3 Hayao Miyazaki and Terunobu Fujimori, “ジブリの建造物の世界へ [To the World of Ghibli’s Architecture]”, in ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), p. 159.

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Figure 29 & 30 - Stills from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984), Exterior and Interior Views of the Valley of the Wind’s Central Castle

Figure 31 - Diagram Exploring Pazu’s House

Laputa: Castle in the Sky Pazu’s House Concept Sketch of Pazu’s House Drawn by Hayao Miyazaki

INTERIOR SPACE:

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Figure 32 - Diagram Exploring the Central Castle of the Valley of the Wind

Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind Central Castle

Concept Sketch of the Castle Drawn by Hayao Miyazaki

INTERIOR SPACE:

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THE CONSEQUENCES OF ABUSING SUPERIOR TECHNOLOGIES

In his films, Miyazaki architecturally explores the themes of technology and destruction to implicitly criticize postwar Japan’s overconfident reality in their reliance on advanced technology, bringing warning towards the dangers that may result from abusing technologies that are beyond human control.

In the post-apocalyptic world of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, Miyazaki illustrates the destructive nature of the times when people used superior technologies to wipe out civilization. The opening credits of the film unfold the wartime annihilation which occurred 1000 years prior to the film’s storyline with a scenery of the man-made Giant Warriors tramping across a burning cityscape, reminiscent of postwar Kaijuu films such as Godzilla (1954). Whilst it is evident that through such scenery Miyazaki responds to the urban destruction of Japan and depicts his anti-war sentiment, he also conveys his criticism towards Japan’s intensive focus on technology. The technology to revive the Giant Warrior in the film echoes the massive, organic structures of Metabolist futuristic pavilions in its shape and scope, where the boundaries between human and machine are blurred through its biotic portrayal. Using the mutating megastructure, an ultimate source of destruction, Miyazaki takes the Metabolist attachment with ideas of technology and growth to its absolute extremes.

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Figures 33 & 34 - Stills from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) (Top) Giant Warriors walk over destroyed cities (Bottom) A Giant Warrior being revived with superior technology

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Figure 35 (Left) Concept sketch of a plagued village, drawn by Hayao Miyazaki Figure 36 (Right) Concept sketch of destroyed Pejite, drawn by Hayao Miyazaki

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Desolate Village

Figure 37 & 38 - Stills from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) (Top) External View of A Desolate Village, Infested by the Sea of Decay (Bottom) Interior View of a House in the Desolate Village

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Moreover, through illustrations of desolate cityscapes plagued with the Sea of Decay, Miyazaki conveys the consequences that may arise from the abusive use of superior technologies. The first scenes of the film depict an abandoned village, in which the toxic jungle has become one with its decaying buildings. Poisonous plants coat the exterior facades and interior spaces of each house, evoking a sense of doom in its overtaking of the life that once existed amongst the village. Later on in the film, Miyazaki reveals the annihilated cityscape of Pejite - once an industrial metropolis with fine artisans, the city is depicted with bleakness and despair as the omnipresent remains of mutant insects mark the tearing down it had endured. Within the film, it is explained that the destruction of each city was fundamentally induced by wartime violence in which the Giant Warriors, lethal manmade bioweapons, were abusively used between civilizations.

Consequently, through his numerous portrayals of desolate cityscapes throughout the film, Miyazaki constantly reminds the audience of the dangers in the egotistic exploitation of advanced technology.

Pejite

Figure 39 & 40 - Stills from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) (Top) View of the Remains of an Ohm Tearing Apart Pejiteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Buildings (Bottom) Remains of mutant insects lie around the city

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Figure 41 Still from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), External View of the Floating Castle

Figure 43 Still from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), Close-up Aerial View of the Floating Castle

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Figure 42 - Tower of Babel (1563)

by Pieter Bruegel

In Laputa: Castle in the Sky, Miyazaki manifests the castle, an ancient floating city, as one with extreme artificial superiority. The castle seems to have taken inspiration from the painting of the Tower of Babel (1563) by Pieter Bruegel, visible by its tapered form and arched openings tracing along its perimeter.4 Through such reference, the audience can instantly grasp onto Miyazaki’s intent to both visually and symbolically depict the castle as transcendent in nature. In the story, the castle itself is described to hold substantial technological advances in contrast with the industrial and agricultural lifestyles of the people on ground, which is conveyed through its invisible mechanics providing it with floating mobility. Through his portrayal of the castle, Miyazaki implicitly criticizes the architectural and urban reality of Japan in their egotistic use of technology. The mobility of the structure is very radical in its idea and execution, and is almost reminiscent of the growing megastructures in Metabolist projects. However, Miyazaki uses this physical detachment of the castle from ground level to place it out of human reach, asserting that the Metabolists’ intensive use of advanced technologies in pursuit of a utopian future is an unrealistic idea and beyond human control.

