Productive projects for building peace in Colombia

PRODUCTIVE PROJECTS FOR BUILDING PEACE IN COLOMBIA

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PRODUCTIVE PROJECTS FOR BUILDING PEACE IN COLOMBIA THESIS PROJECT JULIANA SARMIENTO RELATORE: MATTEO ROBIGLIO CORRELATRICE: ELENA MONTACCHINI POLITECNICO DI TORINO MASTER COURSE ARCHITECTURE FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DESIGN A.A. 2016-2017

INDEX

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00 The region of Latin America

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01 What about Colombia?

1.1 Political Project: What has been happening in Colombia?

1.2 The peace agreement with FARC 1.3 Social Project: The profile of a guerilla 1.4 Economic Project: Back to the legal economy

17 22 26 29

40 48

72 72 85 96 102

02 Architecture of transition 2.1 The Temporary Normalization Zone: ‘Mesetas’ case study 03 Cocoa as a productive project 3.1 The product 3.2 Spatial features for a cocoa production 3.3 Potential use 3.4 Cocoa in the territory of Meta

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04 A possible scenario

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0 5 Bibliography

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Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

Within the double degree program with the Politecnico di Torino and the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana in Bogotรก, this paper is done as a thesis proposal for the master program of Architecture for Sustainable Projects, introducing the need of reflection on one of the most relevant issues in Latin America: the future of the Colombian internal armed conflict within the framework of the transformation of the territory and the strategies for a sustainable development to understand, not only the objectives of the regional scale, but also to study the local events that require a specific analysis.

The speech is aimed with a first part that introduces the political, social and economic context of the region and the country. Afterwards, it is described the case of the Territorial Space of Training and Reincorporation of the FARC in Mesetas in order to study an specific territory that has the option to adopt a productive project . The cocoa case was chosen so it could be proposed a possible scenario of transformation and the sustainable approach of this problem through an architectural and territorial review.

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Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

Due to the uncertainty of political changes, economic instability, social volatility and environmental needs, the challenges toward an intervention on the Latin American context regarding the next decades targets a sustainable and appropriate approach that is referred to the limits, potential and possibilities of the region. The generic sustainable speech rationally aims and prioritizes the globally favorable long-term solutions over short-term individual gains, looks toward a redefinition of quality of life and questions values that are often culturally determined, that are why definitions of sustainability remain open to interpretation on the unique speech that Latin America has.

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the region of LATIN AMERICA

Latin America and the Caribbean is made up of 41 very diverse countries, some middle-income countries such as Mexico and Chile, and less developed countries such as Haiti; Small island states to vast territories such as Brazil and Argentina. In this context, the main challenges for sustainable development vary, but there are important points in common. Despite favorable economic development, 31% of the region’s population lives in poverty. Income disparities in Latin America are greater than in any other part of the world, expressing themselves in access and quality of health, education and basic services such as electricity and drinking water.

The region’s ecosystems are of global importance, including five of the ten most biodiverse countries on the planet (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru), as well as the most biologically diverse area in the world: the eastern slope of The Andes. However, this wealth is in serious danger, as these five countries are also among the group of 15 states whose fauna is most endangered.

The region is also rich in cultural and linguistic diversity: over 650 indigenous peoples speak more than 600 languages. This diversity is a source of creativity, growth and human development, but can also lead to enormous social tensions, exclusion and discrimination. The problems of global climate change and threats to biodiversity have been greatly aggravated by the lack of protection of tropical forests. This makes the region even more vulnerable to extreme weather events such as cyclones, floods and droughts, especially the small islands in the Caribbean, which are even more threatened by sea level rise.1 1 UNESCO Desafíos para la sostenibilidad de América y el Caribe (Challenges for sustainability in Latin America and the Caribbean).

Source: www.unesco.org/new/es/santiago/education/education-for-sustainable-development/challenges-for-sustainability-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbean

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Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

The countries of Latin America and the Caribbean are going through a historic moment, with socioeconomic, political stability and international leadership. In the region there are also consensus and shared points, despite the diversity of looks and emphasis. One of them is fundamental: the region understands that the agenda for tomorrow’s sustainable development implies a paradigm shift, structural change that places equality and environmental sustainability at the center. And is promoted by that development with a single, universal, irreversible agenda of sustainable with equality.The regional agenda propose to grow with less structural heterogeneity and more productive development, and equalize by empowering human capacities and mobilizing energies from the state.

The proposal also includes remedying the tremendous spatial disparities through more integrated societies around productive dynamics, with positive social and territorial synergies; the support of people by improving labor markets, transfers and the management of public policies. It is also included the protection of the environment, in solidarity with the future generations, which will live in a more uncertain scenario, the result of climate change and a greater shortage of natural resources. In short, it is aim to grow to equal and equal to grow. On the horizon long-term strategic vision, equality, economic growth and environmental sustainability have to build a unique speech.2 This paper is done as a need of reflection on one of the most relevant issues of Latin America: The future of the Colombian internal armed conflict within the framework of the transformation of the territory and the strategies for a sustainable development. As it is said, it is necessary to understand not only the regional scale aims, but also study the local events that require a specific analysis. The sustainable approach of this problem is intended to be argued through an Architectural and Territorial review.

the internal decisions and priorities can be solved a reach, not only the regional claim, but also the international goals, including Latin America as an important as an integral part of the engine of growth and innovation of the global economy.

Sustainability is not an academic pursuit or a professional activity; it is a way of life affecting everything an individual does. Therefore the approach that sustainable architecture does, puts into practice and encourage a sustainable way of life: design and built to contribute positively to the sustainability agenda, achieve economically strong, socially inclusive, stable communities while minimizing the impact on the environment associated with their construction, their life in use and at the end of their life, persuing a small ecological footprint, a positive and appropriate contribution to the social environment, addressing people’s practical needs while enhancing their surrounding environment, psychological and physical well-being.

The concept of sustainability is a product of perceiving a world with limited resources and waste absorption capacity, where each action implies future consequences. This leads to conceive the construction of a building as an act that does not begin with the arrival of the material to the workplace and does not end with the entrance of the users. Build is a close cycle that includes from the fabrication of the material up to its reuse and do not accept the concept of residue: the maintenance and the disassembly are also project. The greatest enemy of sustainability is the ecological aesthetic, conservationist, nostalgic of a rural past, of magic reasons, toward a situation in which everything that is not applicable and easily to transmit does not represent a solution. The use must find cracks in architecture; the form must be build attentive to changes. The meaning lies on those overlaps and contiguity that the project is required to allow by using soft strategies of composition.3

Addressing sustainability into this context also requires the formulation of the proper approach to each country, being mandatory to consider the exceptions and singularities of the continent in order to develop a complete strategy for each part that follows the intentions of the regional discourse. The diverse cases demand on the sustainable aim a flexible and personalized path so 2 United Nations. Desarrollo sostenible en américa latina y el caribe: seguimiento de la agenda de las Naciones Unidas para el desarrollo post-2015 y Río+20.

3 Gausa, Manuel (2001). Diccionario Metápolis de la arquitectura avanzada, ACTAR, Barcelona.

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Figure 01 Colombian context in Latin America Done by the author

Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

01

WHAT ABOUT COLOMBIA ?

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Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

Colombia is located on the South American continent, in the northwestern region. It limits with Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, Peru and Brazil. Its surface is 2,070,408 km² with 46’300.000 inhabitants.

The official language is Spanish and also has 65 languages of indigenous origin. The Colombian territory has a great variety of natural resources due to its topographic diversity, is a country privileged for its natural wealth, for the variety and beauty of its geography and for the diversity of its ecosystems: It has two oceans: the Atlantic and Pacific, which total more than 2,900 kilometers of coastline and on which there are a number of beautiful islands. Three mountain ranges or mountain ranges: the Western, the Central and the Eastern, with snowy, volcanoes, plateaus, savannas and valleys, with many sources of water: streams, ravines, streams and rivers; innumerable lakes, marshes and wetlands.

The country has a diversity of landscapes and a variety of climates. Colombia has the largest number of ecosystems in the world: wet and dry forests, savannahs, temperate forests, high Andean forests, fog forests, moors, rivers, coasts, coral reefs, marshes and mangroves, including the Amazon jungle, the Chocó Biogeographic and the Colombian Massif considered as one of the areas with the greatest biological richness and with more endemic species of the planet. Being at the crossroads between North and South America, the country is the meeting place of species coming from the north and south of the continent.4 In addition, Colombia has a great potential of energy resources (coal, mainly in Guajira). Oil exploitation is one of the main activities of the national economy and generates a large amount of foreign exchange. Natural export resources include gold, nickel, copper, silver, platinum and emeralds. The wide variety of thermal floors allows for an important agricultural and livestock production, forestry industry and fishing are also important.

In recent years, Colombia seems to have experienced a change of role in the regional and international political game. It has gained greater visibility among its neighbors and has taken steps aimed at strengthening its international positioning. These include the promotion of foreign direct investment and the publicity given to its new status as “middle income country”; Their contributions to global environmental challenges, mainly through organizations such as the UN; The promotion of 4 Colombia y su biodiversidad Source: www.secretosparacontar.org/Lectores/Contenidosytemas/Colombiaysubiodiversidad.aspx?CurrentCatId=110

South-South cooperation through the dissemination of knowledge on security issues and the fight against drug trafficking; And, finally, the intensification of the migratory flows of foreigners who are looking for a job opportunity in the country, as well as the internationalization of the internal armed conflict and the peace process promoted by Juan Manuel Santos.

Although Colombia is not one of the main responsible for having caused the problem of climate change - its contribution reaches 0.2% of the total of greenhouse gases emitted to the atmosphere - the data of the impacts in our country are alarming and they support: half of the country would be negatively affected due to changes in the pattern of precipitation (rains); The tourist infrastructure of the Island of San Andrés would suffer negative consequences when disappearing 17% of the same; Almost all of the snowfalls and glaciers would disappear completely, as well as 75% of the ‘páramos’. Colombia is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and, as several studies point out, with an accelerated increase in the global temperature of the planet its effects will be felt in the social, economic and environmental spheres. In particular, moors are considered to be one of the Colombian ecosystems most vulnerable to climate change scenarios to the extent of ensuring that the impact on them is low in uncertainty: changes will be fatal and irreversible. To mitigate climate change, we need a revolution in the way we produce and use energy.5 Meanwhile, Colombia has become the center of Latin American democratic democracy. Along with Mexico, Peru, and some communities, is also convinced of the benefits of free trade and integration with the United States and Europe, but he is working more actively than the rest of those mentioned in his integration with the rest of the continent. The reason is basically that Colombia wants to become one of the political and economic centers of the region, in order to influence the decisions taken in the north and lead the political and economic debate in the south. Integration with Europe and the rest of the Western nations serves to strengthen the position of regional leadership and become the gateway of South America to the world.6 5 Greenpeace.org global (August 6, 2010) Un plan para un futuro energético renovable y global.

Source: www.greenpeace.org/colombia/es/Noticias/cambio-climatico-los-paramos-en-peligro/un-plan-para-un-futuro-energetico-renovable-y-global/ 6 El Tiempo La posición de Colombia en el contexto político y económico mundial (October 25, 2007) Source: blogs.eltiempo.com/politica-internacional---colombia-latinoamerica-y-el-mundo/2007/10/25/la-posicion-de-colombia-en-el-contexto-politico-y-economico-mundial/

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Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

Colombia’s economy has experienced rapid increase over the past three years despite a serious armed conflict. The economy continues to grow in part because of austere government budgets, focused efforts to reduce public debt levels, an export oriented growth strategy, an improved security situation in the country, and high commodity prices. Colombia’s economy is largely based on the production of primary goods. Stands out in the international arena for the significant growth it has experienced in the last decade in the export of merchandise and the attractiveness it offers to foreign investment. It is the fourth largest economy in Latin America, after Brazil, Mexico and Argentina. In the international classification, it is among the 31 largest in the world. 7 Another important point for the economic potential of the country is that the agricultural sector is going through a very special moment. The growth of the agricultural sector will be supported by a great demand coming mainly from the foreign market. Data released by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) show how food production in developing countries is expected to double by 2050 due to the growth of disposable income in emerging economies, improved diet quality and increased the world’s population, which will reach 9 billion people.

Given this context Colombia has a privileged situation to increase its agricultural production. Colombia can become one of the great pantries of the world, since it is one of the seven countries in Latin America with the greatest potential for the development of arable areas according to the FAO. Among 223 countries where the potential for expansion of the agricultural area was evaluated, without affecting the area of the natural forest, Colombia was classified in 25th place. Of the 22 million hectares with potential in the country, only 4.8 are cultivated.

If these figures are added to the great potential of the Colombian plains for forestry and agricultural development estimated in 3.5 million hectares, the picture is very promising. According to the FAO, 80% of the amount of new food that will be required by 2050, will have to be provided by greater productivity, in other words, to make the agricultural production more efficient and only 20% will correspond to new areas. This is a great challenge for the transformation of the Colombian produc7 Portafolio (Octobre16, 2015) Devaluación pone a Colombia como cuarta economía de América.

Source: www.portafolio.co/economia/finanzas/devaluacion-pone-colombia-cuarta-economia-america-34688

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Figure 02 Colombian physical context Done by the author

Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

tive sector to look for: genetic improvements, state-of-the-art technologies, precision agriculture, automation, core development, economies of scale, value added and everything with market focus.

With this scenario for the future, what open up are opportunities for Colombia, which has a growing agricultural sector with great potential. According to the World Bank, economic growth in agriculture is 2.7 times more effective in reducing poverty than in other sectors. This is due to the multiplier effect of investments in agriculture, according to IFAD, they impact the rest of the economy between 30% and 80%. In addition, each ‘peso’ invested in agriculture translates into employment and, therefore, social stability. Therefore, investing in the development of competitiveness, promotion of partnership, opening of international markets, business development, formalization and increased productivity by integrating good agricultural practices is fundamental.

The productive potential of Colombia is very promising because of the wide availability of agricultural land, a space to improve productivity and post-harvest handling of food, supply of natural resources such as water and biodiversity, tropical climatic conditions that allow food production during all year. The country must continue to make progress in the transformation of the rural sector in order to achieve sustainable development that will allow the country to gain a position as a supplier of food and raw materials and contribute to the generation of employment, welfare and wealth in the Colombian countryside. The great leap in productivity for competitiveness has to be with the highest international standards. It is also essential to continue to increase public investment in research, infrastructure and technology transfer considerably.8

air pollution and solid waste, the introduction of invasive species, the overexploitation of soils and species of flora and fauna, the use of indiscriminate pesticides, climate change, the structure of land tenure, indiscriminate mining, the extinction of species and the lack of an environmental culture, are a threat for an environmental project.

It is crucial to understand the rural economy not as a functional entity but as a complex, open system, the analysis of which requires an interdisciplinary approach oriented to the study of processes and interactions. This perspective is can be studied through the issue of the role played by the postwar planning in the definition and management of rural space and the connection between the agricultural development in the country and the reproduction of the productive projects. The understanding of sustainable development which emerges calls for a holistic and responsive approach to rural policy formulation; the potential increases even more now that the post-conflict time is arriving with new politics, investments and priorities for the transformation of the illegal economies, social reincorporation and the demand of an innovative political speech.

However, the national agenda has always been altered because of the internal armed conflict: Colombia has been immersed into a ‘collective fatality’ due to a recent violent past, has an urgency of a transformation for the next generations and a new phase of all its history.9 What must change is the possibility of creating an imaginary, change through the comprehension of the possibility of mutation, the need of reformulate the reference values by implementing a culture of sustainability and the adequacy of the direction of a renew ethics that lets the country think about peace, believe in the utopia and ask for the impossible.

Environmental challenges that have arisen, worldwide, for example, have accentuated problems such as overpopulation, destruction of the ozone layer, global warming, acid rain, the destruction of forests and tropical forests, desertification , the extinction of species, the final disposal of toxic waste, the contamination of the atmosphere and soils, the alteration of nitrogen and phosphorus cycles and indiscriminate fishing, to name only the main ones. In Colombia, aspects such as inequality and poverty, deforestation, desertification, the loss and contamination of water resources, 8 Finagro. El Momento del agro.

Source: www.finagro.com.co/noticias/el-momento-del-agro

9 Canal Institucional (January 19, 2016) Diana Uribe habla sobre procesos de paz históricos Speech of Diana Uribe.

She is a Colombian journalist who has specialized in historical outreach programs. Shee is known for his radio programs and her audiobooks on universal history.

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Figure 03 Colombian context in a referential timeline Done by the author

Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

01.1 POLITICAL PROJECT WHAT HAS BEEN HAPPENING IN COLOMBIA?

Colombia has been standing an internal conflict as a result of the social inequity, lack of employment and opportunities, concentration of wealth, social injustice, lack of tolerance, social indifference and corruption. These facts have polarized the country into the concentrated guerillas groups and the government facing with military power. The violent groups have been organized since 1948 with more than 350 armed forces and after a decade of civil war and years of settlement of territory, they became in 1966 the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia-People’s Army (FARC-EP in Spanish), defined as a self-defense group with a communist ideology.

They called for land reform, better conditions for those in the countryside and promise to defend the vulnerable communities from the government, but it turned into a violent group that has committed crimes against humanity and is one of the most important drug cartel of the region. In consequence the country has been developing an internal war that also faces other groups such as Popular Liberation Army (ELN) founded by the Communist Party of Colombia and by the other side the Paramilitarism created as an illegal armed group of extreme right.

Over the past five decades Colombia has suffered one of the world’s most protracted and violent conflicts, with more than 200,000 deaths, thousands of forced disappearances and kidnappings, and almost 7 million people displaced. Peace negotiations in the 1990s led to the demobilization of some 5,000 combatants from five guerrilla organizations. In 2006 some 30,000 alleged members of the right-wing United Self-defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) militia agreed to cease their activities.

The list of politically motivated armed actors is currently headed by the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), with some 15,000 combatants, and the National Liberation Army, a smaller organization initially linked to liberation theology, which has recently also agreed to enter formal

negotiations with the government.

At the same time, major criminal gangs (bacrim) largely recruited from former paramilitaries have become the main internal security threat in Colombia. The roots to the armed conflict between the government and the FARC go back to armed peasant movements of the early 1960s that were initially linked to the Liberal Party. Following U.S.-backed military pressure from the state, in 1964 the small and scattered groups joined forces, in alliance with the Communist Party of Colombia, and started a military confrontation.

In 1984 the government and the FARC reached a ceasefire agreement that allowed the creation of a new leftist political organization, as a first step in the guerrilla organization’s demobilizations.

However, in the years that followed more than 3,000 members of this political organization – the Patriotic Union – were killed by paramilitary organizations linked to the AUC, often in collusion with state security forces. The ceasefire broke down in 1987 and the talks collapsed in 1990. In 1999 the government and the FARC engaged in a second major series of peace negotiations. The government agreed to demilitarize a territory the size of Switzerland in the Caguán region, south-west of Bogotá, where the peace talks were to take place.

However, the level of trust was low, the parties became bogged down in discussions around procedure, and they were consequently unable to address any of the long list of substantive issues.

In 2001 the talks collapsed and in 2002 a new president, Alvaro Uribe, was voted into power in Colombia on the promise to wipe out the guerrillas through the use of military force. Eight years of high-intensity war followed during which the government increased its military capacities and created a force of some 500,000 well-trained and well-equipped police and military personnel.10 The violent background has generated a dark picture for Colombia’s history, although after several failed attempts of negotiation with the violent groups, in November of 2016, after more than sixty years of violence, the government and the FARC group signed the peace agreement, which its implementation is now the biggest challenge of the country. The public opinion ensures that 10 Noref Norwegian peacebuilding resource center (2016) Innovations in the Colombian peace process report By Kristian Herbolzheimer.

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a solid peace in Colombia can be only reached when all the fundamental causes of the conflict are solved and that a peace process does not resolve the problems but let them being visible. The nowadays debate plays around issues such as the civil reintegration of demobilized armies, peace construction among the victims and victimizers, the role of the government institutions, the reinsertion of violent actors into the country’s legal economy, land distribution, demand and supply of political and economic rights, quality life improvement of remoted rural communities and political involvement of FARC in the government, for just naming few of the challenges, all pointed in the agreements concluded between the parties, arguments that all population must face in order to construct a new country.

