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Sunday, November 09, 2014 2:22 AM 09-Nov-2014 Dear Ms. Salvador: It is a pleasure to accept your manuscript entitled "Music instruction for elementary students with moderate to severe intellectual disability: A case study" for publication in Research Studies in Music Education. The comments of the reviewers who reviewed your manuscript are included at the foot of this letter. I am delighted to inform you that the second reviewer has now indicated that your manuscript is ready for publication. The manuscript will now undergo a process of copy editing and the Assistant Editor, Samantha Dieckmann will be in touch with you as this proceeds. Congratulations on the acceptance of your manuscript. On behalf of the Editors of Research Studies in Music Education, we look forward to your continued contributions to the Journal. Sincerely, Professor Kathryn Marsh Editor in Chief, Research Studies in Music Education kathryn.marsh@sydney.edu.au
Music instruction for elementary students with moderate to severe intellectual disability: A case study
Karen Salvador, PhD University of Michigan, Flint
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Abstract In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act mandates that all children receive a free and appropriate public education, and makes provisions for children who need additional services to benefit from this education. Approximately 12.4% of students utilize special education services. Accordingly, elementary general music specialists teach many students with a variety of exceptionalities every day. However, few empirical studies have addressed music teaching and learning for exceptional students in inclusive or self-contained settings. This qualitative case study details the practices of one music teacher with regard to her instruction of two students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities, both when these students were included with their fourth grade peers and also when they attended music with their self-contained class. The study concludes with a critical discussion of Ms. Davis’s practices with regard to current research, with an emphasis on policy implications. 144
Keywords: Music Education; Children; Intellectual Disability; Special Education; Music Play; Music Education Policy
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Music Instruction for Elementary Students with Moderate to Severe Intellectual Disability: A Case Study Overview of Special Education Policy In the United States, Public Law 108-446: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates that all children receive a “free and appropriate public education,” and makes provisions for children who need additional services to benefit from this education (IDEA, 2004; §300.101(c)). In 2011-12, approximately 6.5 million American students ages 3-21 received special education services through this federal law (Institute on Disability, 2013). The current paper focuses on children with intellectual disability (ID), a diagnosis characterized by “… significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior… that adversely affects a child’s educational performance” (IDEA, 2004; §300.8(c)(6)). In 2011, students with intellectual disabilities were the third most prevalent disability group in the US, accounting for 7.4% (n=422,401) of those receiving special education services (Institute on Disability, 2013). Essential Features of IDEA. Under IDEA, each child with an identified disability has an individual education plan (IEP) (IDEA, 2004; §614(d)). The IEP describes the child’s strengths and deficits, sets measureable educational and/or therapeutic goals, recommends specific accommodations and/or curricular modifications appropriate for the child, and lists additional services the child will receive (IDEA, 2004; §614(d)). The IEP rarely includes information specific to music education such as goals or objectives for music learning or accommodations or modifications specific to music learning needs or settings. The IEP also specifies the appropriate classroom placement. IDEA mandates that each child with exceptionalities be taught in the “least restrictive environment:” every student must be placed with non-disabled age peers to the
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maximum extent possible (IDEA, 2004; §612 (a)). When children are capable of learning alongside their age peers with additional supports, they are included in a regular classroom setting. Students who need more assistance are taught for part or all of the day in self-contained classrooms that are sometimes “categorical,” i.e., they serve one specific disability group. Nationwide, 80.8% of students with disabilities spend at least 40% of their time in a regular classroom (Institute on Disability, 2013). For each child, the least restrictive environment could vary for different academic subjects. For example, a child who needs pull-out assistance for mathematics may only need adapted assignments in reading (Adamek & Darrow, 2010). Moreover, children who are not capable of learning the same material or performing the same skills as their age peers are sometimes placed with them for social reasons. This “social mainstreaming” is common in music classes (Adamek and Darrow, 2010). Music Therapy. The American Music Therapy Association (AMTA) defines music therapy as: “the clinical and evidence-based use of music interventions to accomplish individualized goals within a therapeutic relationship by