4 Hayao Miyazaki and Terunobu Fujimori, “ジブリの建造物の世界へ [To the World of Ghibli’s Architecture]”, in ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), p. 152.

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Figure 44 - Panoramic assembly of stills from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986) The military arrives on a desolate end of the castle

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In addition to its mobility, Miyazaki marks a surface of the floating city with ruins to highlight the destructive nature of its superior technology. He reveals the crumbling of a hidden end of the castle, exposing stacked layers of roughedged stone slabs and arched structural bones which are vacant and evoke a sense of gloom. Through the illustration of its collapsing surface, Miyazaki conveys the history of destruction the castle had once caused: the ruins, in its despairing portrayal, act as a print of how Laputaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advanced technology was far beyond human control when it was once dominated. Overall, Miyazaki uses the floating city in Laputa: Castle in the Sky to communicate the consequences of human greed and overconfidence in taking on technologies beyond our capabilities - responding to Japanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architectural over-confidence and aggressive use of technologies during the Metabolist era.

Figure 45 Concept sketch of the castle, drawn by Hayao Miyazaki

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UTOPIA: HARMONY BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY, PEOPLE, AND NATURE

Despite his evident portrayal of the destructive nature of technology, Miyazaki does not outright reject its possibilities; instead, he pursues a harmonious relationship between innovation, humanity, and the natural environment.

Whilst there exists significant technological advances in the world of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, the Valley of the Wind is portrayed to humbly utilize technology for its people to reside with nature, rather than combatting natural forces.

Along Nausicaä’s journey across the countryside returning to her village in the earlier scenes of the film, Miyazaki reveals various wind turbines in unique forms integrated with the natural environment. The audience are then presented with a panoramic view of the village as Nausicaä reaches the Valley of the Wind, which is picturesque in its portrayal of grand windmill houses darting across the valley’s vast landscape.

As the Valley of the Wind is a place exposed to strong wind blowing from the adjacent sea, Miyazaki illustrates its inhabitants to live in tandem with this wind. His approach in shaping the architecture of the valley and its surrounding landscape with environmental priority communicates how Miyazaki advocates for the humble use of technology to better humankind and the environment. He responds to the failed reality of Metabolists’ over-confident expectations of using advanced technology to improve society, which was unsuccessful in the way it overlooked sustainability.

Miyazaki’s focus on the harmony between nature, people, and technology is also demonstrated by Nausicaä’s secret indoor garden. Here, Nausicaä harnesses the poisonous plants through the use of a controlled irrigation system with clean water and soil, pursuing the future possibility to reside with the vast toxic jungle. Through Nausicaä’s garden, Miyazaki evokes a utopian vision by reaching out to the traditional Japanese affinity towards transiency and growth; he brings nature into the domestic realm and integrates it with the space, establishing an intimate relationship with human and nature. Ultimately, Miyazaki highlights the possibilities of technology in reviving and reimagining traditional Japanese ideologies linking architecture and nature, an idea that was ignored during the Metabolist era.

Figure 50 Concept sketch of the mechanics of the windmills, drawn by Hayao Miyazaki

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Figure 46 & 47 - Stills from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) Wind Turbines Outside the Valley of the wind

Figure 48 & 49 - Stills from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) Windmill Houses of the Valley of the Wind

Figure 51 - Still from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984), View of Nausicaä’s Secret Indoor Garden

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INCREASING INTENSITY OF NATURE

1. EXTERIOR SPACE & BUILDING FACADE

2. IMMEDIATE INTERIOR SPACE

2. CORE OF THE CASTLE

Figures 53~58 - Stills from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986)

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Figure 52 - Aerial View of the Castle, Marking its layout from the exterior space to its core

INCREASING INTENSITY OF NATURE

In Laputa: Castle in the Sky, Miyazaki manifests the architectural language of the castle to portray the floating megastructure as a beautiful utopia where nature and technology reside in peace in the absence of human violence. The entire city is built around a grand central tree, encompassed with layers of European-style architecture circled by gardens, fields, and lakes. Whilst the audience can instantly grasp onto the castle’s intimate relationship with nature through such external appearance, Miyazaki gradually reveals an increasing intensity in this intertwining of nature with the megastructure as the film’s characters approach closer towards the heart of the city.5 When Pazu and Sheeta first land on the edge of the city, they are met with views of vast gardens as well as greenery tracing along the facade of its buildings. Subsequently, as the two enter the castle, Miyazaki uncovers a temperate forest enclosed by floor-to-ceiling glass screens, which he uses to blur the confines of the interior space with its neighbouring boundless sky. In the ending scenes of the film, the audience is presented with a view of the heart of the castle - a room 5 Anthony Lioi, “The City Ascends: Laputa: Castle In The Sky As Critical Ecotopia”, Imagetext: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies, 5.2 (2010) <http://imagetext. english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v5_2/lioi/> [Accessed 27 March 2020].