The signing of the peace agreement between the government of Colombia and the FARC-EP already has led to a reduction in violence. The homicide rate in 2016 was the lowest in forty-two years.11 The challenges, however, are immense, from concrete issues such as making sure Congress approves the laws necessary to properly start the implementation process to huge tasks such as finding roads to reconciliation after a conflict that has left 220,000 dead, 80,000 missing, and more than 7 million displaced. The support of the international community will be indispensable in the years to come, but it will not suffice on its own. It will be in the hands of the next government (elected in 2018) to make sure the Havana process is a solid foundation for a stable and long-lasting peace.

A peace agreement will not be the end of the peace process in Colombia. It will be, rather, a milestone that indicates a possible end to the armed conflict and the beginning of a transitional process to address long-neglected structural problems in an inclusive and constructive way. The post-agreement process will be at least as challenging as the peace negotiations themselves. The difficulties ahead cannot be overstated. But because the challenges are not unique to the Colombian peace process, some of the responses may thus also lead to additional innovations that can contribute to improving global policy and practice in post-agreement peacebuilding.

In order to reprogram the national environment around the post conflict argument an intervention should make a political statement that takes into account that after the violent context the society has been polarized and developed under a speech that follows a rigid thinking with regard to the issue of the correct ideology that will lead the country. In other words, there is a wide range between the extreme right parties and the communist side led by the armed groups.

However, the peace agreement has highlighted all the aspects that need to be transformed or change. The statements of the agreement argue the presence of FARC members in the governance system, nowadays democratic, creating a new political field for the country where the basic functions are going to be altered with a debate that will introduce essential changes to the empowerment mechanism. It will be necessary to support the new power structures and innovative strategies for the internal debate that surrounds the public, private and military institutions.

11 El País (December 31, 2016) Sally Palomino, “Colombia cierra 2016 con la cifra más baja de homicidios en 42 años”.

Source: www.internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2016/12/31/colombia/1483187941_964829.html.

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Figure 04 Photographs of the FARC-EP beginning Taken from “50 años en fotos de las FARC-EP” Source: www.farc-ep.co/biblioteca/libros.html

Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

GEOGRAPHY OF THE CONFLICT

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Figure 05 Armed presence of FARC group in 2015 Information taken from ‘Los mapas del conflicto’ produced by Fundación Paz y Reconciliación (April 2015).

Source: www.pares.com.co/categoria/paz-y-posconflicto/mapas-paz-y-posconflicto/

Figure 06 Armed presence of ELN group in 2015 Information taken from ‘Los mapas del conflicto’ produced by Fundación Paz y Reconciliación (April 2015).

Source: www.pares.com.co/categoria/paz-y-posconflicto/mapas-paz-y-posconflicto/

Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

GEOGRAPHY OF THE CONFLICT

Figure 08 Armed presence of ‘BACRIM’ (Criminal bands) in 2015 Information taken from ‘Los mapas del conflicto’ produced by Fundación Paz y Reconciliación (April 2015).

Source: www.pares.com.co/categoria/paz-y-posconflicto/mapas-paz-y-posconflicto/

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Figure 07 Armed presence of narco-paramilitar groups in 2015 Information taken from ‘Los mapas del conflicto’ produced by Fundación Paz y Reconciliación (April 2015).

Source: www.pares.com.co/categoria/paz-y-posconflicto/mapas-paz-y-posconflicto/

Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

01.2 THE PEACE AGREEMENT WITH FARC The government of Colombia and the biggest guerrilla group in the country, the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia–Ejército del Pueblo (FARC-EP), signed a final peace agreement on November 24, 2016. This version, however, was voted down in a plebiscite, forcing the government and the FARC-EP to go back to the negotiating table. This accord put an end to the longest armed conflict in the Western Hemisphere (over fifty years) and to long and convoluted peace talks. The process had three distinct phases: (1) initial clandestine talks between envoys of the government of President Juan Manuel Santos and FARC-EP representatives at the border with Venezuela that started in the spring of 2011; (2) secret negotiations that took place in Havana, Cuba, and started in February 2012; and (3) four years of public talks, which officially started on October 18, 2012, with a joint press conference in Hurdal, Norway.12 The peace process, as is frequently the case, went through ups and downs, including moments of real crisis. Yet the strongest blow was the result of the plebiscite on October 2, 2016, when voters rejected the peace accord by a margin of less than 1 percent.13 This brought preparations to start the implementation phase to a screeching halt and made evident the country’s polarization.

Many Colombians had been euphoric watching the (first) signing ceremony on September 26th in Cartagena, attended by the UN secretary-general, multiple international dignitaries, and almost 3,000 guests; many others, however, rejected a deal they perceived as being excessively generous 12 International Peace Institute, 2017. Document Made in Havana: How Colombia and the FARC Decided to End the War by Renata Segura and Delphine Mechoulan. The International Peace Institute (IPI) is an independent, international not-for-profit think tank dedicated to managing risk and building resilience to promote peace, security, and sustainable development. .

13 “Yes” received 49.78 percent of the votes, while “no” received 50.21 percent. The abstention rate was nearly 63 percent. Registraduría Nacional del Estado Civil, “Plebiscito 2 octubre 2016”, available at www.plebiscito.registraduria. gov.co

to the FARC-EP and had been displeased by what they thought was a distasteful celebration that minimized the importance of the vote that would take place a few days later.

The Colombian government has recently restarted dialogue with the one remaining insurgent group, the Ejército de Liberación Nacional (ELN), which is much smaller and less powerful than the FARC-EP; while the ELN has around 1,300 members, the FARC-EP has about 7,000 people in its ranks and the support of around 8,000 militia members. There are also a number of other violent actors, including organized criminal groups and the so-called Bandas Criminales (BACRIM), which inherited many of the structures of the right-wing paramilitaries that demobilized in 2008.

This makes it difficult to assert that the peace process with the FARC-EP will result in a cessation of violence in Colombia.

The following part contains a summary of the Final Agreement reached at the Negotiation Table in Havana between the Government of Colombia and the FARC–EP. It describes the goals of the agreement and the mechanisms agreed upon, with respect to the six agenda items discussed, as part of the General Agenda of the General Agreement for Ending Conflict and Building a Stable and Long-Lasting Peace.14 First agreement Toward a new Colombian countryside: Comprehensive Rural Reform: The Comprehensive Rural Reform (Reforma Rural Integral - RRI) seeks to lay down the foundation for the transformation of rural Colombia, create the conditions to ensure the health and well-being of the rural population and, in doing so and contribute to guarantee non-repetition of the conflict and to the construction of a stable and long-lasting peace.

I. Land access and use: An agreement was reached to create a Land Fund (Fondo de Tierras) for the free distribution of land to rural people without land, or with insufficient land. The Fund will have 3 million hectares at 14 The complete document is available in www.altocomisionadoparalapaz.gov.co/procesos-y conversaciones/Documentos%20compartidos/24-11-2016NuevoAcuerdoFinal.pdf

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its disposal during the first 10 years.

II. National plans: National plans will be implemented, with the goals of completely eradicating extreme poverty, further reducing rural poverty by 50% and further reducing overall inequality within 10 years, taking into account gender and equity-based approaches and the specific features of each area.

III. Specialised System for the Gradual Realization of the right to food for the rural population: National, departmental and local governments will put in place plans for proper nourishment and nutrition, programs for dealing with hunger and malnutrition, and measures to strengthen local and regional production and markets, as well as campaigns on the proper handling of food and for the adoption of good eating habits.

IV. Development Programs with a Territorial-based Approach (Programas de Desarrollo con Enfoque Territorial - PDET): In the zones most affected by poverty, the conflict, institutional weakness and illegal economies, Development Programs with a Territorial-Based Approach will be implemented in order to speed up the execution and funding of the national plans. These will begin with an action plan for regional transformation, which will strive to include ample participation from the relevant sectors of the community, in the plan’s formulation, execution and follow-up.

Second Agreement Political Participation: A democratic opportunity to build peace I. Rights and guarantees for exercising political opposition: A Commission will be created, made up of political parties and movements with legal status, political groups representing the opposition, and two experts delegated by the FARC–EP, with the purpose of defining the guidelines of a new statute of guarantees for political parties or movements that declare themselves in opposition. Based on these guidelines, the government will prepare a bill, with the assistance of the members of the Commission.

II. Security guarantees for the exercise of politics: A Comprehensive Security System for the Exercise of Politics (Sistema Integral de Seguridad para el Ejercicio de la Política) will be put in place, which will comprise of elements such as the regulatory and institutional amendments; prevention measures; protection measures; evaluation and follow-up mechanisms.

III. Democratic mechanisms for citizen participation: Guarantees for social movements and organisations and for social protests and demonstration, Citizen participation through community media, Guarantees for reconciliation, coexistence, tolerance and non-stigmatisation, Citizen control and oversight, Policy for strengthening democratic and participatory planning.

IV. Effective measures to promote greater participation in politics: Measures to promote access to the political system and equal conditions in the political contest, Measures for the promotion of electoral participation and transparency, Reform of the electoral regime and organisation, Promotion of a democratic and participatory political culture, Special Transitory Electoral Districts for Peace (Circunscripciones Transitorias Especiales de Paz) Third Agreement End of the conflict I. Agreement on the bilateral and definitive ceasefire and cessation of hostilities and laying down of arms: The purpose of the agreement is to ensure the final termination of hostilities between the state security and law enforcement authorities, and the FARC–EP, including any action governed by the rules of the CFHBD, such as those affecting civilians. The fulfilment of the CFHBD agreement will enable the creation of the conditions necessary for the implementation of the Final Agreement and the laying down of arms, and to prepare the institutional framework and the country for the reincorporation of the FARC–EP into civilian life. Takes into account the definition of the Monitoring and verification mechanism, security, logistics and laying down of arms.

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II. Reincorporation of the FARC-EP into civilian life, in economic, social and political matters, in accordance with their interests: The reincorporation of the FARC-EP into civilian life will be a comprehensive, sustainable, exceptional and transitory process. It will take into account the interests of the community, and of the FARC–EP, its members and their families, in the process of reincorporation. It will be aimed at strengthening the social fabric across the country, and promoting coexistence and reconciliation. It will also seek to develop and deploy socially productive activities and local democracy.

The reincorporation of the FARC–EP is based on the principles of the recognition of the individual freedoms and free exercise of the individual rights of all of those who are currently members of the FARC–EP. The reincorporation process will have an equity-based approach and a gendered perspective in all of its components, with an emphasis on women’s rights. Minors who have left the FARC–EP camps since the beginning of the peace dialogues, as well as those who will leave during the process of the laying down of arms, will be subject to measures of special care and protection.

These minors will benefit from all of the rights, benefits and allowances set forth for the victims of the conflict in the Victims’ Law (Ley de Víctimas) (Law 1448 of 2011). Their family reunion will be prioritised whenever possible, as well as their final placement in their communities of origin or in others of a similar nature, whilst at all times taking into account their best interests. Takes into account the political reincorporation, economic and social reincorporation, national commission on security guarantees III. Agreement on security guarantees and the fight against criminal organisations: his agreement is aimed at providing protection and security to all Colombians; protection measures for social collectives, and social and human rights movements and organisations across the country; and guarantees for the exercise of politics for all political movements and parties, especially those in opposition, the political movement that emerges from the transition of the FARC–EP into legal political activity, and the members of the FARC–EP in the process of reincorporating into civilian life. Takes into account the National Commission on Security Guarantees, Special Judicial Unit, Elite corps of the national police, Comprehensive security system for the exercise of politics, Comprehensive security and Protection Program for the communities and organisations across the

country, prevention and monitoring instrument for criminal organisations, national mechanism for territorial supervision and inspection of the private security and surveillance services, preventive measures and the fight against corruption.

Fourth Agreement Solution to the problem of illicit drugs: With this agreement, the Government of Colombia and the FARC–EP state their commitment to finding a definitive solution to the problem of illicit drugs, and their commitment towards the historical clarification of the relationship between the armed conflict and the cultivation, production and commercialization of illicit drugs and the laundering of assets derived from this phenomenon. Takes into account the solution to the problem of crops made for illicit use, illicit drug use illicit drug use, solution to the phenomenon of the production and commercialization of narcotics.

Fifth Agreement Agreement regarding the victims of the conflict: Comprehensive system for truth, justice, reparation and non-repetition: Creation of the Truth, Coexistence and Non-Repetition Commission (Comisión para el Esclarecimiento de la Verdad, la Convivencia y la No Repetición), Special unit for the search for persons deemed as missing in the context of and due to the armed conflict, Special Jurisdiction for Peace (Jurisdicción Especial para la Paz), Comprehensive reparation measures for peace building purposes.

Sixth Agreement Implementation and verification mechanisms: In order to guarantee compliance with the agreements, to establish mechanisms for its proper implementation, and to monitor and verify compliance with the commitments, the following measures will be adopted: Implementation and monitoring commission, Framework plan and Measures to incorporate the implementation of the agreements with territorial resources.

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Done by the author. Information taken from 1) Oficina del Alto Comisionado para la Paz, April 2014.

‘Todo lo que deberías saber sobre el proceso de paz. Visión, realidades y avances en las conversaciones que adelanta el Gobierno Nacional en La Habana’ 2) International Peace Institute, 2017. ‘Document Made in Havana: How Colombia and the FARC Decided to End the War’ by Renata Segura and Delphine Mechoulan. 3) Pictures at the bibliography

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Figure 09 Referential timeline of the peace agreement process

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01.3 SOCIAL PROJECT THE PROFILE OF A GUERILLA The social structures in the country are characterized by inequity, insecurity, poverty and the weakening of the institutions capable of enhance the structural issues that may improve the quality of life of the people. The role of the illegal groups in this new phase is defined by the social reintegration that is occurring around the new dynamics of cohabitation with the legal context; this means that the combatant will be transformed into a peasant, farmer, worker or just a person that now activates its identity into a legal and new structure that counts with that individual and group potential to help in a context with a legal, economic, political and spatial tools intended to improve all members.

It also has a symbolic value system when the warrior is recognized and included into the development in the civil life spaces, defining the path for social inclusion, now putting the energy not in combatting but in inhabit a rural context by becoming an expert of working with a product and learning a different way of living. It is a big human capital that has the commitment of been introduced into a social reintegration with work networks, employment, self-construction, access and management of lands and adding benefits such as social security and the rights of a civil. This new social structure will become productive members of society in a legal phase.

Recent researches of the zones studied interesting facts of this areas and draw the attention in facts such as calling ‘temporary’ to a settlement with more than 500 inhabitants, located in the best point of a territory inhabited by a human group with particular conditions such as: 1.It is a population with common and unique interests, such as having taken up arms to rebel against the State.

2. The guerrilla organization to which they belong has more than fifty years of history.

3. The origin of the great majority of its members is peasants.

4. It is also linked to having lived for decades as nomads, even fugitives in very precarious conditions of habitability.

5. They occupy a territory to which they did not arrive through a process of sale, lease or invasion, as is the general rule of occupation of a house or land.

6. They selected the place where they will live.

7. As a result of this, and without their knowledge, they do not have the slightest interest in, for example, obtaining the largest number of salable units in a given area.

8. They were not subject to compliance with any urban or environmental regulations.

The post-conflict environment also finds place for the inclusion between not only the victimizers but also the victims: the resettlement of the demobilized people and the return to the displaced people of their lands, also known as the crop-substitution program.

The social profile of this guerilla is framed on a rebel character that follows a political logic with conviction, however the origin, age, interests and individual capacities are heterogeneous, depending on the background of each member and the way they adapt the peace agreement as an opportunity of transform their life. Before taking action of businesses and productive projects it is necessary a process of training and education. It will take between 5 and 7 years of preparation for them to include the knowledge of the national legal market, a juridical context and a social network that is open toward peace but needs prepared people capable of face the national challenges.15 The description of this group is a tool for construct a public policy of reincorporation of long term that mean the transformation of the dynamic of the ex-combatant and the people that inhabit the areas. The biggest challenge of the territories is to promote equity, development and social mobility. The following census is a work done by the Universidad Nacional that covers an important part of what the FARC-EP group is, allows a trace of successful policies for reincorporation of the guerilla with desire of contribute to the country.

15 Magazine Semana El ADN de las FARC Source: www.especiales.semana.com/farc-adn/index.html

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Done by the author. Information taken from 1) El Colombiano (July 07, 2017) Estudio revela cรณmo son las FARC por dentro.

Source: www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/paz-y-derechos-humanos/estudio-revela-como-son-las-farc-por-dentro-FD6858766 2) Magazine Semana. El ADN de las FARC. Source: www.especiales.semana.com/farc-adn/index.html 3) Pictures at the bibliography

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Figure 10 The profile of a guerilla

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Figure 11 The profile of a guerilla

Done by the author. Information taken from 1) El Colombiano (July 07, 2017) Estudio revela cรณmo son las FARC por dentro.

Source: www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/paz-y-derechos-humanos/estudio-revela-como-son-las-farc-por-dentro-FD6858766 2) Magazine Semana. El ADN de las FARC. Source: www.especiales.semana.com/farc-adn/index.html 3) Pictures at the bibliography

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01.4 ECONOMIC PROJECT BACK TO THE LEGAL ECONOMY An illegal reality The transcendental historical moment for Colombia with the signature of Peace agreements with the guerrilla of the FARC-EP and the expectation for concretion of a successful process with the ELN, open the opportunity to access some territories in an environment without conflict.

The increase in consumption of drugs, not only in the region, but inland of the country, imposes the need for a new vision about the phenomenon and finally, a global vision of support for the objectives of sustainable development, which enhances the value of the territories affected by crops illicit, are part of the context that should be considered to understand the statistics and trends that the report offers.

The Peace agreements recognize the importance of the problem of drugs in Colombia dedicating a whole chapter to this specific problem. In point four, it is recognized that the presence of crops illicit consequences of poverty in the field, the marginality conditions of the affected territories, a weak presence institutional and the persistence of groups illegal armed the point also recognizes that the problem of drug production is not limited to illicit crops, and that their attention requires developing strategies against drug consumption, production, traffic and money laundering. One of the fundamental contributions of the agreements is the emphasis on the sustainability of solutions goes through the transformation of the territories; in this sense point four is closely related to point one of integral rural reform.

The vision of transforming territories to make the fight against the illicit crops constitutes a point of break in the way Colombia has come facing the problem and a great opportunity to articulate the fight against the production of drugs with the Objectives of Sustainable Development, adopted by

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Figure 12 Density of coca cultivation in 2015 Done by the author.

Information taken from United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime ‘Monitoreo de territorios afectados por cultivos ilícitos 2015’ (July 2016).

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the member states of the nations United in September 2015; in particular, the objectives 1) End of poverty, 2) Hunger zero, 10) Reduction of inequalities, 15) Life of terrestrial ecosystems and 16) Peace, Justice and solid Institutions can be recognized in the new strategic framework.16 The National Government recognizes the need to make adjustments that respond to the new trends and challenges in the production of illicit crops in the national territory, looking for Reduce vulnerabilities in the affected territories through articulation and greater presence of the institutions of the State. Thus, in the National Development Plan 2014 - 2018, a policy of comprehensive intervention for the reduction of illicit crops with a differentiated approach, recognizing the regional differences and appropriate to the particularities of each territory, as a necessary twist for the intervention strategies that respond to the new dynamics, challenges and lessons learned in the implementation of programs to reduce illicit crop cultivation in the country.

In Colombia, significant progress is being made in reducing the area sown and potential for cocaine production; of the historical record reached in 2000 with 163 thousand hectares sown, fell to 64 thousand hectares in 2011 and 48 thousand hectares in 2012. However, some areas of the country showed stability and to some extent persistence of the problem despite the efforts to control it.

With 188,000 hectares planted, the country closed 2016 with 18% more than the previous year.