a credentialed professional who has completed an approved music therapy program” (2014). Music therapy can be included as a school-provided special education service under IDEA (34 CFR §300.320(a)(4)(i)-(iii)). In school settings, music therapists focus on increasing academic learning and skill acquisition, and evidence-based music therapy outcomes include “…increased attention, improved behavior, decreased self-stimulation, enhanced auditory processing, improved cognitive functioning, decreased agitation, increased socialization, improved receptive/expressive language, successful and safe self-expression, and enhanced sensorimotor skills” (AMTA, n.d., p. 2). Music Education. While music therapy goals are predominantly non-musical, the goals of elementary music education include increasing musical skills and abilities through active
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participation in singing, moving, playing instruments and listening (National Association for Music Education, 2014). In 2009-10, 94% of American elementary schools provided some form of ongoing music education during regular school hours (Parsad & Spiegelman, 2012, p. 14). By virtue of the inclusiveness of American special education law and the nature of elementary music provision, elementary music teachers in the United States work with large numbers of students who have a variety of special needs. Furthermore, as in the current study, students with moderate to severe disabilities are sometimes clustered in specific elementary buildings to improve delivery of services and availability of equipment (Adamek and Darrow, 2010). Practices with regard to least restrictive environment vary; some children with moderate to severe disabilities attend music with their age peers, some with their self-contained/categorical class, and some participate in music instruction with both classes. Research Literature Music and Intellectual Disability. In two papers (2008a; 2008b), Hooper, Wigram, Carson, and Lindsay presented a comprehensive review of literature from 1943-2006 regarding individuals with intellectual disabilities and music (N=606 studies). Although the researchers â€œâ€Ś predominantly present[ed] an overview of material written by music therapists, they also include[d] aptitude research that falls outside of music therapy practice, as well as reports and investigations by researchers who are not music therapistsâ€? such as music educators (2008a, p. 67). With regard to music aptitude and ability, the review indicated that individuals with ID scored significantly lower on various aptitude tests and performance tasks than test norms and/or performances of typically developing children the same chronological age (Hooper, Wigram, Carson, and Lindsay, 2008b). Some studies attributed this difference to lower overall intellectual functioning, and/or suggested that music aptitude and/or ability in children with ID was similar
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to that of typically developing children with the same mental age. However, “musical savants” and individuals with Williams Syndrome or Autism have been shown to exhibit high music aptitude and/or ability despite considerable cognitive deficits. Therefore, although the review contained considerable evidence that students with ID have a lower overall musical aptitude and/or ability, this is not accurate for all individuals or all diagnostic subgroups. Moreover, the review included a number of dated studies indicating that students with ID are capable of learning music and improving their musical abilities (2008b, p. 85). Although Hooper et al. included research by music educators, nearly all experimental and descriptive studies in both reviews focused on musical stimuli, processes, or interactions with regard to social, cognitive, physical, emotional and psychological responses, rather than focusing on musical behavior or music learning (Hooper, Wigram, Carson, and Lindsay, 2008a, b). The authors concluded that the review: …demonstrated the value of the descriptive… writing not just as a medium for identifying clinical outcome, but also for informing and advancing clinical practices… Descriptive and philosophical writing has an important part to play [in] understanding, and developing, the role of music in the treatment of intellectual disability (2008a, p. 74). Focus on clinical practice in this conclusion emphasizes that the research regarding music and intellectual disability has primarily focused on music as a therapeutic intervention. Music education, i.e., music teaching and learning, remains largely unexplored. However−to parallel the above assertion−descriptive and philosophical research regarding music instruction for students who have intellectual disabilities has an important part to play in informing and advancing promising educational practices. Research in Inclusive Settings. In 2012, Brown and Jellison conducted a systematic