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Figure 59 - Diagrammatic Analysis of an Initial Concept of the Castle

Top of Castle (Temple): Inspiration from Turkish Mosques Characterized by domes and minarets - creating overwhelming size, majesty, splendor.

Third Layer (Edenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Garden): Inspiration from ancient Roman Gardens

(Left) Sultan Ahmed Mosque Istanbul, Turkey (Right) Hagia Sophia Istanbul, Turkey

Hadrian's Villa Tivoli, Italy

Pools, baths, fountains, ancient Greek and Roman architecture in combination with gardened landscapes and wilderness

DEFENSIVE ARCHITECTURE Overall assemply resembles the architecture of concentric castles in medieval fortification Architectural language is an active style of defence - utopia is protected (Left) Aerial View of Caerphilly Castle, South Wales (Right) Ground View of Caerphilly Castle

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completely encompassed by nature, as tall plants cover its floor and entangled roots wrap around the surrounding walls as well as the central volucite crystal (the technology that controls the castle). Ultimately, through an increasing intensity in the relationship between nature and the castle as one approaches its core, Miyazaki presents an experience reverse of the common urban transition from countryside to metropolis.

In addition to an intertwining relationship with nature, Miyazaki incorporates religious architectural references to reach out to the Japanese association of nature with spirituality, consequently heightening the castle’s image as an ultimate utopia. His initial concept art illustrates the layering of religious and sacred architectural elements inspired by Turkish Mosques and ancient Roman gardens, which convey his intentions to visually manifest the castle as a divine entity.

Moreover, through a picturesque integration of nature and religious references with the floating megastructure, Miyazaki presents a perfect utopia in which nature and technology reside in undisrupted harmony.

Temple Temple

First First Layer Layer -- The The Sacred Sacred World World of of God God Second Second Layer Layer -- The The World World of of the the Knights Knights

Third Third Layer Layer -- Eden’s Eden’s Garden Garden

Fourth Fourth Layer Layer -- The The Common Common People People

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CRITICAL COMPARISON OF THE TWO FILMS nd Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986)

Whilst Miyazaki’s fundamental ideologies are evident through analysing Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Laputa: Castle in the Sky, it is important to identify the subtle differences in his intellectual trajectory across the two films.

For instance, Miyazaki’s approach towards the theme of technology slightly differs between Laputa’s castle and Nausicaä’s interactions with innovations. In Laputa: Castle in the Sky, Miyazaki asserts the benevolence of technology in the absence of human interference through the peaceful portrayal of the floating city. Meanwhile, in Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, he communicates the benevolence of technology when approached with attentiveness in human interaction. Despite his evident affinity with craftsmanship and vernacular modes of living, Miyazaki does not outright reject technology; instead, he shows a concern for the manner in which humankind interacts with it.

Miyazaki exhibits a similar approach with his notions of nature across the two films. In Laputa: Castle in the Sky, images of nature are used to construct the castle as an ultimate utopia, in which its purity coexists with superior intelligence in the absence of humankind.

On the other hand, in Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, where nature is primarily portrayed through the poisonous Sea of Decay, Miyazaki calls for humankind to find a balance with the natural world in a sustainable manner through Nausicaä’s interactions with the toxic jungle.

Seemingly, Miyazaki’s altering intellectual trajectories between the two films are recognizable through his disparate depictions of human interaction with technology and nature.

Whilst the narrative of Laputa: Castle in the Sky runs on the distinct basis of the depravity of human ethos, Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind challenges ideas of human greed and violence by providing an opportunity for the audience to consider how humankind can possibly interact with technology and nature.

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Figure 60 Still from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), Robot in the castle coexist with nature

Figure 61 Still from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984), Nausicaa uses her technologically-advanced glider

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Figure 62 GC Prostho Museum Research Center (2010)

by Kengo Kuma & Associates

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PART III HAYAO MIYAZAKI AND CONTEMPORARY JAPAN

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MIYAZAKI’S VISION AND CONTEMPORARY JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE

Through the architectural and urban representation in his films, Hayao Miyazaki asserts his dissatisfaction towards the rapidly modernizing reality of postwar Japan. His observation of the effects of an unprecedented advancement in technology and the nation’s increasing disconnection from nature urged his films to work against the separation of human and nature, returning to a more primitive and vernacular connection between people and the built environment. He prompts his audience to reimagine the possibilities of artificial intelligence, exploring humble approaches in its use and reviving traditional ideologies that could be applied to new technologies in the contemporary era. Overall, through his utopian visions, Miyazaki conveys his stance on the use of technology - for the betterment of humankind in their relationship with the environment.