Plantations have been increasing since 2012, when there were 78,000 hectares. In 1999, when the anti-drug campaign Plan Colombia sponsored by the United States began, there were 123,000 with a peak in 2001 and a downward trend since 2007.17 Coca crops increased by 52% in 2016 and returned to quantities similar to those of 2001, from 96,000 to 146,000 hectares, according to the latest report of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Despite this increase, production was concentrated in some departments, such as Nariño, Putumayo and Norte de Santander (which have 63% of the plantations), that is, more coca leaf was grown in less territory.18

16 UNODC Oficina de las Naciones Unidas contra la droga y el delito. ‘Monitoreo de territorios afectados por cultivos ilícitos 2016.’ Released on July 2017.

Source:www.unodc.org/documents/colombia/2017/julio/CENSO_2017_WEB_baja.pdf 17 Semana (March14, 2017) Cultivos de coca alcanzan un máximo histórico.

Source: www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/cultivos-de-coca-en-colombia-alcanza-maximo-historico/518545 18 El Pais (July 15, 2017) Los cultivos de coca en Colombia aumentaron más del 50% en 2016.

Source: www.elpais.com/internacional/2017/07/15/colombia/1500075179_746891.html

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Figure 13 Distribution according to the permanence of coca cultivation 2006-2015 Done by the author.

Information taken from United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime ‘Monitoreo de territorios afectados por cultivos ilícitos 2015’ (July 2016).

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Information taken from 1) El Tiempo (July 8, 2016) Cultivos de coca crecen a niveles de hace ocho años. Source http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS-16639346 2) Magazine Semana (November 7, 2014) Estos son los países que más drogas consumen. Source http://www.semana.com/vida-moderna/articulo/informe-de-la-onu-revela-consumo-de-drogas-en-el-mundo/395174-3 3) National Institute of Drug Base. (March, 2010) ¿Cuál es el alcance de la droga en los Estados Unidos? Source: https://www.drugabuse.gov/es/publicaciones/serie-de-reportes/cocaina-abuso-y-adiccion/cual-es-el-alcance-del-consumo-de-cocaina-en-los-estados-unidos 4) Pictures at the bibliography

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Figure 14 The profile of coca

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The UN agency points out among the possible causes “a perception of reduction in the risk associated with illicit activity due to the suspension of aerial spraying and the possibility of avoiding forced eradication”. Additionally, the study notes, “terms such as illicit crops were introduced instead of illicit crops; some communities interpreted this as an authorization to plant coca since the illegal was the use and not the cultivation. The United Nations also appreciates an increase in the expectations to receive benefits as consideration for the substitution of coca crops, in particular associated with the expectations derived from point four of the Peace Agreement, which refers to the solution of the problem of illicit drugs. The eradication of illicit crops is one of the major priorities and demands of the US Congress to accompany the country in the peace process and in the endowment of funds by the US Government to the implementation of the agreements reached with the FARC. 90% of the cocaine seized in the United States originates in Colombia; the US State Department again stirred up the debate over the strategy against drugs that is being implemented in the country that continues to hold the “first place as a producer of that drug in the world”.19 The activation of the legal economy through the replacement of illegal crops for new productive projects, proposed by the government, are focused on the vocational cultivation according to the land resources of the different areas where the Temporary Normalization Zones are inhabited. The zones of crop substitution will also formalize work, open new opportunities for the activities that are going to be developed, creating new economies and structural changes for the social reintegration of the ex-guerilla members. This rural acupuncture will modify the behavior and identity of the user, turning into a group human source aimed to link with the national flow economy, a sustainable economy that supports the rural development as a complex system capable of rise an intelligent territory, change the rural paradigm, include diversity, mix of uses and a relevant settlement on a country that needs to recognize the rural activity is a priority.

to gather in cantonments in early 2017, rival armed actors have taken their place, waging a battle for spoils: control of isolated communities and territories, many rich in illicit business. In the Pacific cocaine hub of Tumaco, in hamlets of Chocó, or in contraband zones on the Venezuelan border, established armed groups and new insurgent breakaway factions have attacked state forces, intimidated communities and vied to become undisputed local overlords. Grassroots security is crucial to assure the success of the peace process with the FARC as it shifts from a UN-monitored weapons handover to deeper structural reforms of politics and society. Efforts to combat remaining armed outfits are essential, but in so doing the government must not alienate the population and exacerbate poverty in ways that would aggravate the conditions that propel these groups’ growth.20 Most of these armed factions now cluster in coastal and border areas. Around 1,000 FARC dissidents, who disown the peace deal for various reasons, are thee facto rulers of disparate territories, several of them dependent on the drug trade. Colombia’s second main guerrilla force, the National Liberation Army (ELN), has brokered a temporary ceasefire with the government despite looking to conquer new territories, especially along the Pacific coast. The Gaitanista Self-defence Force, currently the largest neo-paramilitary group in the country, combines a vertical military hierarchy centred in the country’s north west with a web of subcontracted local gangs. It is now the country’s leading drug trafficking organisation.

A bigger problem The peace process with Colombia’s largest and longest standing guerrilla group has defied its detractors and brought 11,200 ex-combatants to the cusp of civilian life, but the aftermath of war has not been safe for all. Since the FARC withdrew from their rural heartlands

Thriving illicit businesses, booming coca plantations, illegal gold mines, extortion rackets and contraband, account for the survival and expansion of many of these groups. But economic interests alone do not explain their support within some communities. By resolving disputes and defending illicit livelihoods from law enforcement, these groups have crafted a rudimentary, authoritarian form of local political leadership. The Colombian state has responded through a nationwide “Victory Plan”, deploying 80,000 soldiers and police officers to occupy vacated FARC territory. Yet even if security forces could seize all disputed territory, coercion alone cannot establish bonds of trust between the state and local citizens; instead, they need to be persuaded that there is a better alternative to the summary justice and social discipline meted out by illegal groups.

19 Semana (February 03, 2017) Colombia es el primer productor mundial de cocaína.

Source: www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/cultivos-ilicitos-en-colombia-informe-del-departamento-de-estado/517216

20 El nuevo siglo. (October 31, 2017) Disidencias de las FARC ya son casi un millar.

Source: www.elnuevosiglo.com.co/articulos/10-2017-disidencias-des-farc-ya-son-casi-un-millar

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The next phase of reforms under the peace accord aims precisely at building such trust between state and citizens. It includes a more plural democratic system, reintegration of ex-FARC fighters, justice for conflict victims and a coca substitution program. But its implementation faces many difficulties. Comprehensive reintegration plans are on hold. Voluntary coca substitution, one of the accord’s flagship programs, will require a long-term commitment from the state and far more international political and financial backing. Corruption debilitates the government’s campaign against armed groups, and must be countered by stronger and more independent.21 The new economic model The way of reincorporation is the community development or ‘associations’. The Ecomun will function as piece of a system which will be part other instances: the Government through the development programs of territorial approach, the national plans of the mayors and the private companies. comun is the solidarity economy company to be able to strengthen the productive skills of the guerrilla community and above all to guarantee the economic and social reincorporation of that community. The ex-combatants of the Farc were incorporated to the civil life collectively, under schemes of cooperatives that will work completely in the territories where before they made the war.22 This mechanism must be a process that gives hope to excluded and marginalized communities; it must be an instrument of territorial peace. It starts the basic course of solidarity economy, understood as a reincorporation economy that will be basis for lasting peace. It is a company where the democratic model is managed and where anyone can access the administrative bodies as well as the surveillance ones. It is a company that belongs to everyone, will allow them to join efforts and resources. It is not a company of one person, but of all. The group decided to put together Ecomun as a cooperative.23 The national director of the Special Administrative Unit of solidarity organizations in the Public 21 Crisis International Group (October 17, 2017) Los grupos armados de y su disputa por el botín de la paz.

Source: www.crisisgroup.org/es/latin-america-caribbean/andes/colombia/63-colombias-armed-groups-battle-spoilspeace 22 Semana (June 30, 2016) Así funcionarán los negocios lícitos de las FARC. Source: www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/ecomun-cooperativa-de-las-farc-en-la-vida-legal-su-nueva-economia/530424 23 Organizaciones Solidarias (October 03, 2017) “En organizaciones solidarias estamos dispuestos a aportar al conflicto”.

Source: www.orgsolidarias.gov.co/En-Organizaciones-Solidarias-estamos-dispuestos-para-aportar-al-posconflicto

Respective source information at bibiography.

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Figure 15 Photographs of the inauguration and first activities of ‘ECOMUN’ cooperative

Productive projects for buildinG peace iN Colombia

Hearing “Status of Implementation of the Agreement on the end of the conflict: Challenges and Proposals”, held on October 2, 2017,24 in Constitution hall of the Senate introduced the concept of how the solidarity organizations are willing to contribute to post-conflict. They present an assessment on progress in the implementation of the Peace Agreement. It was stressed the importance of agreements and legislative act of political reincorporation so they can make the transition to an organization acting within the electoral debate the 2018-2022 period. The creation of this mechanisms is the work that has advanced the Administrative Unit towards post-conflict attend the 26 Training areas and Reinstatement and have trained 5,300 former combatants for the creation of cooperatives, but one of the principles of economic solidarity and cooperativism is to be made voluntarily, so the trained ex-combatants are 52 cooperatives that will form part of Ecomun.

The model wants to build several cooperatives so that later ECOMUN becomes a Confederation of Cooperatives, but to get there they have to start from below. First, it is needed to put together the basic organizations. They will devote themselves to different topics: savings and credit, agricultural production, services, health and industrialization issues. That is, in the different fields those solidarity economies have. In the regions that are there, they can put together different companies. When they have several such as ECOMUN Llanos, ECOMUN Llanos Agrícola, ECOMUN Llanos Transporte, ECOMUN Llanos Servicios, and manage to assemble the minimum required by the law, five cooperatives, may form the federations. The group has the intention to build many more companies gradually. At this point they have restrictions in import and export activities and in the creation of tourism agencies.

On June 27, after the laid down of their arms and ceased to be an officially armed group,25 the Government started the basic course of solidarity economy that is essential for the construction of a cooperative. 40 people had participated in workshops that are a requirement of a minimum of 20 hours of basic course law. Free of charge is one of the principles of cooperativism. FARC want

24 El Sol Colombia (July 04, 2017) Nace Ecomun, la primera cooperativa de las FARC. Source: www.elsolweb.tv/nace-ecomun-la-primera-empresa-cooperativa-de-las-farc 25 El Tiempo (June 27, 2017) FARC dejan las armas y desaparecen oficialmente como grupo armado.

Source: www.eltiempo.com/politica/proceso-de-paz/farc-oficialmente-termina-la-dejacion-total-de-armas-103088

all their people to belong to the cooperatives but they will not be forced to do so, they have to do it voluntarily. As it is necessary to dictate courses in the different zones, they decided that from each point a leader leaves who will participate in the conformation of the first cooperative: 26 people of each zone and 14 ex-combatants. They are trained in the culture of solidary economy, management knowledge, duties and obligations, the juridical context, the organisms that take part and all the functions involved. They are in charge of the constitution of the statutes that is the magna carta of each cooperative.

The courses are done by ‘Unidad Administrativa Especial de Organizaciones Solidarias’ AUEOS (Special Administrative Unit of Organizations).26 SENA is helping on technical topics, teaching on management plans, their requirements and functions.27 After the constitution of the statutes, comes the accompaniment of the State and of some agency of the sector of solidarity economy. Apparently, it will be Ascoop.28 They will accompany them to make their registration of legality in front of the Superintendency of Solidarity Economy, so that they fill their registration in the DIAN29 and have their Nit, in addition to their banking process. In order to fill all the requirements that needed.

Each department is going to make one Ecomun (Bogotá, Meta and Córdoba will be the first). Initially they have to be cooperative, before the Federation is in charge of representing them, guiding them and accompanying them. This first step is the promoter that drives the future small cooperatives. In the case that some will provide public services, they will be controlled by the Superintendencies of Public Services; if they come to provide health services, if they will be controlled by the Superintendence of Health. They will comply with all the requirements of the law, as any citizen group that wants to organize through this model does. The foreign community allocated resources 26 ‘Organizaciones Solidarias’ is an entity that promote the develop socio-entrepreneurially solidarity to generate development in the sectors and regions of the country eith the strengthened intinutional cross-industry organizations. www.orgsolidarias.gov.co 27 ‘Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje’ (The National Service of Learning) SENA, is a public establishment of the national order, with legal personality, own and independent patrimony, and administrative autonomy; Ascribed to the Ministry of Labor of Colombia. It offers free training to millions of Colombians who benefit from technical, technological and complementary programs that focus on the country’s economic, technological and social development. They enter the productive activities of companies and industry to obtain better competitiveness and production with globalized markets. www.sena.edu.co 28 ‘Asociación Colombiana de Cooperativas’ (The Colombian Association of Cooperatives) Ascoop is an organization for the integration and representation of cooperatives, characterized by its guild leadership and its permanent presence as a sector interlocutor before the different public and private entities. www.ascoop.coop 29 ‘Direccion de Impuestos y Aduans’ (TheS pecial Administrative Unit Directorate of Taxes and National Customs) www.dian.gov.co

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for productive projects. That is where they will have an advantage. The ‘AUEOS’ do not have the resources to develop the projects, so in the case of Ecomun there are some destined resources that the Post-Conflict Ministry30 manages in a bag that is being assembled. This cooperative is being created by itself as anyone under Colombian law. There is no exception. The only thing is that the Government promised to accompany them 100%.31 This model is proposed to started with the money intended in the agreements: 8 million pesos per person for the productive projects (2.320 EU),32 but initially they do not have it because that money is still to be defined how it is going to be delivered. When they have the money they have the option of put it in the cooperative or to set it apart. The hypothesis is that with the money it is difficult to set up a business, it does not work. But, for example, 5,000 men and women who contribute that money are 40,000 million pesos (11,600 EU). With that they set up the company they want.

Through Decree 899 of 2017, within the framework of the peace agreements, a series of measures was established for the program of economic and social reintegration of the demobilized. These new regulations promulgate the single payment of 2 million pesos (588 EU) to each one of the former members of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia once the Transitory Normalization Zones have been completed. The beneficiaries of this regulation will be those accredited by the office of the High Commissioner for Peace, Sergio Jaramillo, and who are on the list given by the FARC. They must also meet certain requirements established in the decree. Demobilized people may also participate in a 8 million pesos (2.320 EU) support as initial capital for a productive project, either individually or collectively. Decree 899 also guarantees the payment of a basic income to each demobilized person. This income will be equivalent to 90% of a minimum wage that is $737.00033 pesos (216 EU), which will be delivered monthly for a period of one year, as long as the beneficiary

30 Alta Consejeria Presidencial para el Posconflicto. www.posconflicto.gov.co/Paginas/posconflicto.aspx 31 Process explained by Rafael González, director of ‘Unidad Administrativa Especial de Organizaciones Solidarias’.

Interview with Magazine Semana (June 30, 2016) Así funcionarán los negocios lícitos de las FARC. Source: http://www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/ecomun-cooperativa-de-las-farc-en-la-vida-legal-su-nueva-economia/530424.

32 Conversor from Colombian Pesos to Euro on November 12, 2017 through www.themoneyconverter.com 33 Magazine Portafolio. Salario mínimo en Colombia 2017.

Source: www.portafolio.co/economia/empleo/salario-minimo-colombia-2017-109538

if this law has no contractual, labor, or any type of contract that generates income.34 The norm contemplates the construction of “Ecomun”, the special organization of solidarity economy called, Social Economies of the Common and the cooperative of the FARC. Ecomun will work in the areas where the insurgency operated and its purpose will be to promote the economic and social reintegration of the ex-guerrillas, as well as to fulfill the functions assigned to them in the final peace agreement.

It is clear that the functioning of Ecomun will be subject to the approval of the National Superintendency of Solidarity Economy and the Chamber of Commerce of Bogotá. The effects of Ecomun in the territory are very positive because they leave their weapons to start producing economically for the benefit of the country. These companies will end up generating economic resources in the areas where they are. They go from hurting to producing. They will generate territorial economic development. It will be a slow change but they are going to start being productive.

34 Kien Y Ke Noticias (September 14, 2017) Aprobado el pago de $2’000.000 para desmovilizados de las Farc.

Source: https://www.kienyke.com/noticias/pago-de-2000-000-para-desmovilizados-de-las-farc-colombia

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Figure 16 General intervention features for a future scenario Done by the author

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It is crucial to make a reset from the negative effects and begin from a neutral reality with potential of recovery and start with a vision capable of build a transformed country that needs to be reinvented. In order to start creating a new territory in a long term modification is necessary to propose strategies of adequacy of each Temporary Normalization Zone (TNZ) in different scales and arguments. As one of the most important presidents of the region Pepe Mujica said “Colombia is a laboratory for history and it is crucial not to make it fail”.35

02

ARCHITECTURE OF TRANSITION

The country is now a space of experimentation in terms of the potential, complexity and power that has toward the change of a continent up to the transformation of vulnerable local scale realities. It also values diverse physical environments that can reach hostility, wealth or extreme features of a suitable land capable of being re-imagined. Is fundamental to realize that it will take generations in order to reprogram what violence has created and introduce a new way of intervene the country.

Concepts that reach the global sustainable speech fit into this process, but are also important to include the particularities of the Colombian context in such a way that the peace discourse can acquire the appropriate features that prioritize the best use of the resources and work in function of creating suitable conditions for the creation of a recovered environment. The period in which the country is now exposed is known as transitional and takes into account different fields such as justice, security, economy and social reforms that allow the boundaries of a war phase be added into the structural issues.

It is critical to find strategies to adapt the territory into a new model able to develop accurate possible scenarios that may occur during the next generations. The creation of the agreement the debate has mainly surrounded the political dialogues, but it is important to notice that in this period all the branches of the issues must be covered by the endless actor that might help creating the new reality. This reality begins with the implementation of the agreements by the creation of the Temporary Hamlet Zones for Normalization (Zonas Veredales de Transición y Normalización),36 those 35 Revista Semana Mujica (June 13, 2017). Colombia es un laboratorio de la historia, no lo hagamos fracasar: ‘Pepe’.

Taken from www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/pepe-mujica-desde-cali-habla-de-la-dejacion-de-armas-de-lasfarc/528452 36 Spanish for social change (June 28, 2016). Zonas veredales transitorias de normalización: rural township based temporary normalization zones.

Source: www.spanishforsocialchange.com/2016/06/zonas-veredales-transitorias-de.html

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areas hold the new guerilla’s camps, where are supposed to host the army handover, the transition toward legality and the preparation for civil integration of the members and the FARC-EP structures.

They have already passed six months since December up to May 2017. After this date this territory finishes as a legal figure and the mobilized groups begin with their social life reinstatement whit the next step assigned in the agreement that is the activation of the Productive Projects which enable the territory intro productive places to reinforce the transformation of the guerilla into a peasant or worker that is involved into specific projects built around a predominant product and the land vocation in the area.

The informal and quick way these areas where built keeps the process of a solid and lasting approach to intervene a country that needs the best strategies to start the transformation of peace territories. It is mandatory to act with accuracy in order to respect the ideals of the paper signed.

Because this spaces are supposed to change the guerilla activities for the work in the productive spaces and also includes the peasant who were displaced from their lands, which sums up the crop-substitution program and priorities the quality goods on the countryside, one of the main structural problems in the country. There is urgency into creating a strategy that creates for these zones a transition between temporary settlements into a durable territory.

Similarly to the relevance of the structural problems, it is equally important the transformation of the physical spaces in which all these fields will perform. Since the implementation of the agreement, the TNZ have been working and the way these zones are built in the different areas is a sharp source of analysis in order to understand the future of the hamlets.37 These spaces may become training spaces for the new social group or ex-guerilla, they are also located near the marginal areas affected by the violence and their impact creates a new relation with the legal structure on a social, economic, political and physical level, creating a new identity for the territory. The TNZ are now a critical topic and various documents, articles and even academic, economic, sociological sources will be written of this historical process of reconciliation. Urbanism may be highlighted in this history taking into account that this new urban centers means not only the possession of the land but 37 El Espectador (August 21, 2017) Zonas veredales: cicatrices del conflicto Source: www.colombia2020.elespectador.com/opinion/zonas-veredales-cicatrices-del-conflicto

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Figure 17 Armed presence of all the armed groups and the clustering zones of FARC group

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also the creation of links of the territory with those who inhabit it, especially if, they have been inhabiting the area for decades. In addition is important to notice that people who participated in the drafting of the peace agreements thought these settlements would not last more than 180 days. In fact, these days have already been met and still do not have the minimum conditions of habitability.

