References

The third issue raised in this section, namely exaggeration of the design applications of urban morphology methods, is perhaps the least significant of the three issues. However, just as some scholars are fascinated with advanced algorithms, other scholars seem preoccupied with the succeeding historic layers of the city (see Kropf, 2018; Oliveira, 2018; Strappa, 2018). Perhaps, this position is not surprising given that urban morphology developed from such studies of cartographic maps from historical archives used to trace the physical development of cities alongside social, economic, and technological changes in society over time. However, these scholars arguably exaggerate the potential of such analyses. Space syntax has established a consultancy firm based on provision of morphological analysis in urban design such as evaluation of pedestrian movements in urban planning proposals. However, although such tools may enhance spatial analysis in developing a design brief, it does not provide tangible design solutions. Analogously, the works of scholars such as Kropf (2018), Strappa (2018), and Oliveira (2018) emphasize the design potential in analyzing the historical development of a city. I am somewhat critical of any approach to design that emphasizes a singular aspect of the wide array of factors that contribute to the emergence of high-quality design solutions. The architecture profession is arguably about applying a broader scope to problems and design proposals compared to engineers who are typically specialized in a narrow field such as ventilation, acoustics, or lighting. An excessive focus on one of such aspects will likely not lead to better design proposals. Similarly, a narrow design approach focusing on the historical developments of a context will likely yield mixed results. The layers of historical developments that have shaped the context may constitute an important factor to consider in some cases. In other cases, not so much. In most cases, it is unlikely the most essential driver of the development of an architecture project and it seems counterproductive to teach students to emphasize this single factor in response to the complex challenges that face contemporary society such as energy consumption, adaptability to changing programs, and social inclusion.

Lastly, I would like to outline what I believe are more appropriate approaches to architecture, spatial planning, and research on urban morphology. I believe urban morphology research should emphasize development of scientific theories that explain how cities are shaped. These should be based on principles from which you can deduce empirically testable propositions. Urban development policy should in turn be informed by such theories once these have been through rigorous empirical tests and peer review validation. I believe policy based on such empirical research will be advantageous in reaching political goals. Furthermore, research in urban morphology should continue to emphasize the development of tools and methods for analyzing cities. Such tools should advance the development of said theories and knowledge about the mechanisms which structure the development of cities rather than building complex models forecasting the urban development. I believe the latter endeavor can be dangerous as policy might increasingly be guided by algorithms we do not understand. This may undermine democratic control of society due to a technocratic approach to conflicts of interest and may lead to flawed analyses as seen in previous studies in other fields (Madsbjerg, 2017). Architects and urban planners should increasingly discuss and address the greater challenges facing the world today, such as climate change, inequality, and social segregation. In addressing these issues broad inter-disciplinary holistic analyses are needed rather than narrow single-issue specialists. Such endeavors should arguably include both artistic experiments as well as research-based holistic analyses of the multitude of factors that inform the designer in order to enhance both ethical and aesthetic aspects of design projects. Architects should thus emphasize crossing scales and synthesizing all the different possibly opposing factors into integrated components in the proposals. Design, architecture, and spatial planning are arguably about shaping the physical and material aspects of the human condition in regards to optimization of livelihood and responsible use of the resources. This should include a thorough assessment of the cultural, technical, economic, social, and environmental conditions of the context along a value-based negotiation between these different factors in shaping the design. Accordingly, good design should enhance the quality of life, equitable distribution of resources, and sustainable development for future generations.

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OUT OF CONTROL

On Urban Morphology of Informal Settlements in East Africa

Most of the ongoing extensive urbanization in East Africa is informal and occurs beyond the limits of state control and regulatory systems. The urban majority in the region resides in informal settlements characterized by limited urban planning, construction without formal permits, and lack of formal land titles. Issues with substandard housing, overcrowding, insecure tenure as well as inadequate access to water and sanitation are widespread in these areas and compromise the livelihood of tens of millions of urban dwellers. Few studies have investigated the urban form of informal settlements even though spatial factors and urban form indicators such as inadequate access conditions, inefficient use of space, high level of building coverage, and limited public space are linked to some of the urban deficiencies in informal settlements.

This PhD thesis presents analyses of the urban form of informal settlements in East Africa based on urban morphology and location theory in order to enhance the knowledge on contemporary urban development in the region and thereby improve the basis for increasing the efficacy of urban planning and policy in addressing the wide-ranging issues linked to the proliferation of informal settlements. The thesis is titled Out of Control as lack of state control is the defining characteristic of informal settlements. The thesis is article-based and includes a number of empirical research papers focusing on various essential topics related to the urban form of informal settlements in East Africa such as informal land markets, urban expansion, and urban planning. Additionally, the thesis includes a number of practice-based design, architecture, and spatial planning projects that were produced in parallel with the research. These projects highlight central issues in relation to informal urban development in East Africa such as urban densification, access to sanitation, as well as innovation in spatial planning and land use management.

Mainstream urban economic theory emphasizes the importance of transportation systems in relation to the development of urban form. The findings presented in the thesis add new nuances to these theories by documenting that government attitudes towards informal urban development in cities where the majority is financially excluded from the formal housing market are critical for understanding the urban morphology of informal settlements. More specifically, the thesis argues that government repression of informal urban development in major cities in East Africa decreases informal land supply, leads to higher population densities in the informal settlements, and contributes to the development of more compact urban form. Additionally, the thesis suggests that decreased informal land supply leads to increased competition on the informal land market resulting in higher costs of accommodation as well as consequent fewer resources for investments in household infrastructure which contributes to more compromised livelihood for the urban poor in the region.

These findings underscore that Western planning paradigms arguably are not appropriate in the context of much of East Africa as local authorities lack the resources to administer the urban development according to regulation, and much of the population lack the resources to comply with regulation. On this basis, the thesis discusses alternative approaches to urban planning that require fewer resources to administer and support production of affordable legal housing. The thesis presents a number of policy recommendations informed by the findings of the research papers such as new forms of land titling, innovation in land use management, increasing mandate for decision-making to local administrations, road pricing, and implementation of robust street grids in peripheral areas before the urban fabric consolidates. The thesis argues that such policy measures may address some of the issues emblematic to informal urban development in the region and thereby enhance the future sustainable development of major cities in East Africa.