Miyazaki’s architectural visions are unique in the way they resonate with the ideologies of many Japanese contemporary architects, despite being demonstrated in the era immediately following the settling of Metabolism and during the midst of Japan’s thriving economic bubble.

His mutual sentiment with current Japanese architects can be observed through examining the intellectual trajectory of Kengo Kuma, a globally acclaimed Japanese architect and one of the most significant figures in Japan’s contemporary architectural world. Recently completing Japan’s National Stadium for the upcoming Tokyo Olympics, Kengo Kuma represents both the current and future state of Japan’s architecture: through a forward-thinking approach combining tradition with innovation, he addresses the need for sensitive, sustainable designs.

His outlook towards creating a symbiotic relationship between tradition, the built environment, and nature can be seen through his design of the SunnyHills cake shop in Tokyo, Japan.

The SunnyHills cake shop, completed in 2013, is located in an urban residential area behind a busy shopping district in Tokyo. Assembled with the help of local Japanese craftsmen, Kuma employs a traditional technique used in Japanese wooden architecture called “JigokuGumi” whilst modifying its artistry with a contemporary twist. He uses an unconventional angle of the lattice, assembling the pieces with 30 degrees in 3 dimensions rather than the conventional 90 degrees in 2 dimensions to achieve a cloud-like volume, establishing visual lightness and evoking the sense of a forest within an urban setting.1 The assembly of wood creates a permeable facade, allowing an intimate relationship between its interior space and the outside. As a result, the interior spaces are naturally illuminated with a sense of transiency as the quality of light changes throughout the day, year, and under different weather conditions.

Overall, through a crossbreed of traditional craft with new technologies, Kuma develops a statement-making design that establishes a harmonic relationship between nature and the surrounding environment.

Parallels in Kengo Kuma and Hayao Miyazaki’s ideologies are instantly apparent through solely examining the design of SunnyHills. Both individuals assert the importance of using locally-sourced, natural materials and the art of craftsmanship. “Architecture should go

1 Emilia Margaretha, “Bamboo Basket: Shop By Kengo Kuma”, DETAIL, 2014 <https://www.detail-online.com/article/bamboo-basket-shop-by-kengo-kuma-16760/> [Accessed 10 April 2020].

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Figure 63 - Diagrammatic Explanation of Wood Assembly

Figures 64~66 - Images of SunnyHills (2013) by Kengo Kuma (Top Left) Detailed View of Wood Craft, (Top Right) External View of Building, (Bottom) Internal View of Building

back to fabrication, to using real materials, to using the hand,”2 stated Kuma in an interview, responding to the increasingly dissonant effects of Japan’s modernization. Additionally, their works exhibit a focus on the simple aspects of human interactions with nature and the built environment, whilst Miyazaki’s imaginative architectural representations are comparable with Kuma’s statement-making designs which neither fade into or overpower its surroundings. Most importantly, they both manage to find an innovative junction between traditional elements and contemporary design. In Kengo Kuma’s case, like many other contemporary Japanese architects, his initial awareness towards the importance of nature derived after the burst of the economic bubble, during Japan’s search for architectural solutions that meet with its sobered world. However, the contemporary realization to pursue approaches involving humbleness and meeting tradition with innovation was acquired after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear disaster:

“The problem of twentieth century society was the arrogance of designers and engineers [...] Every architect and engineer thought that architecture was much stronger than nature.

After the tsunami, we finally found that we were weak in front of the power of nature.”3 2 Nikil Saval, “Kengo Kuma’s Architecture Of The Future”, New York Times Style Magazine, 2018 <https://www.nytimes. com/2018/02/15/t-magazine/kengo-kuma-architect.html> [Accessed 10 April 2020].

3 James Pallister, “”The Criteria For Architecture Is Humbleness,” Says Kengo Kuma”, Dezeen, 2020 <https://www.dezeen. com/2014/03/11/kengo-kuma-interview-architecture-after-2011-japan-tsunami/> [Accessed 28 February 2020].

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Figure 67 Takasugi-an (2003-4)

by Terunobu Fujimori

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On the other hand, Hayao Miyazaki conveyed his direct critique and response towards the architectural and urban reality of Japan whilst being in the midst of its national high; he picked up the increasing dissonance that was overlooked by many, as the Japanese were completely absorbed by its unhinged wealth and new technologies. It is almost as if, through the representations in his films, he assisted the realization and development of contemporary architectural ideologies by presenting utopian images of what the world could be.