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review of the literature regarding music research on students with disabilities in inclusive settings. After exhaustive electronic and hand searches of journals and databases, they found only 10 studies “…reporting data from children with disabilities who were in the presence of or were interacting with typical children” published between 1999 and 2009 (Brown and Jellison, 2012, p. 356). In a previous review, Jellison (2000) found only 12 studies of inclusive settings published between 1976 and 1999. Brown and Jellison (2012) suggested: The low research rates of studies of children with disabilities in music settings is of concern, considering the number of practitioners in both music therapy and music education who work with children with disabilities… Teachers and therapists, and subsequently the children, would benefit from the attention of music researchers (p. 358). Brown and Jellison concluded that we know very little about the role of music in the lives of children with disabilities. They identified a need for more study, not only of musical abilities and the effectiveness of music interventions on musical and nonmusical behavior, but also of the concerns and perspectives of music therapists and music educators who work with children who have disabilities. In describing the experiences and practices of one such music teacher, the current study contributes to the body of work on this topic. Music Teaching and Learning. Very few recent studies examined musical behavior or music teaching and learning among elementary school children (ages 5-10) with intellectual disabilities in inclusive or self-contained music classes. Luck, Riikkilä, Lartillot, Erkkilä, and Toiviainen (2008) examined the musical improvisations of 50 students with varying levels of developmental disability, and found that computational analysis of the improvisations was a reliable indicator of level of disability. The improvisations examined in the research took place in music therapy sessions, but the nature of the musical interactions may be informative to music
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educators seeking to engage children with ID in music-making. Welch, Ockelford, Carter, Zimmermann, and Himonides (2009) have proposed, studied and refined the Sounds of Intent musical development framework for children with profound ID. This model divides musical behaviors into three domains and uses concentric circles to illustrate musical behaviors at increasing levels of engagement in each domain. They concluded: The Sounds of Intent framework may be seen as a ‘tool’ by which the researchers and teachers working with pupils with complex needs can (a) make an initial informed judgment of where a particular pupil appears to be ‘now’ musically and (b) be encouraged to design musical activities that might enable the pupil to develop towards a more advanced level (Welch et al., 2009; p. 368). Although participants in the current study were higher functioning than the participants in Welch et al.’s study, the Sounds of Intent framework has potential as a tool for music educators seeking a framework for musical interactions with students who have a variety of more severe needs. Purpose of this Study. Most research regarding music and intellectual disability has focused on the therapeutic effects of musical interventions on non-musical behaviors rather than on music teaching and learning. While such studies may be of interest to music educators, they must be approached with caution because of differences in the goals, methods, and particularly the training and qualifications of music therapists and music educators. Given the ubiquity of students who receive special education services, and the near-universal provision of elementary music instruction in the US, we know very little about music teaching and learning among elementary school special education populations, both in inclusive and in self-contained music classes. The purpose of this study was to examine the practices of one elementary general music teacher as
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she individualized instruction to meet the music learning needs of students with moderate to severe ID, whom she taught both with their age peers and with their self-contained class. Specifically, (1) How did the teacher adapt or modify instruction for her students with ID when they attended music with their age peers? (2) What instructional approaches did the teacher use when students attended music with their ID categorical classroom? Methodology For six weeks in 2010, I observed Carrie Davis1 as she taught elementary music. By scheduling convenience as much as design, my observations included one fourth grade class (ages 9-10) and one class for students with moderate to severe ID (ages 8-11). Two students with Down’s syndrome, Zack and Katie, attended music with both classes. My original intent was to focus on assessment practices and their impact on individualization of music instruction as a part of a larger study. However, as soon as I began observations, it was clear that Ms. Davis’s teaching interactions with Zack and Katie in these two different settings were the most striking manifestation of her ability to individualize instruction. I immediately noticed differences between how she taught these students in their self-contained class and their inclusive class, and also noted changes in the students’ musical and non-musical behavior in each setting. These comparisons led me to explore the characteristics of music teaching and learning for these students in their inclusive and self-contained music settings. Therefore, consistent with the principles of emergent design in qualitative research (Morgan, 2008), the investigation evolved in response to new information and insights and resulted in the current single case study. Design This study followed a qualitative, instrumental case study design. A case was examined to provide insight into the specific issue of how a teacher individualized instruction for students 1 All names are pseudonyms.