Historically, in the popular or informal settlements of the country it is noticed a great spirit of collaboration in community life, so that it is remarkable what can result in building a common habitat for a social group whose survival as a guerilla group has been embedded in the cooperation and care of the group before the individual. And if it is assume that each society, at a given time and in the framework of a specific economic system, produces a sort of ordering of its space, it can be concluded that this is a unique urban and social phenomenon and difficult to reproduce in Colombia.

This phenomenon of evolutionary occupation centers the attention of the experts in offering a criticism to the bodies of institutional planning recognizing in this case “the self-deception of the authorities in defining them as transitory, otherwise the design of these settlements would have commissioned a professional of the matter. On the other hand, that the government agencies and planning offices have not studied the quantitative and qualitative aspects, understanding that historically the city is characterized neither by the number of its inhabitants, nor by the activities of the men who reside there, but because of their particular features of juridical status, sociability and culture.

The FARC came to stay in the 26 rural areas. On concrete embankments are raised wooden poles, eternit ceilings and individual rooms for those who decide to continue alongside the political movement that will emerge. Small citadels, built by the guerrillas in fourteen departments where it is felt that their stay will not be temporary. The real change will be done when the illegal activities turn legal in the productive spaces that must also be linked with this legal economy, creating multiple educational and training movements. The new “Territorial Spaces of training and Reincorporation” (Espacios Territoriales de Capacitación y Reinconrporación).38 After having achieved the historic signing of the Peace Agreement between the National Government and the FARC-EP, its materializa38 CMI (July 31, 2017) Zonas veredales se convierten en territorios de capacitación Source: www.cmi.com.co/proceso-de-paz-con-las-farc/zonas-veredales-se-convierten-en-territorios-de-capacitacion/422190/

tion is at risk due to repeated failures by the government. The situation that is evident in the places destined for the establishment of the ZVTN reveals negligence and noncompliance on the part of the State. The willingness of the guerrillas to mobilize in accordance with the agreed timetable, opposes the state neglect that is reflected in the almost absolute absence of adjustments that allow the zones to comply with the purpose of serving as scenarios for the guarantee of the validity of the Cessation of Fire and Hostilities and initiate the process of preparation for the Leave of Arms and the Reincorporation to the civil life of the structures of the FARC-EP. There are innumerable difficulties in terms of health that refer to the arrival of food in poor condition or in the process of decomposition, the lack of minimum infrastructure adjustments such as access to drinking water, showers and toilets, the lack of evictions and the precarious health care, which especially affects women guerrillas in pregnancy and newborn children.39 The 26 camps or Transitional Normalization Zones would become training centers for rural productive projects. The legal existence of Transitional Standard Zonal Areas (ZVTN) was extended until August 15.40 There remain about 7,000 members of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia-People’s Army or (FARC-EP) in demobilization. Colombia’s high commissioner for peace, Sergio Jaramillo, said that the zones exist until the last container with the weapons of the insurgent group’s personnel comes out. Between the agreements that have converged both parties in which the constructions happen to become the training centers for the rural productive projects. The constructions where members of the revolutionary movement were housed would become training centers for rural productive projects,41 was one of the agreements in which both parties converged.

Immediately leave a container of an area, it ceased to exist and become a Territorial Space for Training and Reincorporation where to govern institutional normality. The process will be gradual as the Colombian Government’s High Commissioner for Peace confirmed procedure that is nowadays under the management of the corresponding actors.

39 Sucesos y opiniones (February 19, 2017) Convocatoria Nacional para visitar las Zonas Veredales Transitorias de Normalización.

Source: www.sucesosyopiniones.com/?p=71 40 Telesur (July 28, 2017) Zonas Veredales de las FARC-EP van hasta el 15 de agosto.

Source: www.telesurtv.net/news/Zonas-veredales-de-FARC-EP-existiran-hasta-el-15-de-agosto-20170728-0064.html 41 ADR Agencia de Desarrollo Rural (March 23, 2017). Proyectos productivos por $13 mil millones se adelantarán en Zonas Veredales.

Source www.adr.gov.co/index.php/sala-de-prensa/noticias/93-proyectos-productivos-por-13-mil-millones-se-adelantaran-en-zonas-veredales

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Figure 18 Progress and construction phases of the Transitional Normalization Zones Done by the author. Information taken from El Colombiano (March 12, 2017) “Las FARC se quedarían en las zonas veredales”.

Source: www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/paz-y-derechos-humanos/las-farc-se-quedarian-en-las-zonas-veredales-DG6190207

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Figure 19 Vocational productive projects of the Transitional Normalization Zones Done by the author. Information taken from Pressreader (March 28, 2017). Proyectos productivos por $13 mil millones se adelantarรกn en Zonas Veredales.

Source: www.pressreader.com/colombia/el-colombiano/20170328/281517930955015

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Infograph made by a national newspaper introducing the expecting development of the Temporary Normalization Zones.

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Figure 20 Architecture for temporary complex of a Transitional Normalization Zones Information taken from El Colombiano (July 07, 2017) Estudio revela cómo son las FARC por dentro�.

Source: www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/paz-y-derechos-humanos/estudio-revela-como-son-las-farc-por-dentro-FD6858766

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02.1 MESETAS CASE TUDY TEMPORARY NORMALIZATION ZONE

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Figure 21 Aerial photograph of the Temporary Normalization Zone of Mesetas Photograph by Luis G. Gรณmez. Source: www.lggomez.co/#/farc-mesetas/

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Figure 22 Temporary Normalization Zone Area Done by the author

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Figure 23 Departamental territorial approach Done by the author

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Figure 24 Mesetas territorial approach Done by the author

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Figure 25 Temporary Normalization Zone territorial approach Done by the author

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Figure 26 Temporary Normalization Zone territorial approach Done by the author

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Figure 27 Temporary Normalization Zone territorial plan with referential photographs Done by the author

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Figure 28 Referential photographs of the area: hydric resources Source: Google street view

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Figure 29 Referential photographs of the area: roads Source: Google street view

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Figure 30 Temporary Normalization Zone local settlement Done by the author

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MICROCLIMATE CONDITIONS

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Figure 31 Microclimate of Mesetas Information taken from 1) es.climate-data.org/location/34126/ 2) www.weatherspark.com/y/23313/Average-Weather-in-Mesetas-Colombia-Year-Round

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MICROCLIMATE CONDITIONS

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Figure 32 Microclimate of Mesetas Information taken from 1) es.climate-data.org/location/34126/ 2) www.weatherspark.com/y/23313/Average-Weather-in-Mesetas-Colombia-Year-Round

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Figure 33 Aerial photograph Temporary Normalization Zone ‘Mesetas’ Taken from ArchDaily (July 5, 2017) ¿Cuál será el futuro del urbanismo del posconflicto en Colombia?

Source: www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/874871/cual-sera-el-futuro-del-urbanismo-del-posconflicto-en-colombia

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Figure 34 Spatial settlement of the Temporary Normalization Zone ‘La Guajira-Mesetas’ Done by the author

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Figure 35 Functional distribution of the Temporary Normalization Zone ‘La Guajira-Mesetas’ Taken from ArchDaily (July 5, 2017) ¿Cuál será el futuro del urbanismo del posconflicto en Colombia?

Source: www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/874871/cual-sera-el-futuro-del-urbanismo-del-posconflicto-en-colombia

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Figure 36 Physical Features of the Temporary Normalization Zone ‘Mesetas’ Done by the author

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Figure 37 Physical Features of the Temporary Normalization Zone ‘Mesetas’ Done by the author

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Figure 38 Analysis of the Temporary Normalization Zone ‘Mesetas’ Done by the author

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Figure 39 Analysis of the Temporary Normalization Zone ‘Mesetas’ Done by the author

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Figure 40 Analysis of the Temporary Normalization Zone ‘Mesetas’ Done by the author

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The cocoa is selected as the base product for the creation of a productive project. This product is proposed by the government to be introduced in the case study area: The Territorial Space of Training and Reincorporation (TSTR) ‘La Guajira’ in Mesetas. Each ‘TSTR’ has different options of products depending on the vocation of the territory and a previous knowledge on the physical and economic potential. In the area of ‘La Guajira’ is proposed coffee, rubber and cocoa.

03

COCOA AS A PRODUCTIVE PROJECT

In order to study the possibilities of an architectonical and a territorial intervention proposal, it was necessary to choose a specific product and define the cycle production, the product technology, the possibilites of the resource, understand the industrial and traditional process, study the background of the cocoa in the territory and introduce the formal advantages that can be apply from a traditional productive farm. The recognition of a correct knowledge of the product, its potential and the holistic treatment is one of the keys for developing, not only a sustainable legal economy, but also to impulse innovative strategies for a territory transformation.

03.1 THE PRODUCT A driver force for sustainable development Agroforestry systems, including cocoa, form large biological habitats or corridors value for biodiversity. There more carbon is stored than in any other type of agro-business operation. They are environments that better resist the meteorological events provoked for climate change. Most of the water on which cities depend is born in the highlands, where coffee and cocoa farms protect this resource. From the economic and social point of view, the cocoa is the backbone of hundreds of rural communities. However, in them there is a shortage of sources of income and ability to generate livelihoods. At the same time, the cocoa-producing communities exhibit strong pockets of poverty.

Many farms are damaged by years of abandonment. The scarce income that they perceive farmers are not enough to get out of poverty. Young people, who do not find employment opportunities or attract the continued productive work of their older, are the most affected by this reality. The result

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is the migration of young generations, who leave to urban centers, thus feeding the belt of poverty in cities. Cocoa can be an engine of change for eliminating poverty in communities with a cocoa vocation. It can boost development human so that families have a better quality of life, free from poverty, and empowerment of women and youth integrating them as key actors of the welfare of their communities. To achieve these changes, however, you have to transform the Colombian cocoa sector.

To make the change you have to invest urgently, not only in capacity production of the farms, but also in their communities. Governments play a role important and must assume a position of leadership, but they cannot do it alone. The private sector has the responsibility of boost sustainability through its supply chains. The institutions of Research and Non-Organizations Government also have a lot to contribute. It is about the joint action of public and private institutions with eyes in one direction: the welfare of the communities, the preservation of the environment, quality of life of the people. The paradigm of sustainable human development in Colombia, contribute to achieve the objectives of sustainable development, in particular those linked to poverty, sustainable production and consumption, and change climate, among others, in the long term.

Social contribution The cultivation of cacao, due to its characteristics, demands labor, which in many cases is provided by the family, and on some occasions, labor or skilled labor are contracted for key tasks for the development of the crop, such as grafting, pruning. or the harvest.

This characteristic makes it an important producer of both direct and indirect employment; it is estimated that in the phase of management and support for every three hectares of cocoa a permanent rural employment is generated.

Therefore, it is considered that this crop boosts the economy of the areas in which cocoa projects are developed, which in many cases are located in regions that present diverse social problems such as poverty, unemployment, violence and the presence of illicit crops and armed groups. That is why, thanks to the support of both public and private entities and national and international order has been achieved in recent years to implement inter-institutional agreements that have benefited especially the new cocoa farmers who venture into new planting projects in Colombia.

These projects have contributed not only to improve the living conditions of families with the cultivation of cocoa and its accompanying species, but also in some cases the beneficiaries have received aid on issues such as food security and basic sanitation and support and support to the peasant organizations through training and accompaniment especially in associative, accounting and marketing. Continuous technical training has also been provided to farmers in the cocoa areas of the country in order to give sustainability to productive projects and thanks to the work done, in many conflict zones and with problems such as the presence of illicit crops has been achieved change for the better the lives of many rural families who today live mainly from the cultivation of cocoa.

Economic contribution According to estimates made by FEDECACAO, by the end of 2013, a total area of approximately 155,000 hectares will have been planted, with production growth estimated at close to 26%, which is expected to translate into an increase in the country’s domestic grain supply and improve and boost the economy especially in the areas with new crops that will enter into production and against the expectations of good prices generated mainly by climatic conditions in Côte d’Ivoire. t is also estimated that the cultivation of cocoa is the main source of income for some 30,000 Colombian peasant families who derive their livelihood. These data are also approximate and it is expected that with the realization of the National Agricultural Census 2013-2014 and later if there are resources for a National Cacao Census there will be more clarity regarding.

Thanks to the different agreements and projects executed by Fedecacao and those carried out by other entities, considerable investments have been made in the cocoa subsector in the latter, directly benefiting farmers through the generation of income sources. However, it cannot be denied that the structure of the market, the low competitiveness of our agriculture in the face of our possible competition, the low levels of adoption of technology, the precarious social conditions of producers and the dependence on price fluctuations, smuggling and evasion, among other factors, contribute to a fragile economic equilibrium.

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Environmental contribution It is a crop that is ideally developed within agroforestry systems, in which short-cycle crops, temporary shady and permanent shady are associated with cocoa. This from the environmental and productive point of view presents a series of positive aspects such as: Preserve biodiversity, preserve or promote a favorable microclimate.

Increase plant and animal productivity, diversify production, integrate forestry production with agriculture, reduce the risks of the farmer, mitigate the harmful effects of the sun, wind and rain on the soil, combine the best of traditional knowledge with knowledge modern, ensure sustainability through appropriate intensification in land use, improve the recycling of nutrients, protect soil against erosion, positively influence the management of pests, reduce competition with the crop, use multi-purpose species and persistent, favor the rapid regeneration of leaves, promote high production of litter, improve nitrogen fixation, create an environment favorable to the growth of a strong radical system, provide food, raw materials, fuels, fodder and promote biodiversity.

Compared with most of the crops we know, cocoa requires a smaller amount of external inputs to the system such as insecticides, fungicides, fertilizers and other pesticides and in many cases these can be prepared easily by the same farmer using own materials of the same farm easy to achieve and lower costs than agrochemicals.

The previous explanation and the strategic location of many cocoa plantations in areas with high pressure on ecosystems by activities such as deforestation, mining and illicit crops, largely make it a productive system suitable for the preservation of many habitats for important species of flora and fauna.

Figure 41 Harvest of cocoa fruit Taken from www.eldia.es/economia/2017-04-01/4-cacao-brasileno-expande-habitat-revitaliza-economia-Amazonia.htm

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Process and treatment 42

color and bitter taste.

1. Types and varieties It is a perennial plant that once planted produces for about 30 years.

It reaches a height of more than 4 meters. Its scientific name is Theobroma cacao, which means: Food of the gods. It belongs to the Malvaceae family. The cacao is recognized by the shape of the cob, the color of the flower, the shape of the seed, its color and flavor. Originally there are two types of cocoa and other variations:

c. The crossing of these two groups gave rise to the ‘Cacao Trinitario’, named for having its origin in the coast of Venezuela. From the repeated crossing between them, the different types of cocoa that are known and used today originated. Of every 100 cocoa beans produced in the world, 15 grains are of Trinitario cocoa.

In Latin America, the ‘Criollo cacao’ with trinitarian characteristics predominate, because they combine the characteristics of cocoa for export, where international markets demand larger seeds of good appearance and flavor.

a. ‘Cacao criollo’ from Central America, Colombia and Venezuela that produces sweet cocoa and intense aroma. Of every 100 cocoa beans produced in the world, 5 grains are from this type. It is distinguished because it has elongated fruits that end in a thin tip. It has a soft shell and round seeds, white to violet, sweet and pleasant flavor. The cob is recognized by having ten rows in pairs well marked along. Five of these grooves are deeper with ridges protruding: they are wrinkled and irregular. Its seeds are white and sweet taste, it has high fat content so the grain provides a better taste and aroma to chocolate. The grains or seeds of this cocoa are of higher quality. It has a special market and a better price. The production of this cocoa is very little in the world. Nowadays is preferred because it is a fine cocoa and because of the ease to adapt to different environmental conditions. b. The ‘Cacao Forastero’ that originates from the Amazona and Brazil, produces bitter cocoa. Of every 100 cocoa beans that are produced in the world, 80 grains are from this type. It is characterized by its round, smooth, hard-shelled fruits with flattened grains of purple 42 Information taken from Guide 1 ‘Cocoa in agroforestry systems’, Guide 3 ‘Production of cocoa plants in nursery’ and Guide 8 ‘Cocoa in agroforestry systems’ from www.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming in Agroforestry Systems by Lutheran World Relief is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

e. Grafting is a way to reproduce a cacao tree with fewer surprises, than those reproduced by seeds. With the graft, the tree that is going to obtain, is a copy equal to the tree from which the yolk was cut. This copy is called a clone. The Clones among the cocoa are the varieties that have been achieved in the research centers.

They reproduce them from the tissues of the branches with buds Figure 42 Cocoa fruit varieties: Criollo, Forastero, Trinitario, Acriollado Hybrid and grafting

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Figure 41-50 Images in this chapter taken from www.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming in Agroforestry Systems by Lutheran World Relief is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

d. There is also the ‘Acriollado Hybrid Cacao’ is what has been achieved by crossing different trees that have been studied and selected for being the best: for the quality of the seed, for being very productive and for its resistance to diseases. The seed has an excellent chocolate flavor and high butter content. The ‘Cocoa Intermediate Hybrid’ The pod husks are large, with deep grooves, thick, rough and has no double furrows. The seeds are purple or a mixture with some white seeds. The ‘Cacao Hybrid Forastero’ husk are round in shape, smooth surface or oval shaped ears. They are hard and smooth shell. Its seeds are small flattened with a bitter taste, they are usually purple.

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or buds. When these new plants grow, they behave just like the tree where the branch or the tree was cut. This is called Clone. The clones are identified with letters and numbers assigned by the experimental centers.

2.The cocoa tree The cocoa tree reaches a height between 4 and 8 meters. Its glass is round, with a width of 2 to 4 meters. The trunk is straight and its shape depends on the training pruning. The root of the cocoa has a main root that grows down to about 2 meters and many secondary roots that come out to the sides in the first 30 centimeters of the soil.

The cocoa leaves are simple, elongated, green and whole. Their colors range from light brown, purple to reddish and pale green.

Cocoa flowers are small and are produced in small clusters called floral cushions, which sprout on the trunk and branches held by a peduncle or trunks where the flower is stuck one to three centimeters long.

following day.

Figure 43 Cocoa tree

Figure 44 Cocoa tree

The flowers have the color according to the variety of cocoa. There are from pink, purFigure 45 Cocoa flower ple and white. The shape of the flower is of a five-pointed star. These tips are the petals that are narrow at the base, and widen at the end forming a small cap of a centimeter to a centimeter and a half wide. It is two to two and a half centimeters long. The flowers open in the afternoon and allow to be pollinated throughout the

The fruits or husks have different shapes and sizes, according to the variety. They measure between 15 to 30 centimeters long and 7 to 10 centimeters wide. They are pointed and with ridges along the cob. There are husks of smooth, wrinkled peels, round and elongated, of varied colors ranging from red, yellow, green, purple or brown.

The seeds of each ear contain 20 to 40 seeds, which can be flat or rounded, white, brown or purple, 2 to 3 centimeters long. The seeds are covered by a thin layer called white mucilage, with a sweet or slightly acid taste, depending on the variety. The seed in the interior is formed by two cotyledons of oval and flattened shape. They are rich in starch, proteins, fats, which gives them a high nutritional value.

The seed germinates quickly when it reaches maturity when it loses mucilage or slime and cannot be stored for sowing.

Figure 46 Cocoa cob

Figure 47 Cocoa cob

3.Cacao process a. Reproduction: The cultivation of cocoa can be reproduced by sexual crossing, which is what gives rise to the seed or by asexual crossing through stakes, layers and buds.Sexual propagation is the most widespread and easiest way to reproduce cocoa. It consists of using the selected seed of the trees that have been chosen as the best ones. These trees are called elite trees, mother trees

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or seed-producing trees because they have better qualities in terms of their vigor and form of development, production and resistance to diseases and pests.