Japanese architect Terunobu Fujimori shares his acknowledgement towards this idea.

Known for his eccentric approach in reinterpreting vernacular and traditional techniques, Fujimori’s works have been compared with Miyazaki’s architectural visions on many occasions.

His iconic interpretations of traditional Japanese tea houses, such as Takasugi-an (2003-4), a small tea house above two chestnut trees, are reminiscent of the imaginative architecture Miyazaki presents in his films. His future proposal outlining an environmental approach in surviving post-apocalyptic Japan, Tokyo Plan 2101 (2002), has visual and philosophical similarities with the world in Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind. In response to the landscapes in Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, Fujimori himself comments on how intriguing he finds the way Miyazaki’s vision of the future world somehow evokes a primitive scenery. 4

Figure 68 - Still from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984 ), Aerial View of the Valley of the Wind

Figure 69 - Tokyo Plan 2101 (2002)

by Terunobu Fujimori

Fujimori grew up in the same generation as Miyazaki, and has thus experienced the future dreams of technology as a child along with its more recent let-downs. With the inability of technology to provide dreams to children and young adults in the current world, Fujimori asserts that there is a need for a driving force to make mankind work towards a future in which people do not over-rely on technology, and instead find a harmonious balance between technology, nature, and humankind.5 In his opinion, Miyazaki’s films play an important role in developing this incentive:

“When I look at reality, it is full of despair. We cannot illustrate a specific image of the future and present it; however, I believe we can at least make people feel some kind of hope. I believe that at the core of Miyazaki’s film production process is a desire to provide people with possibilities of a utopian future, to conjure this sentiment of hope.”6

4 Terunobu Fujimori, “建築史家・建築家から見たジブリの建造物 [Ghibli’s Architecture From The Perspective Of An Architect and Architectural Historian]”, in ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), pp. 26-8.

5 Ibid., p. 28.

6 Ibid., p. 28. Text Originally in Japanese, Translated by Author.

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Figure 70 Film & architectural representation is a medium that connects Miyazakiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s visions and fantasies with reality, whilst also influencing how people perceive utopian fantasy vs. reality

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CONCLUSION

Through his films Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) and Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), Hayao Miyazaki illustrates his critical response to postwar Japan’s architectural and urban reality, implicitly conveying his dissatisfaction with the dissonant effects of technology and the nation’s increasing disconnection from nature. He warns of the dangers that may arise from abusing technologies beyond our control, whilst emphasizing his appreciation for vernacular elements and the art of craftsmanship, as well as his pursuit of a harmony between technology, nature, and humankind. Overall, Miyazaki’s nostalgic vision of the world Japan has lost through its modernization is striking in its utopian portrayal, capable of instantly captivating his audience’s hearts.

Miyazaki’s sentiment is evidently shared with many contemporary architects in Japan, who have more recently come to realize the importance of embracing traditional elements with innovation as well as negotiating with the surrounding environment, considering how Japan’s unstable environment hinders the successful execution of Metabolist proposals. It is without a doubt that to a certain extent, Miyazaki’s utopian representations have left its mark on contemporary Japan in fuelling the national pursuit of imaginative solutions during an era where hope was lacking. His efforts to present hopeful images of what the future could look like is significant in the way it shifted how the Japanese perceived a utopia, different to that of the technology-centered vision emanated

by Metabolist fantasies, and inspired many to adopt approaches similar to Miyazaki’s to combat contemporary issues. Despite having been released in the late 20th century, Hayao Miyazaki’s visions in Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Laputa: Castle in the Sky have proven to be timeless in the way their ideologies still hold significance to this day - and it may be fair to say that Miyazaki’s thinking was ahead of his time.

Whilst it is nearly impossible to predict the future, Hayao Miyazaki’s illustrated visions of what the world could be have truly conveyed the power of film and representation by rekindling hope across the Japanese nation and in turn, bridging an architectural fantasy with contemporary reality.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY & LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1

Ackermann, Peter, “The Four Seasons: One Of Japanese Culture’s Most Central Concepts”, in Japanese Images Of Nature: Cultural Perspectives (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), p. 49

2

Asquith, Pamela J, and Kalland, Arne, “Japanese Perceptions of Nature: Ideals and Illusions”, in Japanese Images Of Nature: Cultural Perspectives (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), pp.