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with ID in self-contained and inclusive settings (Creswell, 2007). The participant was purposefully selected (Miles and Huberman, 1984) based on the recommendations of faculty in her graduate music education program because she provided an exemplary teacher perspective concerning an area of music education about which many teachers are inexperienced or uncertain —individualization of instruction. Researcher Lens For three years as an undergraduate student, I worked in group homes for adults with moderate to profound developmental disabilities part-time during the school year, and in the summers I worked full-time in a summer program for young adults with moderate to severe developmental disabilities. I also completed all coursework and clinical practica for a music therapy degree, although I did not undertake an internship and am not a certified therapist. My first full-time job after I graduated was as an activities therapist at an inpatient rehabilitation facility for adults with traumatic brain injuries. In both the group-home and rehabilitation settings, I was responsible for delivering therapeutic programming, accompanying clients into the community, and assisting with personal hygiene and other self-care. Through these work experiences, I already had interacted with exceptional populations before I began teaching. I taught elementary general music for four years in schools that housed categorical classrooms for students with moderate to severe autism spectrum disorders and emotional impairment. My graduate work in music education, undergraduate work in music therapy, experiences in group home and rehabilitation settings, and my tenure as an elementary general music teacher all informed my observations of Ms. Davis’s teaching. Participant and Setting At the time of data collection, Carrie Davis was completing her eighth year teaching
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general music. Ms. Davis worked for a large school district located in a mostly upper middleclass suburb in Michigan. She taught about 500 students per week in a well-supplied, spacious music classroom. The school served age-grouped classes of children from kindergarten (ages 56), through fourth grade (ages Data Collection Data comprised observations of one fourth-grade class and one ID class each time they met from April 19 to May 26. Observations were cancelled on several occasions due to field trips or assemblies, and Ms. Davis was ill on one observation day. This resulted in ten observations of each class as it met normally (twice per week, with 40-minute classes for fourth grade and 25minute classes for ID), plus one observation of the entire fourth grade at the dress rehearsal for an upcoming performance. Naturalistic Observation. Observation of intact elementary music classes was the primary data collection procedure in this study. I attempted to be unobtrusive in order to have the least impact, but I recognize that my presence in the classroom had the potential to change the classroom climate. Occasionally, students would check for my reaction to some event, or they would talk, sing, dance or play to me or to the video camera. In general, students appeared accustomed to various adults coming in and out of the room and seemed to adjust quickly to my presence and to the video camera. I took field notes on my computer as I observed. Video. I video recorded each observation, viewed the video one week after it was recorded, and filled out a video response sheet adapted from Miles and Huberman (1984, pp. 5355). I also selected video excerpts to watch with Ms. Davis for verbal protocol analysis (VPA). In VPA, a participant is invited to view video of herself teaching, and to pause the video to describe or reflect on what she is seeing (Flinders and Richardson, 2002). This technique, also referred to
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as a “think-aloud,” can provide valuable information on the practices of teachers “in the moment.” Video excerpts for VPA comprised segments of teaching when I deemed Ms. Davis to be most focused on and/or successful with delivering instruction based on the needs of individual students. Ms. Davis’s VPA session lasted nearly two hours, and was audio-recorded and transcribed for inclusion in data analysis. Interviews and Journals. Ms. Davis also participated in interviews before and after the data collection period, and provided journal entries regarding the classes I observed. In the initial interview (and in follow-up questions via email), I asked about demographic characteristics of Ms. Davis’s students, school, and district as well as her philosophy regarding, training in, and approaches to teaching her students with ID. Journals were submitted by email in response to a standard journal prompt that I sent after each class. Sometimes, I also asked specific questions about interactions I observed. The final interview occurred via email after I had developed preliminary themes in my data analysis. I asked for Ms. Davis’s response to the themes and also solicited her comments on the examples from her teaching that I used to illustrate the themes. Trustworthiness/Credibility Three measures established trustworthiness of the data: triangulation, member checks, and peer review. I used multiple sources, including field notes, teacher journals, video response sheets, VPA, and interviews. These various forms of information and the viewpoints they represented allowed for triangulation of data (Miles and Huberman, 1984). In addition, transcriptions of interviews were returned to Ms. Davis for member checks, so that she could ensure accurate portrayal of her thoughts by editing or adding to the transcript. Ms. Davis also was asked to comment on the credibility of my initial data analysis as a further member check. Finally, my preliminary findings were peer reviewed by colleagues in the fields of elementary