The cocoa seed is produced from the natural pollination of cocoa flowers. The flower is hermaphrodite, meaning that the same flower has pollen and pistil, that is, both sexes. Pollen is the one that fecundates the ovary that is inside the pistil. The male organ is formed by stamens, which carry the pollen. One flower has five true white stamens and five false purple stamens. Cocoa pollen is found at the head of the white stamens. The female organ is the pistil formed by stigma, style and ovary. The function of these flowers is reproduction. The pollination work is done by insects, among them the cocoa fly, Forcipomyia, which is a tiny and fragile fly highly vulnerable to the application of chemical pesticides.

Figure 48 Preparation for the cocoa seed cultivation

In the cobs that have reached maturity, the seeds are ready to germinate or to be born. New plants are developed from the seeds that develop with varied characteristics, so the planting becomes very diverse. The seeds must receive an adequate treatment so that they can grow and develop uniformly.

An elite tree has a good structure, strong stem, well-formed fork and robust main branches. An elite tree should have a good production and at least five years of being in full harvest. The productive capacity of the plants is determined by valuing the harvest during these years. A plant with more than 200 cobs of corn produced per year is considered very well. A plant with 100 to 200 cobs of corn produced per year is considered good. A plant that gives between 50 and 100 cobs a year is considered as regular. A plant with less than 50 cobs produced per year does not serve as an elite or mother plant. An elite tree must also have high tolerance to pests and diseases. Through a process of observation and registration of several cycles of development and production, it must be verified that the plant has little or no incidence of pests and diseases. After the selection of the cob and its seeds and their correct preparation, they are mixed with humid sawdust and packed in plastic bags, so that the pre-germinate process begins, three days after packing.

Asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction of cocoa using the vegetative tissues of elite plants or clones, which may be buds, branches or stakes.

A new cocoa plant is formed from these tissues of the selected plants. The most used method is grafting. The graft is a method of asexual propagation in which the qualities of a plant selected for its high productive capacity and quality are exploited, so that it develops Figure 49 Cocoa tree from a sexual reproduction typology on another different plant known as the base plant or the pattern. Likewise, it takes advantage of the capacity of resistance to the physical conditions and diseases of the soil, which must have the plants that will serve as the base or the pattern.

Grafting is the most widespread method of asexual reproduction of cocoa and is done with the purpose of obtaining trees equal to the tree from which the tissue was removed. That is, they re-

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produce faithfully the characteristics of the trees that have been selected to propagate. This avoids large variations in the productive behavior of the new tree, as occurs when propagated by seed. The buds are small buds of growth that emerge at the base of the leaves. These shoots have the ability to reproduce the characteristics of the plant from which it comes. b.Greenhouse crop: To achieve a good cocoa development, the first step is to establish a healthy plantation in a well-assembled agroforestry design and with varieties of cocoa suitable for the place. Therefore, the nursery is the most critical and most important stage in the process of cocoa production in agroforestry systems. The nursery is the place where soil and climate conditions are guaranteed for the proper development of cocoa plants, either by seed reproduction or by grafting.

The plant that receives the necessary care in this period has a greater chance of surviving after the transplant and develops better since in the nursery: The germination of the seeds is guaranteed/ There is greater care and protection of plant/ A more vigorous and uniform development of the plants is achieved in a short time/ Plagues and diseases are more easily controlled/ It facilitates the

realization of the graft and the management of grafted plants.

The size of a nursery depends on the number of plants that will be produced to establish a cocoa area. For example: if it is going to establish a cocoa block with a distance of 3.25 meters x 3.25 meters, it will be needed 625 cocoa plants. When one hectare of cocoa is established at a distance of 3 by 3 meters, 1,111 plants are needed, plus a calculation of losses. It is estimated that in an area of one meter wide by 6.8 meters long, they reach 500 bags for cocoa of a bag size of 6 by 8 inches.

The location of the nursery is of great importance to ensure the production of quality plants. For the selection of the nursery site should be considered: •That is near the place of the transplant, to avoid damage or mistreatment to the plants during the transfer to the final site.

•That allows the transfer of equipment and tools without difficulty for the person and their management tasks.

•That is close to the source of water, to make timely irrigation to plants, especially in a situation of water scarcity.

•The nursery should be protected from animals that can damage plants, protected from the wind and with good lighting.

•The land must be flat to facilitate the quality of the plants. In places of hillsides or broken, the construction of terraces is a possibility.

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Figure 50 Cocoa greenhouse crop

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The management of the nursery needs special care, otherwise the resources and the time invested may be lost. There are different tasks to be performed for the proper management of a nursery: Sowing of the seed, Irrigation, weed control, shadow regulation, fertilization and pest control. c.Agroforesty system A cacao plantation planted by a family is a system composed of cacao trees, timber trees that provide shade, climate, soil, large and small animals that live in the cacao plantation and the relationships they develop with each other. The cocoa agroforestry systems of Latin America have a great diversity of association of cocoa with trees. Many of the arrangements are based on the wishes and preferences of the cocoa families, especially on small farms. Most families seek to combine the production of cocoa with the supply of other products such as bananas, bananas, firewood, wood and fruits for consumption and sale. In an agroforestry system different plant species (agricultural crops and timber species) are associated. Cacao crops are associated with short-cycle species, temporary or transient gloom and permanent shade species, which may be timber species, fruit trees or industrial crops or the combination of these species.

For the design of a cocoa crop under the agroforestry system and guarantee its success, several aspects must be taken into account such as: the objectives of the crop, the selection of the species to be planted, the genetic material to be used, its spatial distribution, the planting distances, the agroecological conditions of the area, the market, the availability of resources, etc. In the establishment of the cocoa agroforestry system, three stages are defined: establishment, development and production, which may also be called, installation, lifting and management or maintenance.

the green ears. After the cut, the cob is broken, classifying it by variety. The slobber is taken to the collection centers, for its proper fermentation and drying.

In the cacao plantations, throughout the year, there are ripe cobs and cut. But there are times when the harvest is strongest according to the cycle of flowering, fruiting and ripening of the cobs. The harvest of the fruits must be done when the ears are in their point. To avoid over-ripening or aging, the harvest can be done every 15 days or every month. If the plantation is small, the cuts can be made every week. In the year, there are two large harvests and during the peaks of the harvests, the cut must be made every eight days. It is important the classification, the recognition of mature cobs, the selection, the correct opening and use of tools, transportation and treatment of the cocoa slobber. e.Fermentation Once the cob is broken, the grains are removed with the following care. Pour the cocoa beans into slime in a bucket, tub or plastic bag. The container must be clean and free of odors so that the slime stays clean and of a good ferment. The fermentation of cocoa starts from the moment the cob is opened. So it is important to do not let much time go by to take it to the fermentation center, don’t more than 6 hours pass between the break of the cob and the delivery in the center or if it ferments directly, once the cob is opened, the fermentation must start.

d.Harvest In good conditions, cocoa is a crop that begins to produce after three years and gives fruits of corn all year round. The harvest begins when the fruit or cob is ripe, and it is made according to the variety of cacao. The maturity of the cob is appreciated by its change of color: from green to yellow or from red to orange yellow.

The fermentation process contains two phases: the airless, anaerobic or alcoholic phase where the yeasts transform the starch and sugars of the mucilage into alcohol ethanol and release carbon dioxide. This phase lasts the first two days of the process. The phase with air, aerobic or acetic is when bacteria called Acetobacter transform Ethanol into acetic acid, which penetrates into the seed producing changes that produce substances that give good flavor and aroma to cocoa. The fermentation process occurs for 6 to 8 days. Fermentation prevents the cocoa beans from germinating, which is also known as the “death of the grain�.

When the greatest harvest occurs, it must be cut every 8 days and in low harvest, it is cut every 15 days to prevent the cocoa from over-ripening. During harvesting by variety: Trinitario, Criollo and Foreigner, the cut of the cob must be made with great care so as not to damage the flower buds or

There are two methods of fermentation: The method of fermentation in boxes or trays that is suitable for smaller quantities and the fermentation method in boxes placed in the form of a ladder suitable for larger quantities in the harvest.

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The method of fermentation in trays Rohan type is also known as fermentation in drawers. For this, trays of different sizes are used, with an edge height of 10 centimeters to facilitate rapid fermentation. The most used Rohan trays are 120 cm long, 90 cm wide and 10 cm high. At the bottom of the trays there are slits between the boards that allow the slime or mucilage to come out and the grains not to come out. The approximate capacity of each tray is 240 pounds of slime cocoa. Then it is stacked up to 12 trays high and the first tray above is covered with banana leaves. After 24 hours, the entire stack of trays is covered with a tightly fitting bag cloth to increase the temperature.

The turns of the cocoa mass consist in mobilizing the beans in fermentation and are done three times during 72 hours. Depending on the conditions of the grain and the climate, the fermentation can be completed and the drying stage can be carried out within 120 hours or 5 days. At other times, the ferment process may last longer and take between 5 and 8 days.

The stair method or ladder form is considered to be an improvement over the other methods. This process requires a fixed volume of grains and it is thought that it is the method of choice most used for handling large volumes of cocoa. The drawer can be a single unit or a number of compartments in the form of a staircase, the dimensions vary, being the average measurements used more than 1 meter by 1 meter by 1 meter. These boxes contain between 600 and 800 kg of grains (moist) of cocoa.

The drawers always rise above ground level and are placed on a drain that takes away the pulp juices released by the degradation of the mucilage during fermentation. The wooden floor of the boxes generally has gaps or spaces between the tables to facilitate drainage and aeration. The recommendation is to ferment from 6 to 7 days the mass of cocoa with two or three turns during the process. The progress of the fermentation is evaluated by the smell and color of the external and internal changes in the grains. f.Drying After the beans have been fermented they have a moisture content that goes from 40% to 50% that should be reduced to 6% or 7%, for a safe storage. The drying process is based on the movement of air in the grains to help lower the humidity. During sun drying, the grains are placed

on wooden platforms in layers of 5 to 7 cm thick. The grains move constantly to reach a uniform drying, separate the grains, so they do not stick together and prevent the growth of mold. The drying times vary according to the climatic conditions in the zones, but the initial drying must be slow of at least 48 hours and constantly move the grains. In the collection centers there are drying tunnels. These are a species of huts that have the wooden skeleton and are lined with transparent plastic. The floor of the drying tunnel is made of concrete to reduce humidity in the environment. g.Storage To maintain the quality of dry cocoa, it should be stored in a dry and ventilated place, under conditions of relative humidity of 65% to 70% where it is not contaminated with odors of gasoline, kerosene, agricultural poisons and other types of materials that affect the quality of cocoa.

Before packing the grains, a selection is made where all the impurities are eliminated, like garbage, broken, moldy, glued, vain and small grains. This can be done manually or with sorters of grains in such a way that only healthy grains suitable for sale are selected. The dried cocoa beans are packed in 60 kg sacks of twine or jute. With a maximum height of 6 bags, the storage time should be three months. h.Testing The cut test consists of taking from a bag of dried cocoa a sample of 50 grains representing the grains of that bag. The grains are split along with a guillotine or knife, so that the grain is split into two caps or halves, making it possible to observe the grain inside. A well fermented grain is crisp inside, brown, not flat and has no purple or violet color. For good quality cocoa, the percentage of fermented grains in the sample must be greater than 80%.

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4.Environmental requirements For its better growth and development, the cultivation of cocoa needs soils with a good proportion of sand, clay and silt, which is known as texture; good depth and good drainage; rich in organic matter. Cocoa adapts to soils from sea level to 900 meters, with a humid and rainy climate and a temperature between 24 and 26 degrees centigrade.The constituent elements of the climate are temperature, pressure, winds, humidity and rainfallAll of them have an important influence on the production of cocoa, however it is known that those that have a greater weight in the equation are rainfall, temperature and humidity. a.Precipitation Cocoa can be planted in areas where annual rainfall varies between 1,500 and 3,800 mm, with the range between 1,800 and 2,600 mm where it is best developed, the range moderately suitable for planting is between 1,500 and 1,800 mm and 2,600 to 3,200 mm, where crops can be developed with some type of limitations that may lead to the need for management practices additional to those commonly used26. In areas of lower rainfall, cocoa can be grown with the artificial implementation of irrigation. In the case of areas with high rainfall, there is a high risk of phytosanitary problems, which makes their management very costly and costly. b.Temperature The regime for cocoa is between 18 and 32 °C, where the most suitable temperatures are between 24 to 28 °C and moderately suitable is the range between 20 to 24 °C, and the 28 at 30 °C, temperatures below 18 °C and above 32 °C hinder the proper development of cocoa. The factor temperature is key for the cultivation of cocoa since for example the variations greater than 9 °C between day and night affect the pollination and the formation of the fruits, in the same way the flowers of the cocoa are not formed under temperatures lower than 25 °C.

c.Humidity According to some authors the cocoa needs a high relative humidity for its full development, however others claim that there is no evidence of this and that the relative humidity of the air can drop up to 40 to 50% without negatively affecting the plant always and when there is enough water in the soil. This is one of the reasons why cocoa can be grown in dry areas where there is the possibility of applying additional irrigation, as in the case of the Dry Inter-Andean Valleys. d.Winds The literature reports that winds with a velocity greater than> 4 m / sec are harmful, since they increase the desiccation of the leaves and prevent pollination. However, this effect is minimal since once the crop closes, the barrier effect of the same cocoa trees and the shady makes the influence of the wind practically only occurs only at the edges of the lots. e.Latitude Cocoa can only be planted in the tropical zone of the earth, starting from the equator up to 15 or 20 ° of Latitude, both to the north and to the south. f.Altitude According to certain authors, the optimal altitudinal range for the cultivation of cocoa is between 400 and 1,229 meters above sea level, however, this criterion has been reassessed since in Colombia there are large areas of cultivation where there is an excellent development of Cocoa trees are found from sea level onwards, as is the case of the departments of Arauca, Magdalena, Antioquia and Nariño. Heights greater than 1,200 meters above sea level are considered marginal conditions for cocoa growth, since temperatures in general are too low to guarantee good plantation productivity. However, in some regions you can find a few special microclimates in which cocoa can be explored above this altitudinal range.

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Figure 51 Eco-physiological and management requirements for the cultivation of cocoa in Colombia Information taken from ‘Guía Ambiental para el cultivo del cacao’ Produced by ‘Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural’, Federación Nacional de Cacaoteros, Fondo Nacional del cacao, December 2013.

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5. Cocoa market The cocoa market is the part of the chain that most concerns individual producers and producer organizations, especially for the price, the volume demanded by the market, and the demands of market parameters. Therefore, it is always better to have several markets where you can place your production, than a single buyer for your harvest. In this area, there are different requirements of the buyers depending on who is going to sell. This will determine the work and care that must be done to market the product. The markets for cocoa are defined by the existing demand. There is a national market that buys cocoa for the cereal industry, ice cream, flavored milk and other products. There is the local market that buys unfermented cocoa for the traditional drinks of cereals. In the national market there are companies that buy to export. When it is for the production of chocolate or cocoa butter, they buy it fermented. There are also the small

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Figure 52 World’s Cocoa beans production in tons Taken from en.actualitix.com/country/wld/cocoa-bean-producing-countries.php

national companies that produce chocolates, which buy quality fermented cocoa. In the national market are the local merchants, wholesalers, retailers and intermediaries who manage the market.

The organic cocoa is the cocoa produced that does not harm the environment or the health of the producer. This has been certified in accordance with the regulations for organic production of the European Union, the United States and Japan. Organic certification requires producers to be organized and trained to comply with the norms of organic production and establish internal control in their compliance. There is also the possibility of fair trade markets.

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Information taken from 1) www.larepublica.co/economia/el-consumo-de-cacao-crece-a-un-ritmo-de-11-y-es-un-potencial-exportador-2302806 2) www.larepublica.co/economia/tasa-de-cambio-por-debajo-de-2000-le-amargo-la-bonanza-de-exportaciones-a-los-cacaocultores-2172341 3) Pictures at the bibliography

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Figure 53 From coca to cocoa

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Figure 54 From coca to cocoa

Information taken from 1) www.larepublica.co/economia/el-consumo-de-cacao-crece-a-un-ritmo-de-11-y-es-un-potencial-exportador-2302806 2) www.larepublica.co/economia/tasa-de-cambio-por-debajo-de-2000-le-amargo-la-bonanza-de-exportaciones-a-los-cacaocultores-2172341 3) Pictures at the bibliography

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03.2

SPATIAL FEATURES FOR COCOA PRODUCTION

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Figure 55 Spatial features for cocoa cultivation Done by the author Pictures and information taken from www.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming.

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Figure 56 Spatial features for cocoa cultivation: Greencrops Done by the author Pictures and information taken from www.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming.

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Figure 57 Spatial features for cocoa cultivation: flat plantation Done by the author Pictures and information taken from www.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming.

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Figure 58 Spatial features for cocoa cultivation Done by the author Pictures taken from www.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming.

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Figure 59 Spatial features for cocoa cultivation: Flat plantation Done by the author Pictures and information taken from www.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming.

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Figure 60 Spatial features for cocoa cultivation Done by the author Pictures and information taken from Environmental Guide for Cocoa Cultivation done by Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural, Federaciรณn Nacional de Cacaoteros, and Fondo Nacional del cacao, Page 82, Second edition, December 2013.

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Figure 61 Spatial features for cocoa cultivation: Flat plantation Done by the author Pictures and information taken from www.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming.

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Figure 62 Spatial features for cocoa cultivation Done by the author Pictures and information taken from Environmental Guide for Cocoa Cultivation done by Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural, Federaciรณn Nacional de Cacaoteros, and Fondo Nacional del cacao, Page 82, Second edition, December 2013.

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Figure 63 Spatial features for cocoa cultivation: fermentation and drying Done by the author Pictures and information taken from1) www.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming 2) Environmental Guide for Cocoa Cultivation done by Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural, Federación Nacional de Cacaoteros, and Fondo Nacional del cacao, Page 82, Second edition, December 2013.

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Environmental management measures

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Figure 64 Environmental management measures proposed by the Ministry of Environment, Housing and Territorial development with the Decree 1220 of 2005, Title VIII of Law 99 of 1993 on environmental permits is regulated.

Information taken from Environmental Guide for Cocoa Cultivation done by Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural, Federaciรณn Nacional de Cacaoteros, and Fondo Nacional del cacao, Page 82, Second edition, December 2013.

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03.3 POTENTIAL USE The following potential uses of cocoa area displayed as a range of possible options that during the production process of cocoa explained previously. The researches argues the wide group of challenges, industries, actors and investigations in process that involved in the comprehension of a closed-cycle use of a productive project, the efficient use of the product and the possible strategies or solutions that could be applied on the proposed scenario.

The fruit would present other potential uses, since most producing companies use only about 10% of the fruit, which is the seed, and the rest is discarded. The other part, about 90% of resources that are not used, translates into environmental problems, such as the appearance of diseases and pests, bad smells and inefficient waste disposal that contribute to the erosion of the cocoa crop.

This problem, translated into lack of creation and innovation initiatives in obtaining products derived from cocoa, could be transformed through the generation of economic and environmental benefits of waste from the fruit, such as pulp in this case.

1.Solid waste-based brick of cocoa shell.43 The materials used for the manufacture of agro industrial solid waste-based bricks (ASWBs) consisted of raw clay-rich material, cocoa shell, sawdust, rice husk and sugarcane. The agroindustry generates considerable quantities of solid wastes which are rich in organic matter and could constitute new materials for value added products. Because of their biodegradable nature, several agro industrial residues can be safely disposed of; however, the amount of discharged residues is expected to increase dramatically in the future. In Colombia, they are mostly underutilized, untreat43 Lisset Maritza Luna-CaĂąas , Carlos Alberto RĂ­os-Reyes & Luz Amparo Quintero-OrtĂ­z. Recycling of agroindustrial solid wastes as additives in brick manufacturing for development of sustainable construction materials. Universidad Nacional, October 25 , 2014.

ed and thus in most cases disposed off by unplanned landfilling.