2-3, 10

3

Atkins, E. Taylor, A History Of Popular Culture In Japan. From The Seventeenth Century To The Present (London: Bloomsbury Publishing Ltd, 2017), pp. 195-6

4

Bognar, Botond, “What Goes Up, Must Come Down”, Harvard Design Magazine, 1997 <http:// www.harvarddesignmagazine.org/issues/3/what-goes-up-must-come-down> [Accessed 27 February 2020]

5

Brenner, Robin E, Understanding Manga And Anime (Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited, 2007), p. 2

6

Colligan-Taylor, Karen, The Emergence Of Environmental Literature In Japan (New York: Garland, 1990), p. 9

7

Fujimori, Terunobu, “建築史家・建築家から見たジブリの建造物 [Ghibli’s Architecture From The Perspective Of An Architect and Architectural Historian]”, in ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), pp. 26-8

8

Greene, Meg, The Technology Of Ancient Japan, 1st edn (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2006), p. 4

9

LaMarre, Thomas, The Anime Machine: A Media Theory Of Animation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), p. 8

10

Lin, Zhongjie, Kenzo Tange And The Metabolist Movement (London: Routledge, 2010), pp.

22-4

11

Lioi, Anthony, “The City Ascends: Laputa: Castle In The Sky As Critical Ecotopia”, Imagetext: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies, 5.2 (2010) <http://imagetext.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v5_2/lioi/> [Accessed 27 March 2020].

12

Locher, Mira, Traditional Japanese Architecture: An Exploration Of Elements And Forms (New York: Tuttle Publishing, 2012), pp. 17, 21

13

Macwilliams, Mark Wheeler, Japanese Visual Culture: Explorations In The World Of Manga And Anime (New York: Routledge, 2008), p. 10

14

Margaretha, Emilia, “Bamboo Basket: Shop By Kengo Kuma”, DETAIL, 2014 <https://www.detail-online.com/article/bamboo-basket-shop-by-kengo-kuma-16760/> [Accessed 10 April 2020]

15

Miyazaki, Hayao, Cary, Beth, and Schodt, Frederik L, Starting Point 1979-1996 (San Francisco, California: VIZ Media, 1996), p. 253.

16

Miyazaki, Hayao, and Fujimori, Terunobu, “ジブリの建造物の世界へ [To the World of Ghibli’s Architecture]”, in ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), pp. 148-163.

17

Morris, Tom, “Understanding Japan’s Unique ‘Scrap And Build’ Design Culture”, CNN Style, 2017 <https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/how-japan-makes-houses/index.html> [Accessed 27 February 2020]

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18

Napier, Susan J, Anime From Akira To Howl’s Moving Castle (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 11

19

Pallister, James, “”The Criteria For Architecture Is Humbleness,” Says Kengo Kuma”, Dezeen, 2020 <https://www.dezeen.com/2014/03/11/kengo-kuma-interview-architecture-after-2011-japan-tsunami/> [Accessed 28 February 2020]

20

Rose, Steve, “’A Full English Every Morning’: How UK Food And Weather Inspires Japanese Anime Directors”, The Guardian, 2018 <https://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/may/04/hiromasa-yonebayashi-interview-studio-ghibli-mary-and-the-witchs-flower> [Accessed 3 April 2020].

21

Saha, Arunoday, “Culture And The Development Of Technology In Japan”, Technology In Society, 16 (1994), 225-241 <https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-791x(94)90030-2>

22

Saval, Nikil, “Kengo Kuma’s Architecture Of The Future”, New York Times Style Magazine, 2018 <https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/15/t-magazine/kengo-kuma-architect.html> [Accessed 10 April 2020]

23

Saval, Nikil, “Shigeru Ban”, T: The New York Times Style Magazine, The Greats 2019 <https:// www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/10/15/t-magazine/the-greats.html> [Accessed 28 February 2020]

24

Shirane, Haruo, Japan And The Culture Of The Four Seasons (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013), xi

25

Steele, James, Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tracing The Next Generation, 1st edn (London: Routledge, 2017), pp. 45-46

26

Tamari, Tomoko, “Metabolism: Utopian Urbanism And The Japanese Modern Architecture Movement”, Theory, Culture & Society, 31 (2014), 206, 216 <https://doi. org/10.1177/0263276414547777>

27

Tsutsui, William M, “Oh No, There Goes Tokyo”, in Noir Urbanisms: Dystopic Images Of The Modern City (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), pp. 113-4

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Cover Image - Created by Author; Collaged using stills from: Laputa: Castle in the Sky., (1986). [Online].

Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 1 - Conceptual Sketch for Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), illustrated by Hayao Miyazaki.

Available from <https://www.iamag.co/castle-in-the-sky-100-concept-art-collection/> [accessed 16 April 2020] Figure 2 - Image of the Nakagin Capsule Tower (1972) By Kisho Kurokawa. Available from <https:// www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/572590540100247117/> [accessed 20 March 2020] Figure 3 - Ukiyo-e painting by Utagawa Hiroshige, Mount Fuji in the Morning from Hara (c.1833-4).