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music and special education. Data Analysis All field notes, video response sheets, VPA transcripts, journal entries, and transcripts of interviews were subjected to both deductive and inductive analysis. The deductive analysis consisted of coding the data as it related to my specific guiding questions: (1) How did Ms. Davis adapt or modify instruction for her students with ID when they attended music with their age peers? (2) What instructional approaches did Ms. Davis use when students attended music with their ID categorical classroom? During the close reading required for this deductive analysis, I also used the constant comparative method of data analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). In this inductive analysis, I looked for themes that recurred within the data. I identified representative examples of each theme, and I also looked for unusual or exceptional occurrences related to the topic of this study. I made a master list of emergent topics, which I then analyzed and sorted into theme groups. I assigned each potential theme a color, and read again, seeking specific evidence and/or descriptors of each theme; highlighting and flagging them. Finally, for themes that were adequately represented in the data, I created a table in which vignettes and quotes were searchable by theme. Two main themes resulted from the deductive analysis: (1) inclusive practices in fourth grade music and (2) instruction in the self-contained setting. Two more themes emerged in the inductive analysis: (1) readiness to teach exceptional children and (2) balancing music learning and nonmusical goals. Results This instrumental case study examined the experiences and practices of one elementary general music teacher as she individualized instruction to meet the music learning needs of students with moderate to severe ID. I will present the results in sections based on the four main
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themes that emerged in data analysis. First, Ms. Davis wrote and spoke frequently about her readiness to teach exceptional children. Although this was an emergent theme, I have placed it first in this report because it colored so much of Ms. Davis’s writing and speaking about her teaching. Second, I will describe inclusive practices in fourth grade music, with subthemes comprising (a) modifications and (b) peer assistance. The third theme revolved around instruction in the self-contained setting, including the subthemes (a) early childhood approach and (b) paraprofessionals. Finally, I will describe balancing music learning and social goals, an emergent theme that included the subthemes (a) weighing musical and social goals and (b) musical behavior in different settings. The results section is followed by a critical discussion of Ms. Davis’s practices with regard to current research, with an emphasis on policy implications. Readiness to Teach Exceptional Children When I started here, my principal said, “Oh, don’t worry—just do music therapy with them.” And I said, “I don’t know music therapy!”[The principal replied:] “Oh, sure you do,” And I said “Oh, no, no, no…” She [the principal] said, “Just try something. You’ll be fine. Just sing about wiping your nose or something.” [Later] From the beginning, I was just trying something new every time [the ID class] came. My first year, I had no idea what they were capable of doing, because I hadn’t been given any more information than “Don’t worry about it right now, you’ve got to get to know the whole rest of the school” from their teacher. And I’m like “No, please, give me a little bit… The expectations, at least?” (Think Aloud, pp. 14-15). Ms. Davis felt unprepared to teach self-contained classes of students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities. The topic of her preparation (or lack thereof) emerged with regard to her ability to modify and/or adapt instruction when Zack and Katie were mainstreamed with
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their age peers, and also was a consistent thread in her discussion of teaching the self-contained classes, as in the quote above. Upon leaving her teacher preparation program Ms. Davis knew that she would teach children with a variety of cognitive, musical, and physical needs; yet she had not considered that some of those students might be non-verbal, just learning to walk, and/or still experiencing their environment by putting objects in their mouths. She certainly had not been exposed to methods for music instruction of self-contained classrooms for students with these exceptionalities. She was at a loss for what to do, and when she asked, the principal and special educator in this case did not offer any specific requirements, strategies, or advice. Inclusive Practices in Fourth Grade Music Today’s lesson centers on the song Sandy Land. In the forty-minute class: •
Students keep macrobeat and microbeat by swaying, tapping, alternating and combining these movements while Ms. Davis sings. Finally, the students combine macro and microbeat movements, freeze and sing inside their heads when Ms. Davis signals, and recommence their movement when she signals again. After about six times through the song, students identify the meter, tonality, and form.
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Students sing Sandy Land in unison while Ms. Davis sings a harmony part. Then, small groups of 2-5 students sing the melody while the rest of the class sings the harmony part.
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Students play chords for Sandy Land on boomwhackers, rotating so that everyone has a turn in the singing group, the I-chord group, and the V-chord group.
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Students silently read music notation for Sandy Land (projected onto the wall) to find any notes they do not yet know on their recorders (in preparation for using notation to learn to play the song on their recorders as homework).