Due to increasing landfill costs, stricter environmental regulation and current interest in sustainable development, the effective recycling of agro industrial residues for the manufacture of bricks of greater value to mitigate the depletion of resources and environmental impact has become an increasing concern in recent years. Traditional construction materials, including bricks, are being produced from existing natural resources, which is destroying the environment due to their continuous exploration and depletion. On the other hand, large concentrations of toxic substances are emitted into the atmosphere during the manufacturing process of construction materials, which has a strong negative environmental impact.

Consequently, major changes regarding the conservation of resources and recycling of wastes by proper management are taking place in our ways of living and working. Many authorities and investigators are lately working to have the privilege of reusing the wastes in environmentally and economically sustainable ways. Therefore to satisfy the continuously increasing demand, researchers are incorporating solid wastes for the manufacturing of novel construction materials to develop sustainable alternative solutions. From the standpoint of energy saving and conservation of natural resources, the use of alternative constituents in construction materials is now a global concern. It well known that almost all the buildings comprise a structure of reinforced concrete and facade made of brick walls.

Attempts have been made to incorporate several industrial wastes in the manufacturing of bricks, including paper-making pulp, cigarette butts, steel slag, fly ash, water treatment sludge, thin film transistor liquid crystal display optical glass, processed tea, sawdust, cotton waste, polystyrene fabric, rubber, granite sludge, limestone powder waste and waste foundry sands. These studies demonstrated that the use of waste materials can save energy and enhance brick quality. The purpose of our research was to develop a comparative study on the use of several agro industrial wastes (cocoa shell, sawdust, rice husk and sugarcane) in the manufacturing of bricks. The experimental study includes a laboratory simulation of the industrial brick-making process to assess technological feasibility, and technological trial to validate prior results. The materials used for the

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manufacture of agro industrial solid waste-based bricks (ASWBs) consisted of raw clay-rich material, cocoa shell, sawdust, rice husk and sugarcane.

tities. The procurement of this raw material is totally cost free, as it is usually discarded as a waste product. The research determine the admixture properties of CPHA in concrete and cement paste.

During different agro industrial activities, huge quantity of solid wastes can be generated as by-products, which pose major environmental problems as well as occupy a large area of land for their storage/disposal. There is a tremendous scope for setting up secondary industries for recycling and using such huge quantities of solid wastes such as minerals or resources in the production of construction materials. Environment-friendly, energy-efficient, and cost-effective alternative materials produced from solid wastes will show a good market potential to fulfill people’s needs in rural and urban areas.

Cocoa Pod Husk Admixture (CPHA) increases the setting times of Portland cement and decreases the drying shrinkage with increase in CPHA. The incorporation of CPHA as admixture in concrete increases the slump of concrete up to 1.0% addition; it also effectively enhances the compressive strength with the optimum strength at 0.6% addition; it possesses the quality material for use as water reducing or repellant admixture in concrete. The use of CPHA as retarding admixture (at 0.6% addition by weight of cement) should be tried for use in concrete works in very hot and dry weather conditions and in area of mass concrete application, like dams, with proper care and under controlled conditions. The application of CPHA should be explored in plastering and rendering works.

2. Admixture for concrete preparation.44 For a concrete preparation, cement provides the binding medium which in the presence of water hydrates to form hard cementitious substances that exhibit high rigidity. Aggregates which are of two categories, fine (sand) and coarse (gravel or crushed stone), further enhance the rigidity and dimensional stability of the concrete. Sometimes, admixture may be added to the concrete during or immediately before its mixing in order to modify or improve the property of the fresh or hardened concrete or both. Admixture is defined as a material other than cement, water and aggregate, that is used as an ingredient of concrete and is added to the batch immediately before or during mixing.

CPHA improves the workability of fresh concrete, decreases water absorption of concrete and drying shrinkage of cement; hence it is considered suitable for use as a repellant admixture in concrete and plastering works. CPHA could be considered as a retarding admixture by weight of cement for maximum workability and strength. The research exploits the use of CPHA as a cheap locally available substitute to the expensive imported admixtures in concrete in building and civil engineering works and utilizing the waste of CPHA to create wealth.

3. Cocoa shell waste potential.45

Cocoa pods or fruits form from small flowers, which borne directly on branches. The ripepods are cut from the trees and split open to remove the beans from the pods. The pod husks, which is 56% of the pods components, are usually discarded by stock piling as wastes products of cocoa industry and present a serious disposal problem, at present. According to this research findings, cocoa pod husk is very rich in potassium oxide (88.26%), and also contains magnesium oxide ( 3.59%), calcium oxide ( 2.02% ), iron oxide ( 1.75% ), silicon oxide( 1.45 ) and other oxides in minute quan-

Cocoa waste as packaging: Some waste from cocoa shell is being converted into bio-recyclable paper packaging. Others are looking at waster from the cocoa tree itself. Community Solutions International produces notebooks and other stationery from the cocoa industry. Its products are derived from cocoa tree bark that is removed from the branches during farm maintenance. Cocoa shells have also previously been touted as a source of pectin, which is widely used as gelling agent in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Pectin is typically extracted by-products in the food industry such as citrus peel, apple pomace and to a lesser extent, sugar beet pulp.

44 Audu Vincent E. M. And Mamman Yakubu W. Use of Cocoa Pod Husk Ash as Admixture in Concrete Department of Civil Engineering Technology. Federal Polytechnic, Mubi. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) Vol. 2 Issue 11, November – 2013.

45 Confectionery news (November15, 2013) ‘The cocoa shell is a magnificent piece of material that hasn’t been exploited’. Research from Australian plantation-to-bar manufacturer Daintree Estates.

Source: https://www.confectionerynews.com/Article/2013/11/15/Cocoa-shell-waste-as-an-antioxidant-rich-ingredient

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Waste shell:46 From cooa processing are rich in fibre and antioxidants and carry great potential as food ingredients. There are investigations into the potential in waste. “Waste can be as valuable if not more valuable than the things that are making”.

-Fiber and antioxidant-rich: The cocoa shell is a magnificent piece of material that has not been exploited. They are usually burnt for fuel of cocoa processing factories or used as mulch in gardens to add nutrients to soil and to suppress weeds. It is a material rich in fibre and antioxidants and a huge potential as a food and beverage ingredient.

-Cocoa shell extract: The exploration of ingredients used in nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications have conducted the potential of a cocoa shell extract, using waste shells from its cocoa processing operations.

-Renewable material with cocoa shell:47 Material made of certified paper containing up to 10% shells of cocoa powder, one of the most abundant but reusable waste products in the chocolate industry. It is used in the production of products for the technical-paper and packaging. Cocoa is an award-winning range of papers in earthy tones and fruit colors that contain a percentage of cocoa shell powder for a distinctive, natural color and to reuse of one of the chocolate industry’s most abundant, yet reusable waste products. An intelligent solution for the recycling of otherwise lost organic materials; this distinguished range gives buyers a choice in both color and conscience.

4. Extraction and use of the lime of cocoa as a raw material in the production of wine, liquor or edible products.48 There are many initiatives of elaboration of the liquor using the waste from the cocoa cob or pulp to encourage clean production and use what is considered as waste. This proposal would be of help to the sector, since the production of dry grain still does not meet the economic needs of farmers, therefore, they resort to other types of crops such as coffee, bananas, timber and fruit species, among others.

46 Australian plantation-to-bar manufacturer Daintree Estates.

Source: www.daintreeestates.com/?variant=2565633179683 47 Bio-degradable Paper Enterprise www.jamescropper.com and www.matrec.com/catalogo-materiali/rnothpap1878 48 Universidad Nacional de Colombia (May 17, 2016) Kakaótheros, un licor de pulpa de cacao (May 17, 2016) Source: www.palmira.unal.edu.co/index.php/noticias/unnoticias/268-kakaotheros-un-licor-de-pulpa-de-cacao

The Investigation made on the Laboratory of Basic Processes of Engineering and Unitary Operations of the Headquarters Palmira started with the raw material was sought in with which a liter of liquor was obtained from the pulp of cocoa pods. The pulp (mucilage) obtained from the cocoa was filtered and fermented in a space free of light and heat for 15 days. The liquid obtained was taken to the laboratory, and in technical support of teachers of agroindustry they used pots (containers) and boilers for the distillation or transformation, which took a day, the result was this liqueur.

5. Renewable energy source.49 In Colombia, the cocoa pod husk (CPH) is expected to reach 2’100.000 tons year in 2021 which is usually burned or left over for decomposing outdoors at the plantations without any environmental control. Therefore, this study evaluated the energetic potential of CPH obtained after the initial processing of this fruit (Theobroma cacao L.).

Three biological materials were analyzed: clone CCN-51 (CPH1), clone ICS-39 (CPH2) and a hybrid (CPH3), which present high yield and number of fruits per tree. The samples were examined by using different characterization techniques for raw biomass and ashes; in addition to the ultimate, proximate and heating value analyses, different fouling indexes were determined in order to estimate the phenomena of solids formation inside the reactor when combustion or gasification is used as a thermochemical valorization process.

The Colombian CPHs contain relatively homogeneous levels of C, H and O, but very heterogeneous ash contents (1.4 to 12.9 wt %). The three studied samples showed high content of K2O in ashes (67 to 74 wt %). The higher heating value (HHV) ranged from 15.395 to 16-670 kJ/kg. Furthermore, the fouling index and the fusibility analysis suggest the appearance of agglomeration and sintering phenomena when CPH is used as a fuel. The gasification is proposed as the process with major possibilities for the energetic use of CPH. CPH1 sample seems to allow a more stable and flexible operation, as compared to CPH2 and CPH3.

49 Martínez-Ángel, J. Daniel; Villamizar-Gallardo, R. Amanda; Ortíz-Rodríguez, O. Orlando CHARACTERIZATION AND EVALUATION OF COCOA (Theobroma cacao L.) POD HUSK AS A RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE Agrociencia, vol. 49, núm. 3, abril-mayo, 2015, pp. 329-345. Colegio de Postgraduados. Texcoco, México.

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6. Adsorbent for treatment of contaminated water.50 From the husk of the cacao cobs you can make an adsorbent to make a PVC filter, which can be used to adsorb wastewater pollutant. For the chemical industries market, it is important that an adsorbent is produced to replace the activated carbon and that a lower cost product is manufactured that serves for the treatment of contaminated water coming from the industries.

The execution of a project around this product suggests developing a deep investigation of the market and estimating the demand, taking into account a study for the production of the various filter types that complement other water treatment systems. The type of project would be beneficial for farms and farmers who have cocoa plantations in the country, since it offers an alternative for the use of shell waste, reducing the environmental impact and presenting an acceptable margin of profitability.51

Figure 65 Cocoa pod husk cut for laboratory experimentation

Figure 67 PVC filter made from cocoa pod husk

Figure 66 Chemical composition of the cocoa pod husk

Taken from Elvis José Sánchez Castro. Propuesta de elaboración y comercialización de filtros adsorbente para aguas contaminadas a partir de la cáscar de la mazorca de cacao como adsorbente en la ciudad de Guayaquil. Universidad de Guayaquil. Facultad de Ciencias Químicas.

Guayaquil, Ecuador, 2014.

50 Aprovechamiento de la cáscara de la mazorca de cacao como adsorbente. Ardila Suárez , Carolina. Carreño Jerez, Silvia Carolina. Universidad Industrial de Santander. Facultad de Ingenierías Fisioquímicas. Bucaramanga, Colombia, 2011.

51 Elvis José Sánchez Castro. Propuesta de elaboración y comercialización de filtros adsorbente para aguas contaminadas a partir de la cáscar de la mazorca de cacao como adsorbente en la ciudad de Guayaquil. Universidad de Guayaquil. Facultad de Ciencias Químicas. Guayaquil, Ecuador, 2014.

Figure 68 Adsorbent obtained through heat treatment from cocoa pod husk

Taken from Ardila Suárez , Carolina. Carreño Jerez, Silvia Carolina. Aprovechamiento de la cáscara de la mazorca de cacao como adsorbente.

Universidad Industrial de Santander. Facultad de Ingenierías Fisioquímicas. Bucaramanga, Colombia, 2011.

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Figure 69 Process of cocoa cultivation

Done by the author Information taken from Aprovechamiento de la cáscara de la mazorca de cacao como adsorbente. Ardila Suárez , Carolina. Carreño Jerez, Silvia Carolina. Universidad Industrial de Santander. Facultad de Ingenierías Fisioquímicas. Bucaramanga, Colombia, 2011.

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Done by the author Pictures at the bibliography

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Figure 70 Potential use and products

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03.4 COCOA I N THE TERRTORY OFMETA The inhabitants of Meta have lived in the middle of the armed conflict for more than six decades. In this territory, all the illegal armed actors have been clustered, in the face of an institutional failure.

The displacement and dispossession of land to the peasants and the State, made Meta one of the largest expellers of peasants and with the largest areas of land stripped of violence. Today a change is taking place regarding institutional behavior; however, the pressures, especially for oil exploitation and the expansion of large national and foreign economic groups for mega production in the so-called “last agricultural frontier”, have modified the simple interest of land appropriation as a means of expanding the latifundia to that of territorial control for large agribusiness projects.52 It is in this context that cocoa, a product of the peasant economy, has moved in the midst of conflict and has faced the crisis. It is the alternative product most accepted by growers who refuse to move from their territories still affected by the armed conflict. Thought in the long term, this product is becoming a symbol in the action of peasant resistance and rooted in the territory. Exploited for decades, cocoa is now an articulator of hopes for life and peace options, in the midst of the economic interest of large projects in the appropriation of territories.

Three moments have lived the cacaocultura in the Meta. The first of prosperity and well-being for its growers and related businesses, which operated between 1960 and 1985; a second moment that involved the liquidation of the crop with deep and unquantified economic, social and environmental damages; and the real recovery of cacao farming as an alternative product that is beginning to be seen as an articulator in the perspective of human development and peacebuilding.

Cocoa is linked to the development path of this region, so this plant of wild origin evolved, which was later domesticated and propagated, used as food by some animal species and in our aborig-

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52 Magazine Semillas (February 16, 2015) ‘El cacao en el Meta’ by José Martínez Guchuvo.

Source: www.semillas.org.co/es/revista/el-cacao-en-el-meta

inal birders. At the time of the emergence of extractive cocoa, a commercial value was added and when it was implemented as an agricultural activity, the production entered into an industrialization process. According to studies of its genetic material, this plant is native to South America, the basin of the Orinoco and Amazon rivers. The thesis that has gained the most force is that which indicates a vast Amazonian region, including the Orinoquia, as the area where about 4 thousand years ago the first specimen of the plant that we know today as Theobroma arose. The river Meta is one of the main tributaries of the Orinoco and this would explain why the spontaneous presence of cocoa through this corridor.

The story tells that the cultivation itself begins in the Arauca river towards the middle of the 17th century. The production of cocoa in the Llanos could not be very copious, because of the difficulties for transportation to the places of embarkation, and of the obstacles imposed by the Spanish authorities on the economic activities of the regions in contact with the rival powers, England, Holland and France. The commercial value of the cocoa bean arrived in this region with the foreign expeditions led by Spaniards, who began to collect the piles of almonds that were formed in the vans of the natives (There are indications that in this territory there were spontaneous cacao plantations, fruits that the inhabitants used only the mucilage and despised the almond. In the Llanos de Casanare (Medina) it seems that the Indians, as in Caquetá and Putumayo, prepared with the mucilage of wild cacao, a chicha mode (Oviedo, 1930, 235). These expeditions did know the value of the grain, which they accepted as an exchange. On the other hand, the natives, recognizing their value factor, stimulated the extraction of the grain and exhausted the native cacao plantations.

The cultivation of cocoa synonymous with well-being Cocoa was an important crop in the area of Puerto López (rivers: Meta, Metica, Yucao), then a zone of high food production that supported the supply of products to Bogotá. Cocoa, along with the other products of the peasant economy, was disappearing from this region as a result of the arrival of mechanization “the modernization of agriculture”, the semi-annual crops (cotton, sorghum, corn, rice) next to a supply and availability of credit, which generated in small producers a false expectation about the possibility of greater income in a short time and less effort.

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With the new crops, an important peasant economy of food production was replaced earlier than later, in addition to cocoa, which entered into crisis, while large owners through extensive cattle ranching renewed important areas of agricultural production, displacing small and medium producers who had to sell their farms to cover economic obligations in banks and commercial houses, generating a greater concentration of land ownership.

and 460 tons in 2004. The same problem had to be faced in all the cocoa regions. Producers who did not destroy cocoa were consolidated in other regions, such as Santander, which has 50% of the area and national production and others such as Arauca and Huila were located in privileged positions, second and third in the national context.

The return of cacao farming to Meta Before the few productive alternatives for the

The cocoa in the Meta as a crop has its origin in the sixties, the times of agrarian reform and the consolidation of colonization. From the region of the Meta river, it was flown to the foothills of the Llanero and Alto Ariari, consolidating in the economy of small producers in municipalities such as Acacias, Guamal, Cubarral, El Castillo and Grada.The Incora as a development entity and the Caja Agraria as a financial entity, through supervised credit, introduced seeds from Trinidad and Tobago and Ecuador. The records of the Incora show that, between 1971 and 1985, they placed 908,900 seeds, with which 1,830 hectares were established, which benefited 843 peasant families.

peasants that at the end of the century we left the economic opening: crisis in the transitory crops, the small farms were not profitable and more than five thousand small producers of the different lines were bankrupt and indebted with the banks. Faced with the inevitable actions of eradication of illicit crops by the State, the institutions of the sector promoted by Anuc Meta-Association of Peasant Users of Meta identified viable production alternatives and possible alternative productive projects for the substitution of crops for illicit use , and among other crops highlighted the production of cocoa that was widely welcomed by producers.

By 1985, in the Meta, more than 8,500 hectares had been cultivated, contributing 5 thousand tons to the national production. The department occupied a fourth place as a producer in the national concert among 22 departments, supported two thousand peasant families, generated six thousand direct jobs and some two thousand indirect jobs.Cocoa was an activity that for years efficiently sustained its growers to the point of making them stand out with a better standard of living.

In the year 2000, Anuc Meta, in agreement with the Government, made an action of consultation to the farmers in seven municipalities of the Meta on the convenience of recovering the cocoa, of which resulted more than 400 willing producers and a demand of superior seed to three million units.

The moment of crisis After demonstrating its economic, social and environmental benefits and having developed a thriving economy for producers and the regional economy, support institutions and producers frightened by a drop in international prices, the presence of phytosanitary problems such as the monilia, the witch’s broom and the offer of “modernization” offered by the economic opening of an economy with apparent greater and more frequent resources, in addition to the rising cost of labor that was being recruited for illicit crops, the cacaoculture More than seven thousand five hundred hectares, 7.5 million cocoa trees, 2.6 million timber trees that served as a permanent sober were destroyed, and with that the families’ food security system was torn apart. The Meta went from delivering to the industry five thousand tons a year, at the beginning of the eighties and four thousand at the end of the same decade, to 702 tons in 2003

With this information Anuc Meta formulated a proposal for the recovery of cacao farming, which is presented to all entities in the sector with competencies in the subject, including the Ministry of Agriculture, which shared the relevance and viability of the project. Incora adapted the proposal and carried out a program for 168 beneficiaries of the agrarian reform, which co-financed the Investment Fund for Peace (FIP) of the Presidency of the Republic, and which gave rise to the Association of Small Cacao Producers of Ariari. Asopcari, establishing 338 hectares of cloned cocoa, in Granada, Fuentedeoro and El Castillo.

Anuc Meta, with the support of the Fund for Environmental Action - FPAA , advanced an action to transfer technological knowledge of cocoa in nine municipalities, a project through which the first productive alliance of cocoa was formulated for the Meta, from which they benefited 111

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producers from the Municipalities of Cubarral, El Dorado and Lejanías. Also 300 new hectares were established. It is worth mentioning that Anuc Meta, the project manager, did not execute it because it represented the producers as an applicant organization before the Ministry of Agriculture and that the project was technically supported and executed by Fedecacao.