Available from <https://ja.ukiyo-e.org/image/met/DP122187> [accessed 20 March 2020] Figure 4 - Still from: Howlâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Moving Castle., (2004). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 5 & 6 - Diagrams by Author Figure 7 - Image of the interior of a traditional Japanese house. Available from <https://co.pinterest. com/pin/322218548320850077/> [accessed 21 March 2020] Figure 8 - Image of the exterior of a traditional Japanese house. Available from <https://nl.pinterest. com/pin/353884483194970886/> [accessed 21 March 2020] Figures 9~11 - Stills from: Kimi No Na Wa., (2016). [Online]. Directed by Makoto Shinkai. Tokyo: CoMix Wave Films Figure 12 - Image of the Nakagin Capsule Tower (1972) by Kisho Kurokawa. Available from <https:// www.archdaily.com/110745/ad-classics-nakagin-capsule-tower-kisho-kurokawa> [accessed 22 March 2020] Figure 13 - Image of Plan for Tokyo Bay (1960) by Kenzo Tange. Available from <https://archeyes.com/ plan-tokyo-1960-kenzo-tange/> [accessed 22 March 2020] Figure 14 - Still from Astro Boy (1963), a television series directed by Osamu Tezuka. Available from <https://animemotivation.com/how-anime-has-evolved/> [accessed 22 March 2020] Figures 15 & 16 - Stills from: Akira., (1988). [Online]. Directed by Katsuhiro Otomo. Tokyo: Tokyo Movie Shinsha.

Figure 17 - Still from Godzilla (1954), directed by Ishiro Honda. Available from <https://medium.com/@ jeffreycuevas/meaning-behind-the-madness-ad49e74dcc37> [accessed 22 March 2020] Figure 18 - Still from Ultra Man (1966), a television series created by Eiji Tsuburaya. Available from <https://busy.org/@covals/ultraman-reliving-our-childhood> [accessed 22 March 2020] Figure 19 - Advertisement poster of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984). Available from <https:// blockpunk.net/en/merchpunk/143286> [accessed 24 March 2020] Figure 20 - Advertisement poster of Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986). Available from <https://www.imdb. com/title/tt0092067/mediaviewer/rm3210049536> [accessed 24 March 2020] Figure 21 - Diagram by Author

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Figure 22 & 23 - Historic Images of Rhondda Valley. Available from <https://www.walesonline.co.uk/ news/wales-news/gallery/images-rhondda-collieries-through-time-5752195> [accessed 25 March 2020] Figure 24 - Still from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), External view of Pazu’s workplace. Laputa: Castle in the Sky., (1986). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 25 - Stills from the early scenes in Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), from top to bottom: 8:38, 8:42, 9:00, 9:02, 9:22, 9:28. Laputa: Castle in the Sky., (1986). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki.

Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 26 - Concept sketch of Pazu’s workplace, drawn by Hayao Miyazaki. Miyazaki, H., [no date] [pencil and watercolour]. In: ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), p. 149.

Figure 27 & 28 - Stills from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), Exterior and interior views of Pazu’s house.

Laputa: Castle in the Sky., (1986). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 29 & 30 - Stills from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984), Exterior and Interior Views of the Valley of the Wind’s Central Castle. Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind., (1984). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 31- Diagram by Author. Images Included:

Concept Sketch of Pazu’s House by Hayao Miyazaki. Miyazaki, H., [no date] [pencil and wa

tercolour]. In: ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (To

kyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), p. 150.

Conical Chimney. Available from <https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/2677986> [accessed 26

March 2020]

Extension to an old farmstead. Available from <https://www.tywicentre.org.uk/media/1050/ty

wileaflet1-eng-final.pdf> [accessed 26 March 2020]

Still from: Laputa: Castle in the Sky., (1986). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo:

Studio Ghibli.

Concept Sketch of Interior Space. Available from <https://www.iamag.co/castle-in-the-sky-100 concept-art-collection/> [accessed 26 March 2020]

Figure 32 - Diagram by Author. Images Included:

Concept Sketch of Central Castle by Hayao Miyazaki. Miyazaki, H., [no date] [pencil and

watercolour]. In: ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition]

(Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), p. 158.

Rock-cut Architecture. Available from <https://www.thelongestwayhome.com/blog/turkey/

rock-formations-cave-houses-in-cappadocia-turkey-photograph/> [accessed 26 March 2020]

Interior of Rock-cut Architecture 1. Available from <https://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/cool

est-cave-rooms-cappadocia/story?id=29619358> [accessed 26 March 2020]

Interior of Rock-cut Architecture 2. Available from <https://www.ancient-origins.net/an

cient-places-europe/incredible-rock-houses-and-underground-cities-cappadocia-001394> [ac

cessed 26 March 2020] Figures 33 & 34 - Stills from: Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind., (1984). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 35 - Concept sketch of a plagued village, drawn by Hayao Miyazaki. Miyazaki, H., [no date] [pencil and watercolour]. In: ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), p. 161.