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Students take turns playing a harmony part on recorders in small groups while the rest of
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the class sings the melody. (Field Notes, 4/21, edited). The activities described above were representative of Ms. Davis’s fourth-grade music instruction, which typically included: playing recorder and other instruments; beat movement and body percussion; discussing the elements of a piece of music; singing melodies and harmonies; reading music notation; and swift transitions from activity to activity. Although it was not used in this lesson, Ms. Davis’s fourth grade music instruction often also included folk dance or creative movement. Modifications. When Zack and Katie attended music with their age peers, some activities, such as singing and playing boomwhackers, proceeded without observable adaption other than the assistance of a paraprofessional (e.g., CD Field Notes 4/21, p. 2). The paraprofessional encouraged singing by modeling and making verbal suggestions, and cued boomwhacker playing with gestures and words. It did not appear that either student participated consistently or played boomwhackers accurately, even with this assistance. During recorder instruction, Zack used “melody bells” to play the chord roots or the melody, depending on the song being played (e.g., CD Field Notes 4/19, p. 1). These bells were placed on the floor, and Zack played by striking a button on the top of the bell with the palm of his hand, resulting in a pleasant, mellow sound, and accurate playing was facilitated by color-coded notation and the assistance of a paraprofessional. Through trial and error Ms. Davis discovered that this approach allowed Zack to demonstrate and develop his musical abilities: I didn’t think [Zack playing] every note of the song would work. So we started [color coding] the first note of every third measure. But then [I thought], … let’s start with the first note of every phrase—you know, that is more musical. Maybe if he is hearing things somewhat musically, that will make more sense. And then, with Hot Cross Buns, he
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started to fill in some of the other pitches himself, and they were correct. And he did it with enough repetition, that we colored those in, too (Think Aloud, p. 17). Peer Assistance. Fourth grade peers were responsible for most of the direct assistance that Katie received in fourth grade music. Katie sometimes seemed withdrawn or off-task during recorder-playing activities. In one such situation, the student sitting next to Katie pointed with her finger for Katie to follow in the music (CD Field Notes 5/3, p. 2). While simply pointing in the music did not enable Katie to read it, Katie’s level of participation and positive affect increased. Zack was usually accompanied by a paraprofessional, who modified instruction as described above. However, one day Zack was assisted by a substitute paraprofessional, and fourth grade students helped the “sub” find the correct bells for Zack to play (CD Field Notes 4/28, p. 2). I was surprised by the frequency of peer assistance, and also by how proactive and thoughtful the fourth grade students were as they perceived needs and took action to help. I asked Ms. Davis about this and she replied: [We] encourage it from day one. Our counselor does special lessons on helping others. It just seems that [with] the inclusion of the cognitively impaired [ID] program, [the students] grow up knowing they have to help others. Because sometimes a friend can’t even make it across the room by themselves, [or] they don’t understand that direction from the classroom teacher… [The students] just jump in and do it [help], they are there for each other, they celebrate every little accomplishment (Think Aloud, p. 10). Empowering students to handle their own problems seemed to result in some excellent solutions: A girl from the class walked Zack to the circle, and he tried to hug her. She firmly said, “Zack, no hug” and gently touched his outstretched arms in a way that held him. He hugged her anyway by ducking under her arms. She patted him on the head, and stepped
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back. Another girl helped her disengage from him and get him seated between the two of them. Later, when the class moved to sit in a different area of the room, these girls helped Zack get up from the floor and settle into a new spot between them (Field Notes, 5/3 p. 1). Students also were not afraid to seek help if they needed it: Zack swiped a classmate’s recorder cleaning stick and played “keep away” with it. She tried to get it back, but didn’t know how to handle it when Zack did not respond to the verbal cues she had been taught to use. The student asked Ms. Davis for help (Field notes, 4/28 p. 2). I was continually struck by how helpful, accepting, protective, and proud the fourth grade students were of their exceptional peers (e.g., Field Notes 5/12 p. 3; Field Notes, 5/26 p. 1). The school climate, peer assistance, and the paraprofessional seemed to be important factors in Zack and Katie’s social and musical successes in fourth grade music class. Many of the activities common in fourth grade music were far out of reach for Katie and Zack in terms of physical and cognitive ability. For example, they both lacked the fine motor coordination to cover holes on a recorder. Zack and Katie also did not have the cognitive skills required to decode standard music notation. Neither of them matched pitch with their voices, and Zack rarely used words, let alone attempted to sing. To meet their music learning needs, Ms. Davis sometimes changed the nature of activities and relied on peer helpers. Instruction in the Self-Contained Setting Early childhood approach. After her first few years of “trying something new every time they came” (Think Aloud, p. 15), Ms. Davis adopted an instructional model for her selfcontained ID classes based on an informal early childhood instructional approach. She learned about one specific approach, sometimes called “Music Play,” in a Music Learning Theory (MLT)
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early childhood professional development course (Think Aloud, p. 17). She took this two-week, intensive workshop to learn more about teaching the very young children in her school: the “young fives” and early childhood special education classes. Music Play (see Gordon, 2003) is one of many play-based approaches to early childhood music instruction, and the material taught in the workshops is consistent with the widely accepted philosophical underpinnings and pedagogical practices that characterize “developmentally appropriate” early childhood instruction (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2014). Ms. Davis identified the Music Learning Theory workshop as the source of her knowledge of early childhood approaches, and applied this knowledge in her ID classes. One reason that Ms. Davis adapted this early childhood approach was that it gave some guidance regarding what a music teacher might do with students who do not yet speak or walk (Think Aloud, p. 17). At the Music Play workshop, she was taught to expect, value and engage responses that ranged from involuntary vocalizations or movements to recognizable musicking (such as moving to a beat or singing a song) by engaging individual students in improvised sung, chanted, movement, or percussion conversational exchanges (Gordon, 2003). According to Gordon, these interactions foster individual musical development at each child’s level, and it is acceptable and expected that some children may simply absorb the musical environment. There is no “right” or required response. The following vignette synthesizes moments from several observations to allow the reader to “experience” some of Ms. Davis’s informal instruction: Ms. Davis starts singing: “Look who’s here, it’s a friend of mine.” This song incorporates each student’s name, and the student who is named accompanies the song on an instrument. The instrumentalist also gets to choose how the other students move.