Current status of cocoa farming in Meta Today this crop in an articulation with provincial agribusiness management centers CPGA, governorate of Meta, Ministry of Agriculture and grassroots organizations that add about 20 associative forms, expanded to 25 municipalities of Meta, evolving from 1,500 hectares in 2000, to 5,350 in 2011, of which 2000 are in production, contributing a sum greater than 1000 tons of dry grain year. Some 2,000 families are linked to the activity, generating some 3700 permanent jobs and current sales of 6380 million pesos.

The cocoa has continued the route of the Ariari, Guayabero, Guejar and Guaviare rivers, crossing the area where the agrarian social conflict is acute. Cocoa resists dispossession and the unconditional entry of oil exploitation and megaprojects for biofuels. Cocoa is fulfilling the function of the peasants’ attachment to the land and the peaceful and productive occupation of the territory.

Vistahermosa, in other times the first one in illicit crops and armed conflict, is today the territory with the largest extension cultivated in cacao and the peasants and their organizations are in the resistance and mobilized to regulate oil exploration and exploitation. In the socio-business part of cocoa, there is a network of twenty local organizations of cocoa producers, with very large weaknesses, but even so, they exist and give the fight. Seven of these organizations, seeking efficiency and capacity for sustainability, have created the cocoa agro-industrial cooperative of Meta Cacaomet. However, not all are happy accounts, at the time of recording this information, the low prices for the producer for the cocoa bean has the sector in the dilemma, as being in front of a product with internal deficit for the industry and demand in In the international market, the income that the producer receives for this activity does not compensate the production costs. From the solution of this problem depends a future of hope and peace for the region and Colombia.53

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53 Magazine Semillas (February 16, 2015) ‘El cacao en el Meta’ by José Martínez Guchuvo. Source: www.semillas.org.co/es/revista/el-cacao-en-el-meta

A DRIVER FORCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Agroforestry systems, including cocoa, form large biological habitats or corridors value for biodiversity. There more carbon is stored than in any other type of agrobusiness operation. They are environments that better resist the meteorological events provoked for climate change. Most of the water on which cities depend is born in the highlands, where coffee and cocoa farms protect this resource. From the economic and social point of view, the cocoa is the backbone of hundreds of rural communities. However, in them there is a shortage of sources of income and ability to generate livelihoods. At the same time, the cocoa-producing communities exhibit strong pockets of poverty.

Many farms are damaged by years of abandonment. The scarce income that they perceive farmers are not enough to get out of poverty. Young people, who do not find employment opportunities or attract the continued productive work of their older, are the most affected by this reality. The result is the migration of young generations, who leave to urban centers, thus feeding the belt of poverty in cities. Cocoa can be an engine of change for eliminate poverty in communities cacaocultoras. It can boost development human so that families have a better quality of life, free from poverty, and empowerment of women and youth integrating them as key actors of the welfare of their communities. To achieve these changes, however, you have to transform the Colombian cocoa sector.

To make the change you have to invest urgently, not only in capacity production of the farms, but also in their communities. Governments play a role important and must assume a position of leadership, but they can not do it alone. The private sector has the responsibility of boost sustainability through its supply chains. The institutions of Research and Non-Organizations Government also have a lot to contribute. It is about the joint action of public and private institutions with eyes in one direction: the welfare of the communities, the preservation of the environment, quality of life of the people. The paradigm of sustainable human development in Colombia, contribute to achieve the objectives of sustainable development,in particular those linked to poverty,sustainable production and consumption, and change climate, among others, in the long term.

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A POSSIBLE SCENARIO

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The architectural approach of this process must be aimed toward the vision of introducing new sustainable concepts that will be the beginning of the transformation of a complex territory. These concepts might interfere with aspects from the social inclusion, the creation of a new collective imaginary through the way how the civil reinsertion of the groups will be made, the productive model, up to introducing self-sufficient and bioclimatic architecture for the physical project, permaculture theory, compatible techniques with the natural context, up to talking also about the use of renewable sources that sustain the development of the areas.

The actions needed to perform a new intervention analyzed how the group has settled the area, what kind of changes they have made in the context and the primary alterations of the camp. Consequently, it can be understood the required facilities, their proper arraignment and the language of this new way of habit a post-conflict zone. The categories of analysis showed the linkage, functions and distributions in order to demonstrate the improvisation in which these areas were built, the lack of quality of the basic elements and the needs of the groups. The case of the Temporary Normalization Zone of ‘La Guajira’ in Mesetas is an example of the common elements that may be attended in all the Zones so it can be a replicable model for the different scenarios and ways of intervention for these areas.

An intervention of the post-conflict territory aims different attempts into what can be termed as sustainable and adaptable intervention. The following items are introduced as a tool that provides the information for the construction of the network of the village, the concept idea on the required program and a prospective model of a future scenario. Apart from the Infrastructural, mixed landscape and program proposal, it was important to introduce adaptability concepts such as 1) Flexibility: technical change, redundancy with more space than is needed, freedom of use, adaptable, 2) Transformation: add, delete, and change, 3) Modularity: multifunctional and convertible design, more durable 4) Re-use: space transformation and permanent or removable spaces.45

45 Forty, Adrian (2000). Words and buildings: a vocabulary of modern architecture, Thames & Hudson, London.

The proposed village also refers to concepts such as the use of an off-grid system46 which provides an independently regulated power supply that has at least same reliability and quality as a public power grid. The term off-grid refers to not being connected to a grid, mainly used in terms of not being connected to the main or national transmission grid in electricity. Off-grid electrification is an approach to access electricity used in countries and areas with little access to electricity, due to scattered or distant population. It can be any kind of electricity energy sources such as solar, wind or geothermal; or with a generator and adequate fuel reserves. It can also connect to local and national grids to substitute for energy supply generated by nuclear or other non-renewable fuel sources, which is called green electricity in some countries.

Phase I: is referred to the construction of Temporary Normalization Zone on the first intervention of procedures such as land identification and purchase/rent; field adequacy for water, electricity, septic tanks and common areas; delivery of materials and accommodation construction. This procedure is still in process and these interventions have occurred in an informal way.. Phase II: is proposed as a foresight in which the priority and strategic prospective achieve the transformation of coca cultivation crops for the new productive projects and vocational activities of the zones, the creation or reinforcement of infrastructure, the potential of setting up a renewable energies network and the formulation of centers that respond to a generic program that is develop toward the needs of the “Territorial Spaces of training and Reincorporation”. The urban intervention is done through the hypothesis of intervention based on the physical analysis of the study case..Phase III: respond to year 2035 If the previous phase could be developed, the progressive transformation allows the arrival of a moment when the different centers and the program can be more complex and structured around a built transformed environment, a, stablished legal economy and a positive imaginary of social wealth and prosperity in the territory. Phase IV: Harvest, is projected for the year 2050, after 35 years of the territory transformation when it will be possible to increase the scale of the benefits of each Temporary Normalization Zone and propose a linkage between all the 26 points of reintegration. 47 46 Nasir El Bassam, Preben Maegaard, Marcia Lawton Schlichting. Distributed renewable energies for off-grid communities : strategies and technologies toward achieving sustainability in energy generation and supply. Kidligton, Elsevier, 2013 47 Figures in this chaper produced by the author.

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Figure 71 Prospective features for a possible scenario Done by the author

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Figure 72 Spatial analysis Done by the author

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Done by the author

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Figure 73 Spatial analysis

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Figure 74 Functional proposal Done by the author

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Figure 75 Accomodation proposal Done by the author

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Figure 76 Accomodation proposal

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Figure 77 Village network scheme Done by the author

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Done by the author

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Figure 78 Accomodation scheme

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Figure 79 Proposal plan

Done by the author

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Figure 80 Accomodation Service unit Done by the author

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Done by the author

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Figure 81 Installations and facilities

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Figure 82 Material guideline Done by the author

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Done by the author. Information taken from: Deffis, Armando. (1994) La casa ecológica autosuficiente para climas cálido tropical, Àrbol editorial, Mèxico.

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Figure 83 Off-grid solutions: water cycle

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Figure 84 Off-grid solutions: grey water

Done by the author. Information taken from: Deffis, Armando. (1994) La casa ecológica autosuficiente para climas cálido tropical, Àrbol editorial, Mèxico.

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Done by the author. Information taken from: Deffis, Armando. (1994) La casa ecológica autosuficiente para climas cálido tropical, Àrbol editorial, Mèxico.

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Figure 85 Off-grid solutions: solar collector

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Assuming the transformation process of the transitional period toward the peace accord, the is a clear evidence of a vulnerable and uncertain situation of the political speech built around the elections period of 2018 that claims one of the most relevant issues: the disturbing challenges of the implementation of the peace agreements; due to this concern it is necessary to avoid the political debate and study the significant physical transformation that is about to happen in the rural territory. It has already begun with the non-well planned camps settled all around the country, areas that cheer for an urgent presence of the government, highlighting the particular situation of each transitional space occupied by a social group with independent qualities and involved with a potential future that must be controlled with accurate propositions.

The violence put a pause in time and now is appropriate to update the history of the country, this might be the objective for present and future generations; the vision of a sane transformation of these territories where the guerrillas had been demobilized needs a sensible observation for the correct adaptation and improvement of the current social conditions, not only of this group, but for the immense opportunity of a correct reintegration with the society. We are facing a new reality with many challenges but with infinite opportunities that are separated from political fears and a war and poverty mentality. These communities are already living the implementation of the agreement and will act independently of the decisions that others make for them. Despite the violent actions of the dissidence of the FARC and the permanent existence of violence due to the presence of the other groups in conflict, the discourse of reintegration of the these actors depends on the desire to improve the living conditions and the will they have of change their reality through the correct use of the mechanisms and tools that the agreement is applying.

Within this challenging panorama it is mandatory to strengthen the potential ideas and recognize that the former guerrillas are a group of people with habits detached from the violent acts, it is a society with values that reveal a self-sufficiency

routine, self-construction potential knowledge, an understanding of a community well- fare, with a behavior reflection of an ideology that supports that the group work goes beyond individual recognition, in other words, they have accepted a life style that empathizes with sustainable practices, even it may be fair to link coexistence and survival skills as only the oldest guerilla of the continent can live. Not only these preconceived scheme, the opportunities offered by the peace process protects a system of proposals or programs targeted to support a correct approach, appointing the integration of the communities into the Crop Substitution Program for Illegal Use; the application of the Productive Projects which not only distances communities from their illicit activities, but also reinforces the arguments of sustainability between urban economies and the balanced development of rural areas; a vast effort of actions that the country is putting into a future scenario, from redrafting the greedy private interest, to reconstructing the justice system, testing the social sensibility of all the actors and the actual debate of the new political speech of a region that faces a relentless globalized background.

One of the strongest roots of the post-conflict commitment is the impact and management of the implementation of the new economic stakes. Into the diversity of the 26 camps it is added the structural argument of the development of the productive projects described previously described with the cocoa case as a study problem where it could be possible to test the range of issues and possibilities of the use of a particular product. The cocoa production strategies showed a replicable model for the other proposed products, the effects on the transformed territory and the requirements in order to have a sustainable business, reinforced by the role of the investments, the financial knowledge needed the private initiatives, the linkage with the public field and the introduction of a renewed economic scheme. The success of the productive projects depends on the ability of the groups of creating their own productivity around their will to make a business and the fees received through the formalization of the peace agreement, on the associative capacity of the community in order to empower their own economies and the correct practices

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that allow the best scenario for the potential of a correct productive cycle, a closed cycle system, the use of the sub-products in the productive line, the articulation of a new work model on a space with stablished uses that build the new villages and the meaning of all these changes for a workforce with an illegal memory.

Facing the new country’s reality introduces new challenges that go beyond architecture; the design speech for the physical interventions must be constantly refill with the priorities of a peace construction, putting all efforts into the consequences that the agreement and the post-conflict environment set out, all decisions must be taken with arguments that relate the multiple scales of the problem. The first year of the implementation of the peace process has shown the urgency of the adequacy of the territories, structure the physical connections and services, and the proper evaluation of the land for the feasibility of the productive projects. It is mandatory the correct approach of any physical transformation, from the correct election of materials for enhancing the accommodation or building new assets on time; investment in clean energy sources; improvement of infrastructure connections; the recognition of the intensive production of a product in areas of substitution crops for illicit use as a potential activity for the Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Caused by Deforestation and Degradation of Forests; adequacy of decent spaces for the proper reinsertion of the guerilla into civil life, optimize the collection of solid waste, clean water supply, improve the use of bathroom service and sanitary facilities, even providing internet connectivity; a responsible management of innovation and investment in resources; research and application of renewable energies and the coordination with the possibilities of the applied products; strategies of sustainable practices such as recyclable enterprise activities.

synergies with a context that now can recognize its role on a peace land. There is an urgency on creating a transformation of a temporary settlement to a durable intervention, the human power is already there with a reality of a community with internal human relations that will prevail over the meaning of what is transitory or permanent. The future scenario of this decision moves away from the collective inability to understand the correct meanings of peace and reaches a vision where the violent past of a person is not questioned but rather ensures the quality of life for all Colombians.

In a future scenario the profile of the guerilla will be transform not only in farmer, but also a conservationist who has created abilities for adding value to what is already been constructed and produced. The territory will mutate in a particular way due to the unique characteristics of a social group that is creating new 131

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05

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Sassi Paola (2006). Strategies for sustainable architecture, TaylorFrancis, Abingdon.

16.

United Nations. Desarrollo sostenible en américa latina y el caribe: seguimiento de la agenda de las Naciones Unidas para el desarrollo post-2015 y Río+20 17.

Wienke Uwe (2008). Manuale di bioedilizia 4.ed. aggiornata ed ampliacata, Dei, Roma.

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Webgraphy 18.

El Tiempo (October 25, 2007) La posición de Colombia en el contexto político y económico mundial Taken from blogs.eltiempo.com/politica-internacional---colombia-latinoamerica-y-el-mundo/2007/10/25/la-posicion-de-colombia-en-el-contexto-politico-y-economico-mundial/ 19.

Greenpeace.org (August 6, 2010) Un plan para un futuro energético renovable y global Taken from www.greenpeace.org/colombia/es/Noticias/cambio-climatico-los-paramos-en-peligro/un-plan-para-un-futuro-energetico-renovable-y-global/ 20.

Stanford University. The Mapping Militants Project (August 15, 2015). Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia People’s Army.

Taken from web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/89 21.

Portafolio (October 16, 2015) Devaluación pone a Colombia como cuarta economía de América Taken from www.portafolio.co/economia/finanzas/devaluacion-pone-colombia-cuarta-economia-america-34688 22.

Global Risk Insights (December 01, 2015) Economics of peace: Colombia lacks post-conflict funding.

Taken from www.globalriskinsights.com/2015/12/economics-of-peace-colombia-lacks-post-conflict-funding/ 23.

Colombia Peace (June 23, 2016). Summary of the FARC-Government Ceasefire and Disarmament Accord.

Taken from www.colombiapeace.org/2016/06/23/summary-of-the-farc-government-ceasefire-and-disarmament-accord 24.

Spanish for social change (June 28, 2016). Zonas veredales transitorias de normalización: rural township based temporary normalization zones.

25.

El Tiempo (August 24, 2016). Línea del tiempo de los diálogos de paz.

Taken from www.eltiempo.com/datos/linea-del-tiempo-de-los-dialogos-de-paz-56584 26.

BBC Mundo (August 24, 2016). ¿Por qué empezó y qué pasó en la guerra de más de 50 años que desangró a Colombia?

Taken from www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-37181413?ocid=socialflow_facebook 27.

El Colombiano (September 04, 2016). Lo esencial de los 6 puntos del acuerdo Gobierno-Farc Taken from www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/acuerdos-de-gobierno-y-farc/lo-esencial-de-los-6-puntos-del-acuerdo-gobiernofarc-BI4912470 28.

Colectivo bicicleta (October 05, 2016) Memoria visual del conflicto armado en Colombia Taken from www.colectivobicicleta.com/2016/05/memoria-visual-del-conflicto-en-colombia.html 29.

Citiscope (December 09, 2016) Post-conflict Colombia looks to its cities Taken from www.citiscope.org/habitatIII/news/2016/12/post-conflict-colombia-looks-its-cities 30.

Revista Semana (January 31, 2017) El arduo trasteo de las FARC a las zonas veredales Taken from www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/farc-y-zonas-veredales-icononzo-y-masivos-desplazamientos/513847 31.

El Colombiano (March 12, 2017) Las FARC se quedarían en las zonas veredales Taken from www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/paz-y-derechos-humanos/las-farc-se-quedarian-en-las-zonas-veredalesDG6190207 32.

ADR Agencia de Desarrollo Rural (March 23, 2017). Proyectos productivos por $13 mil millones se adelantarán en Zonas Veredales.

Taken from www.adr.gov.co/index.php/sala-de-prensa/noticias/93-proyectos-productivos-por-13-mil-millones-se-adelantaran-en-zonas-veredales Taken from www.spanishforsocialchange.com/2016/06/zonas-veredales-transitorias-de.html 33.

El Espectador (June 10, 2017) La arquitectura del posconflicto.

Taken from www.elespectador.com/noticias/paz/la-arquitectura-del-posconflicto-articulo-697731 34.

Revista Semana Mujica (June 13, 2017). Colombia es un laboratorio de la historia, no lo hagamos fracasar: ‘Pepe’.

Taken from www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/pepe-mujica-desde-cali-habla-de-la-dejacion-de-armas-de-las-farc/528452

35.

ArchDaily (July 5, 2017) ¿Cuál será el futuro del urbanismo del posconflicto en Colombia?

Taken from www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/874871/cual-sera-el-futuro-del-urbanismo-del-posconflicto-en-colombia 36.

Telesur (July 28, 2017) Zonas Veredales de las FARC-EP van hasta el 15 de agosto Taken from www.telesurtv.net/news/Zonas-veredales-de-FARC-EP-existiran-hasta-el-15-de-agosto-20170728-0064.html 37.

CMI (July 31, 2017) Zonas veredales se convierten en territorios de capacitación Taken from www.cmi.com.co/proceso-de-paz-con-las-farc/zonas-veredales-se-convierten-en-territorios-de-capacitacion/422190/ 38.

Blu Radio (August 04, 2017) 4.500 integrantes de las Farc inician procesos de capacitación este fin de semana.

Taken from: www.bluradio.com/nacion/4500-integrantes-de-las-farc-inician-procesos-de-capacitacion-este-fin-de-semana-149240 39.

El Espectador (August 21, 2017) Zonas veredales: cicatrices del conflicto Taken from www.colombia2020.elespectador.com/opinion/zonas-veredales-cicatrices-del-conflicto 40.

CNN (August 25, 2016) Colombia: 52 years of war, 220,000 dead, now peace Taken from: www.edition.cnn.com/2016/08/25/americas/colombia-farc-peace-deal-explainer/index.html 41.

W Radio (August 27, 2017) Las FARC consolidan posición ideológica en primera jornada de su congreso Taken from www.wradio.com.co/noticias/actualidad/las-farc-consolidan-posicion-ideologica-en-la-primera-jornada-de-su-congreso/20170827/nota/3561616.aspx 42.

Fedecacao (August 23, 2017) La capital cacaotera de Colombia celebró el festival del cacao en su tercera edición.

Taken from www.fedecacao.com.co/portal/index.php/es/2015-04-23-20-00-33/454-la-capital-cacaotera-de-colombia-celebro-elfestival-del-cacao-en-su-tercera-edicion 43.

Semana (September 10, 2017) Cuatro historias del avance de la deforestación tras la salida de las FARC. Taken from www.sostenibilidad.semana.com/medio-ambiente/articulo/deforestacion-en-colombia-tras-la-salida-de-las-farc-desus-territorios/38598 44.

Caracol Radio (September 12, 2017) 200 guerrilleros han salido de zonas veredales del suroccidente revela Pacho Chino Taken from: www.caracol.com.co/emisora/2017/09/12/cali/1505235244_642314.html 45.