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Figure 36 - Concept sketch of destroyed Pejite, drawn by Hayao Miyazaki. Miyazaki, H., [no date] [pencil and watercolour]. In: ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), p. 162.

Figures 37~40 - Stills from: Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind., (1984). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 41 - Still from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), External View of the Floating Castle. Laputa: Castle in the Sky., (1986). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 42 - Tower of Babel (1563) by Pieter Bruegel. Available from <https://www.pinterest.co.uk/ pin/336925615869991590/> [accessed 27 March 2020] Figure 43 - Still from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), Close-up Aerial View of the Floating Castle.

Laputa: Castle in the Sky., (1986). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 44 - Panoramic assembly of stills from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986). Available from: Miyazaki, H., [no date]. In: ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), p. 156.

Figure 45 - Concept sketch of the castle, drawn by Hayao Miyazaki. Available from <https://www.iamag. co/castle-in-the-sky-100-concept-art-collection/> [accessed 27 March 2020] Figures 46~49 - Stills from: Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind., (1984). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 50 - Concept sketch of the mechanics of the windmills, drawn by Hayao Miyazaki. Miyazaki, H., [no date] [pencil and watercolour]. In: ジブリの立体建造物展 [Ghibli’s Three-Dimensional Structures Exhibition] (Tokyo: Studio Ghibli, 2014), p. 158.

Figure 51 - Still from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984), View of Nausicaä’s Secret Indoor Garden. Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind., (1984). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 52 - Diagram by Author, Overlayed on a still from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986).

Figures 53~58 - Stills from: Laputa: Castle in the Sky., (1986). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki.

Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 59 - Diagram by Author, Images Included:

Initial conceptual sketch of the castle by Hayao Miyazaki. Available from <https://www.iamag.co/

castle-in-the-sky-100-concept-art-collection/> [accessed 28 March 2020]

Sultan Ahmed Mosque. Available from <http://www.peraair.com/blue-mosque-mosque-of-sutan ahmet> [accessed 28 March 2020]

Hagia Sophia. Available from <https://www.thedailybeast.com/hagia-sophia-archaeologists uncover-more-secrets-at-ancient-worlds-largest-christian-cathedral> [accessed 28 March 2020]

Hadrian’s Villa. Available from <http://www.stefanorometours.com/blog/tag/villa-adriana/>

[accessed 28 March 2020]

Aerial View of Caerphilly Castle. Available from <https://twitter.com/benwalkestatus/105285602

2673453057> [accessed 28 March 2020]

Ground View of Caerphilly Castle. Available from <https://www.business-live.co.uk/economic development/multi-million-pound-funding-boost-16902311> [accessed 28 March]

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Figure 60 - Still from: Laputa: Castle in the Sky., (1986). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 61 - Still from: Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind., (1984). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki.

Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 62 - GC Prostho Museum Research Center (2010) by Kengo Kuma & Associates. Available from <https://www.archdaily.com/199442/gc-prostho-museum-research-center-kengo-kuma-associates> [accessed 30 March] Figure 63 - Diagrammatic Explanation of Wood Assembly for SunnyHills (2013) by Kengo Kuma.

Available from <https://www.archdaily.com/484981/sunnyhills-at-minami-aoyama-kengo-kuma-andassociates> [accessed 30 March] Figure 64 - Detailed View of Wood Craft for SunnyHills (2013) by Kengo Kuma. Available from <https:// www.flickr.com/photos/kenlee2010/12344236014> [accessed 30 March] Figure 65 - External View of SunnyHills (2013) by Kengo Kuma. Available from <https://covetedition. com/projects/discover-incredible-sunny-hills-project-kengo-kuma/> [accessed 30 March] Figure 66 - Internal View of SunnyHills (2013) by Kengo Kuma. Available from <https://www.detailonline.com/article/bamboo-basket-shop-by-kengo-kuma-16760/> [accessed 30 March] Figure 67 - Takasugi-an (2003-4) by Terunobu Fujimori. Available from <https://www.flickr.com/photos/ wakiiii/3858868325> [accessed 30 March] Figure 68 - Still from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984), Aerial View of the Valley of the Wind.

Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind., (1984). [Online]. Directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Tokyo: Studio Ghibli.

Figure 69 - Tokyo Plan 2101 (2002) by Terunobu Fujimori. Available from <https://www.operacity.jp/ag/ exh82/e/exhibition/02.html> [accessed 30 March] Figure 70 - Diagram by Author

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