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Today, it is bongo drums, and Zack plays first. Zack wants the other students to move like a pirate (swinging a bent arm, squinting an eye, and saying “argh” after each phrase of the song). He shows this movement rather than verbalizing; he rarely speaks. His drumming seems random, unrelated to the song. The eleven students are seated in a circle. Three paraprofessionals are dispersed around the circle, seated on the floor next to students who need the most physical and social assistance. At the end of the song, Zack chooses Maria to have the next turn, and takes her the bongo drums. Maria asks the students to wiggle their eyebrows as their movement, and she plays the bongos on the beat. Eyebrow wiggling looks funny and it’s hard to sing and wiggle your eyebrows simultaneously. The adults and students giggle. This song is familiar, and many students sing. Singing abilities vary: Allie sings loudly and accurately. Katie drones the words in a speaking-voice monotone. Other students (Andrew and Cara) sometimes respond with vocalizations, and still others, such as Zack, are silent. All three paraprofessionals sing and model the movements, and seem enthusiastic even on the eleventh time through the song. Chuck is not singing, and says he is not having fun. He says he wants to go to gym and he is worried he missed it. Ms. Davis continues the activity, and one of the paraprofessionals talks to Chuck, reminding him he is expected to participate. By now, everyone has taken a turn with the bongo drum. In the course of worrying about gym class, Chuck mentioned that he would like to play with a ball. Ms. Davis puts the bongos away and starts “Roll the Ball like This,” a song that uses a ball as the prop. She did not plan to sing this song today, but it succeeds in pulling Chuck back into participation. After a few iterations of “Roll the Ball like This,” a student unexpectedly
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vocalizes in a rhythmic way, and Ms. Davis echoes the vocalization. Another student copies Ms. Davis, and this leads to a series of chanted conversational exchanges, in which Ms. Davis seeks to engage each student. The above anecdote illustrated how Ms. Davis incorporated early childhood instructional methods such as using student ideas (how to move, whose turn would be next, etc), adding unplanned activities to draw a student back into the group (“Roll the Ball like This”), and turning spontaneous vocalization into a musical rhythmic conversational exchange. In her informal guidance, Ms. Davis allowed for a variety of group musical responses, such as singing and movement, as well as individual responses such as playing the drums and improvised sung or chanted “conversations.” Similar child-centered informal guidance is used in many early childhood instructional approaches and settings, but Ms. Davis learned these approaches in an MLT early childhood workshop, and decided to adapt them to teach her 8-10 year old students with ID. Ms. Davis stated that she is expected to teach social skills during ID music classes. Therefore, she incorporated an emphasis on socialization goals—learning each other’s names, taking turns, passing things nicely, participating, and following directions. This presented some difficulties, because Ms. Davis preferred to adhere to the informal music instruction ideal of voluntary participation, but the ID room goals included encouraging maximal participation for each student (Think Aloud, p. 17). Paraprofessionals. I was struck by the musicality and professionalism of the three paraprofessionals who accompanied the eleven ID students when they attended music (e.g., Field Notes 4/19, p. 2). I asked Ms. Davis about the evolution of this collaboration: Let’s see… [I said] “In music time, thank you so much for keeping behavior [under control], can you model the singing for them, too?” And some days [when adults start
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conversations], I will just stop and say, “Are we ready?” … [paraprofessional] said, “Now, some teachers don’t like us to do anything and sit in the corner, some like us to sit with the kids, and some like us to do what the kids are doing, and some like us to help them but not sing, what do you want?” And I said, “Well, here is what I would love…” (Think Aloud, p. 13-14). Ms. Davis’s success working with students in the ID class was due in part to skilled paraprofessionals with whom she had negotiated for a positive classroom environment. The paraprofessionals were trusted partners who were valued for their knowledge of individual students’ physical, behavioral, social, and academic needs. They were expected to