Notimérica (September 17, 2017) Colombia inicia 44 planes de desarrollo en las zonas del conflicto Taken from www.notimerica.com/politica/noticia-colombia-inicia-44-planes-desarrollo-rural-zonas-afectadas-conflicto-20170917173420.html 46.

Resumen Lationamericano (October 02, 2017) Colombia. ¿La Paz Traicionada?…

Taken from www.resumenlatinoamericano.org/2017/10/02/colombia-la-paz-traicionada/ 47.

Fundación Paz y Reconcicliación (October 06, 2017) El cese bilateral al fuego con el ELN, un hecho histórico Taken from www.pares.com.co/columnistas/el-cese-bilateral-al-fuego-con-el-eln-un-hecho-historico/ 48.

Pacifista (October 11, 2017) Sí a la JEP, No a la JEP, ¿Se viene un nuevo plebiscito?

Taken from www.pacifista.co/si-a-la-jep-no-a-la-jep-se-viene-un-nuevo-plebiscito/ 49.

Caracol Radio (September 18, 2017) Unos 140 ex miembros de las Farc salieron de las zonas de capacitación en Antioquia Taken from www.caracol.com.co/emisora/2017/09/18/medellin/1505732349_359189.html 50.

Infobae (October 27, 2017) Contrario a las cifras del gobierno colombiano, el número de disidentes de las FARC estaría entre los 1.000 a 1.500 Taken from www.infobae.com/america/colombia/2017/10/27/contrario-a-las-cifras-del-gobierno-colombiano-el-numero-de-disidentes-de-las-farc-estaria-entre-los-1-000-a-1-500/ 51.

Conflicto armado y Paramilitarismo en Colombia.

Taken from www.derechos.org/nizkor/colombia/ya/confarm1.htm 52.

Alto Comicionado para la paz. El acuerdo final para la paz.

Taken from www.altocomisionadoparalapaz.gov.co/herramientas/Documents/Nuevo_enterese_version_6_Sep_final_web.pdf 53.

Alto Comicionado para la paz. Summary of Colombia’s agreement to end conflict and build paece

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Taken from www.altocomisionadoparalapaz.gov.co/herramientas/Documents/summary-of-colombias-peace-agreement.pdf 54.

UNESCO Desafíos para la sostenibilidad de América y el Caribe Taken from www.unesco.org/new/es/santiago/education/education-for-sustainable-development/challenges-for-sustainability-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbean 55.

Semana. El ADN de las FARC Taken from www.especiales.semana.com/farc-adn/index.html 56.

International Crisis Group. Colombia’s Armed Groups Battle for the Spoils of Peace Latin America Report N°63, 19 October 2017.

Taken from www.crisisgroup.org/latin-america-caribbean/andes/colombia/63-colombias-armed-groups-battle-spoils-peace 57.

Finagro. El Momento del agro Taken form www.finagro.com.co/noticias/el-momento-del-agro 58.

Programa Nacional Integral de Sustitución de Cultivos Ilícitos(PNIS) http://especiales.presidencia.gov.co/Documents/20170503-sustitucion-cultivos/programa-sustitucion-cultivos-ilicitos.html 59.

La ACR fortalece su institucionalidad y pasa a ser la Agencia para la Reincorporación y la Normalización (ARN) http://www.reintegracion.gov.co/es/sala-de-prensa/noticias/Paginas/2017/05/COMUNICADO-OFICIAL-ACR-pasa-a-ser-ARN.aspx

Videography 60.

Movie ‘Retratos en un mar de mentiras’. Carlos Gaviria, 90 min (Colombia, 2010) 61.

Movie ‘La Sirga’. William Vega, 92 min (Colombia, 2012) 62.

DW Videos Conversaciones con Pepe Mujica. Taken from www.facebook.com/dw.espanol/videos/1659111760789573/?hc_ref=ARSQMsWnkGe2AoXJcWQEzY89SptIzLGEr39UhfLsUq3WRCW4U-jK6-KvrjVghj1RD2Q 63.

NC Noticias. Entrevista a José “Pepe” Mujica, expresidente de Uruguay, del componente internacional de verificación.

Taken from www.facebook.com/ncprensa/videos/1707394709556920/?hc_ref=ARTRx0Np9UCVNB967lmAIrMkmthJZsuuZOpADRLz9gNdaF4OCmdNd3GZ-PVPYoYJuL0&pnref=story 64.

Canal Institucional (January 19, 2016) Diana Uribe habla sobre procesos de paz históricos.

65.

Preview DW Videos Documental “El silencio de los fusiles” Natalia Orozco.

Taken from www.facebook.com/dw.espanol/videos/1625340200833396/?hc_ref=ARQZBLJ9xU3BW4m-FEJOMAyac4xQ_5azEqr55hDsoCmJH2_5Nmbqv77RUx7Zfn71i30 66.

Arquitectura con tierra en Colombia / una visión sostenible de la construcción Taken from www.youtube.com/watch?v=akmfdkgtrps 67.

Permacultura - fabricar y construir con adobe Taken from www.youtube.com/watch?v=ju76jazxa7i 68.

Conferencia Salvador Rueda - Urbanismo eco sistémico Taken from www.vimeo.com/156684601 69.

Sinfonía de una Paz Inconclusa Taken from www.youtube.com/watch?v=CUJSlBmM1iw

Pictures - Figure 01,02,03 Done by the author - Figure 04 Taken from “50 años en fotos de las FARC-EP” Source: www.farc-ep.co/biblioteca/libros.html - Figure 05-08 Information taken from ‘Los mapas del conflicto’ produced by Fundación Paz y Reconciliación (April 2015) Source: www.pares.com.co/categoria/paz-y-posconflicto/mapas-paz-y-posconflicto/ - Figure 09 Information taken from Oficina del Alto Comisionado para la Paz, April 2014. ‘Todo lo que deberías saber sobre el proceso de paz. Visión, realidades y avances en las conversaciones que adelanta el Gobierno Nacional en La Habana’ International Peace Institute, 2017. ‘Document Made in Havana: How Colombia and the FARC Decided to End the War’ by Renata Segura and Delphine Mechoulan.

Pictures http://confidencialcolombia.com/images/cms-image-000052336.jpg http://cdn1.radiosantafe.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/FARC-CUBA-SUBCOMISION-DE-GENERO.jpg http://www.eluniversal.com.co/sites/default/files/proceso_de_paz_9.jpg http://www.centrotampa.com/storyimage/CE/20160119/ARTICLE/160119939/AR/0/AR-160119939.jpg https://gdb.martinoticias.org/C66C93C0-BFBF-4958-B79C-F8CE02AE39A1_w1023_r1_s.jpg3 http://es.presidencia.gov.co/Fotos/160919_03_ONU_1800.jpg http://cdn.hispantv.com/hispanmedia/files/images/thumbnail/20150924/02464724_xl.jpg - Figure 10-11 Information taken from El Colombiano (July 07, 2017) Estudio revela cómo son las FARC por dentro.

Source: www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/paz-y-derechos-humanos/estudio-revela-como-son-las-farc-por-dentro-FD6858766 Magazine Semana El ADN de las FARC Source: www.especiales.semana.com/farc-adn/index.html Pictures https://static.independent.co.uk/s3fs-public/thumbnails/image/2016/10/07/09/colombia-peace2.jpeg https://ichef1.bbci.co.uk/news/ws/304/amz/worldservice/live/assets/images/2015/12/13/151213094402_colombia_farc_guerrilleras_mujeres_439x549_getty.jpg https://static.iris.net.co/semana/upload/images/2016/5/15/473769_1.jpg http://www.desdelaplaza.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Las-FARC.jpg - Figure 12-13 Done by the author Information taken from United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime ‘Monitoreo de territorios afectados por cultivos ilícitos 2015’ (July 2016).

- Figure 14 Information taken from El Tiempo (July 8, 2016) Cultivos de coca crecen a niveles de hace ocho años. Source http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS-16639346 Semana (November 7, 2014) Estos son los países que más drogas consumen.

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Source http://www.semana.com/vida-moderna/articulo/informe-de-la-onu-revela-consumo-de-drogas-en-el-mundo/395174-3 National Institute of Drug Base. (March, 2010) ¿Cuál es el alcance de la droga en los Estados Unidos? Source: https://www.drugabuse.gov/es/publicaciones/serie-de-reportes/cocaina-abuso-y-adiccion/cual-es-el-alcance-del-consumo-de-cocaina-en-los-estados-unidos Pictures http://revistaindependientes.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Como-se-hace-la-cocaina.jpg https://www.mininter.gob.pe/sites/default/files/_DSC9837.jpg - Figure 15 Pictures https://static.iris.net.co/semana/upload/images/2017/6/29/530428_1.jpg http://confidencialcolombia.com/images/cache/745x333/crop_0_25_1200_561/images%7Ccms-image-000060999.jpg https://elsolweb.tv/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/ECOMUN4-5a1dc4c1ae.jpg - Pictures on page 34 taken from http://cr00.epimg.net/radio/imagenes/2016/06/23/politica/1466707976_197632_1466711496_noticia_normal.jpg http://www.eluniversal.com.co/sites/default/files/marchasecuestrados2.jpg https://informacionsobredrogas.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/cocaina-1.jpg https://cdnmundo1.img.sputniknews.com/images/103742/13/1037421372.jpg https://es.sott.net/image/s12/253860/full/narcotrc3a1fico_instrumento_de.jpg http://doralnewsonline.com/web/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/ejercitocolombiano.jpg http://www.elsonajero.com/media/noticias/imagenesportada/mujereseln_5fGjQuC.jpg http://hemisferiozero.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Paro-NAcional_-JS_-41.jpg http://www.olecolombia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/cascada.jpg http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-XO_mWbwn2Ag/Ud30pXGQz7I/AAAAAAAAAHA/QamMo4-rqyA/s1600/foto+para+foro+d+ecaco.jpg http://www.aquiestamos.net/w3r/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/JAIME-1.jpg https://www.las2orillas.co/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/nuevas-oportunidades.png https://irishinargentina.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/che-guevaras-Irish-Roots.jpg - Images on page 34,35 http://static.iris.net.co/dinero/upload/images/2015/3/15/206818_125750_1.jpg http://1.bp.blogspot.com/__p_pOmJyV1M/TI_Zru0luWI/AAAAAAAAABk/WraWFEJFHrQ/s1600/banana.jpg http://www.rinconesdelatlantico.com/num3/platano/12.jpg https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.timetoast.com/public/uploads/photos/8877459/cultivos-de-cafe.jpg?1474919914 http://www.pueblanoticias.mx/system/files/imagenes/articulos/89345_1.jpg http://www.vozpopuli.com/upload/Javier_Benegas/ganaderia-vacas-lecheras.jpg https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-egRlwoDHVeg/WQ4exmvWrVI/AAAAAAAALpo/8iEjseXCRWUWyjSSMUefRb10bhmAZ3sAACLcB/s1600/ PANELA%2BEN%2BTABLETAS.jpg http://elcampesino.co/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/211.jpg http://armoniacorporal.es/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Yuca_o_mandioca-472x295.jpg http://aguayjuventud.mx/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/plantaciones-de-yuca.jpg http://www.lapatria.com/sites/default/files/especiales/2012/Nov/colp_ext_001851.jpg http://archivo.unionyucatan.mx/sites/default/files/imagecache/v2_660x370/madera%20660.jpg http://www.vanguardia.com/sites/default/files/imagecache/Noticia_600x400/foto_grandes_400x300_noticia/2016/07/18/ la_panela_se_la_estarian_llevando_para_venezuela.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Cut_sugarcane.jpg/1200px-Cut_sugarcane.jpg http://cntamaulipas.mx/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/ganadot.jpg?2e5b12 https://agronegocios.uniandes.edu.co/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Captura-de-pantalla-2016-03-09-a-las-15.23.27.png

http://www.yacyreta.org.ar/img/2007/0301/estpispilet03_1024.jpg http://images.comunidades.net/pis/pisciculturauniao/749_gg.jpg https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/b/apiculture-bee-hives-europe-french-honey-farm-summer-31471402.jpg http://www.mujeresdeempresa.com/wp-content/uploads/2006/05/miel.jpg - Figure 16 Done by the author - Figure 17 Done by the author.

Information taken from “Maps of electoral risk 2015 for the Statement of the Temporary Normalization Zones produced by ‘Misión de Observación Electoral’, ‘Fundación Paz y Reconciliación’ and ‘Conflict Analysis Resource Center’.

- Figure 18 Done by the author Information taken from El Colombiano (March 12, 2017) “Las FARC se quedarían en las zonas veredales” Source: www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/paz-y-derechos-humanos/las-farc-se-quedarian-en-las-zonas-veredales-DG6190207 - Figure 19 Done by the author Information taken from Pressreader (March 28, 2017). Proyectos productivos por $13 mil millones se adelantarán en Zonas Veredales Source: www.pressreader.com/colombia/el-colombiano/20170328/281517930955015 - Figure 20 Information taken from El Colombiano (July 07, 2017) Estudio revela cómo son las FARC por dentro” Source: www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/paz-y-derechos-humanos/estudio-revela-como-son-las-farc-por-dentro-FD6858766 - Figure 21 Photographs by Luis G. Gómez.

Source: www.lggomez.co/#/farc-mesetas/ - Figure 22-27 Done by the autor - Figure 28, 29 Google Street view images - Figure 30 Done by the autor - Figure 31,32 Information taken from es.climate-data.org/location/34126/ www.weatherspark.com/y/23313/Average-Weather-in-Mesetas-Colombia-Year-Round - Figure 33 Taken from ArchDaily (July 5, 2017) ¿Cuál será el futuro del urbanismo del posconflicto en Colombia?

Source: www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/874871/cual-sera-el-futuro-del-urbanismo-del-posconflicto-en-colombia - Figure 34 Done by the autor - Figure 35 Taken from ArchDaily (July 5, 2017) ¿Cuál será el futuro del urbanismo del posconflicto en Colombia?

Source: www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/874871/cual-sera-el-futuro-del-urbanismo-del-posconflicto-en-colombia - Figure 36-40 Done by the autor

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- Pictures on page 41,43,45, 66, 67 taken from http://www.rcnradio.com/nacional/puerta-cerrada-judicializan-exfuncionarios-gobernacion-del-meta-presunta-corrupcion/ http://www.quintopoder.com.co/gobierno-aun-no-arrienda-el-35-de-los-predios-de-las-zonas-veredales/ http://conexioncapital.co/tres-guerrilleros-se-habrian-fugado-zona-veredal/ http://www.pulzo.com/nacion/gobierno-contrato-24-horas-constructoras-zonas-veredales/PP214689 http://www.sucesosyopiniones.com/?p=71 http://prensarural.org/spip/spip.php?article20897 https://www.yahoo.com/news/farc-opens-colombia-hopes-last-wartime-conference-052243966.html https://programadesarrolloparalapaz.org/noticias/item/205-zvtn https://www.arauca.gov.co/noticias/660-gobernador-de-arauca-visito-zona-veredal-transitoria-de-normalizacion-en-la-vereda-filipinas http://kavilando.org/index.php/2013-10-13-19-52-10/confllicto-social-y-paz/5221-las-zonas-de-transicion-de-las-farc-un-nuevoreflejo-del-abandono-del-campo http://www.elcolombiano.com/colombia/no-hay-avances-en-zonas-para-las-farc--gobernador-MD5621295 http://www.eldiariobogotano.com/el-traslado-de-guerrilleros-de-las-farc-hacia-las-zonas-veredales-transitorias-de-normalizacion-ha-sido-un-exito/ https://www.razonpublica.com/index.php/conflicto-drogas-y-paz-temas-30/9973-las-zonas-de-transici%C3%B3n-de-las-farc-unnuevo-reflejo-del-abandono-del-campo.html Photographs by Luis G. Gómez. Source: www.lggomez.co/#/farc-mesetas/ - Figure 41 Taken from http://eldia.es/economia/2017-04-01/4-cacao-brasileno-expande-habitat-revitaliza-economia-Amazonia.htm - Figure 42-50 Images and information taken from Guide 1 ‘Cocoa in agroforestry systems’, Guide 3 ‘Production of cocoa plants in nursery’ and Guide 8 ‘Cocoa in agroforestry systems’ from www.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming in Agroforestry Systems by Lutheran World Relief is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Environmental Guide for Cocoa Cultivation done by Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural, Federación Nacional de Cacaoteros, and Fondo Nacional del cacao, Page 82, Second edition, December 2013.

- Figure 51 Done by the uthor Information taken from ‘Guía Ambiental para el cultivo del cacao’ Produced by ‘Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural’, Federación Nacional de Cacaoteros, Fondo Nacional del cacao, December 2013.

- Figure 52 https://en.actualitix.com/country/wld/cocoa-bean-producing-countries.php - Figure 53, 54 Information taken from www.larepublica.co/economia/el-consumo-de-cacao-crece-a-un-ritmo-de-11-y-es-un-potencial-exportador-2302806 www.larepublica.co/economia/tasa-de-cambio-por-debajo-de-2000-le-amargo-la-bonanza-de-exportaciones-a-los-cacaocultores-2172341 Pictures www.d2on3k3hzjn2sy.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/cacao2.jpg colombia2020.elespectador.com/sites/default/files/styles/full_custom_user_md_1x/public/05salmoncho_cacao_drupal_main_ image.var_1509771149.jpg?itok=qNRmK9-7&timestamp=1509826952

- Figure 55-63 Illustrations Made by the author Images and information taken fromwww.cacaomovil.com Produced by ‘Caja de Herramientas para el Cacao’ Learning and Innovating on the Sustainable Management of Cocoa Farming in Agroforestry Systems by Lutheran World Relief is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

- Figure 64 Information taken from Environmental Guide for Cocoa Cultivation done by Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural, Federación Nacional de Cacaoteros, and Fondo Nacional del cacao, Page 82, Second edition, December 2013.

- Figure 65, 56 Taken from Elvis José Sánchez Castro. Propuesta de elaboración y comercialización de filtros adsorbente para aguas contaminadas a partir de la cáscar de la mazorca de cacao como adsorbente en la ciudad de Guayaquil. Universidad de Guayaquil. Facultad de Ciencias Químicas. Guayaquil, Ecuador, 2014.

- Figure 67, 68 Taken from Ardila Suárez , Carolina. Carreño Jerez, Silvia Carolina. Aprovechamiento de la cáscara de la mazorca de cacao como adsorbente Universidad Industrial de Santander. Facultad de Ingenierías Fisioquímicas. Bucaramanga, Colombia, 2011.

- Figure 69 Done by the author Information taken from Aprovechamiento de la cáscara de la mazorca de cacao como adsorbente. Ardila Suárez , Carolina. Carreño Jerez, Silvia Carolina. Universidad Industrial de Santander. Facultad de Ingenierías Fisioquímicas. Bucaramanga, Colombia, 2011.

- Figure 70 http://www.pastryrevolution.es/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/cacao2.jpg https://sc01.alicdn.com/kf/HTB11iIxJVXXXXXFXFXXq6xXFXXXx/cocoa-pods.jpg https://sc01.alicdn.com/kf/HTB1uAPsKFXXXXaeXFXXq6xXFXXXl/Na-ligno-sulphonate-powder-manufacturer-concrete-admixture.jpg https://www.dhresource.com/0x0s/f2-albu-g3-M00-BA-A9-rBVaHFUimhCAOYR4AAMTT5Hi0Y8353.jpg/100pcs-lot-brown-kraft-paper-bags-recyclable.jpg https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/I/41qnPixs70L.jpg http://luv2garden.com/hydroponics_coco_coir.html https://sc02.alicdn.com/kf/HTB1i3HlOFXXXXcYXXXXq6xXFXXX1/Cocoa-shell-extract-natural-cocoa-candy-pigment.jpg http://crozier.faculty.asu.edu/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/cocoaPellets.png , - Pictures on page 104, 107, 111, 112, 113, 119, 126, 127 Done by the author - Figure 71 - 82 Done by the author - Figure 83 - 85 Illustration done by the author. Information taken from: Deffis, Armando. (1994) La casa ecológica autosuficiente para climas cálido tropical, Àrbol editorial, Mèxico.

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