facilitate appropriate musical and social behavior by modeling. Ms. Davis fostered a collaborative professional environment in which she invited participation from the paraprofessionals, communicated with them about her expectations, and solicited their advice. Balancing Music Learning and Nonmusical Goals Weighing Musical and Social Goals. Ms. Davis stated that neither Zack nor Katie had the fine motor skills or academic capability for the recorder playing or music reading expected from the rest of the fourth-grade class, which was why Zack was played bells and used colorcoded notation (Think Aloud, p. 9). Despite this acknowledged lack of prerequisite skills, Katie played recorder. I noted that she was frequently off-task, and that even when she “played,” she was clearly not accurate in her fingerings, or even covering any holes (Field Notes 4/19, p. 1). When I asked why Ms. Davis had adapted her instruction for Zack and not Katie, she told me that Katie’s parents did not want her to do anything different than her peers in music (Think Aloud, p. 10). However, according to Ms. Davis, Zack’s parents responded differently to the suggestion of an alternate music curriculum:
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They were thrilled… They asked… “Is there anything else [other than recorder] we can do?” …I said, “Well, actually, yeah. I was thinking of a couple of different things that we can do...” And they [said] “Yeah, do whatever he can do to be successful.” …I think there are so many battles that [parents of exceptional children] have to fight. It seems like there is a spectrum of acceptance. Sometimes… I think that with Katie’s parents, [feel like], “she can hold a recorder—she can look like everyone else.” (Think Aloud, p. 10-11). Often, the parents of a student with special needs control what services their child receives, including whether a modified curriculum is provided, regardless of the teacher’s opinion regarding the educational soundness of this decision. In this case, Ms. Davis must and did abide by parents’ wishes. Ms. Davis wanted to differentiate music instruction for her students with special needs and even had ideas for how that could be accomplished, but she was not allowed to implement her ideas with all students. Katie may have benefited socially by being like the other fourth graders as she held a recorder and blew into it. Zack seemed to be thriving musically while using bells with alternate notation instead of the recorder. He played “his part” on bells for his ID class and glowed with apparent pride (Field Notes 5/17, p. 6). Musical Behavior in Different Settings. Observing Ms. Davis’s instruction of Zack and Katie in music with their fourth grade class and in their self-contained ID class invited comparisons of their musicking in each setting: [Katie]’s not singing as much with this class as she does with the [ID] class. This is musically beyond her readiness, but her lack of vocal effort might be evidence that she is definitely aware that the sounds she produces are not the same as those around her [in
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fourth grade music] (CD Journal, p. 5). [In fourth grade music] she has had a lot of shut down behaviors before… She seems to just need to shut down, but she is still watching. She just absorbs for… depending on the activity two classes to two whole months. And then she jumps right in as if she has been doing it all along, which is fine. But, with the [ID] class, she now has the role of mama hen. She is one of the older ones, and especially at the beginning of the year, it was so fun. “Now, you sit here, and do this…” (Think Aloud, p. 16). This difference in Katie’s behavior in the two settings is corroborated by my field notes. For example: “…in this class [ID], rather than being disengaged, Katie participates and smiles. It seems fun for her...” (Field Notes 5/17, p. 5). Katie appeared withdrawn and off-task in fourth grade music, where she often engaged in behavior such as playing with her recorder, asking for tissues, and leaving to use the bathroom (e.g., Field Notes 4/28, p. 2). Zack was essentially nonverbal, and his participation levels in his self-contained and mainstreamed settings did not differ according to my observations. Ms. Davis commented, His participation is more group-oriented during [ID]. More…. Almost oblivious of what else is going on half the time with the fourth graders. Yet, at the same time the other half of the time, he knows he has a captive audience with [the fourth grade class] and they are so loving and encouraging… He will do something again and again to hear that applause, or to get that “Good job, Zack!” (Think Aloud, p. 16). In social mainstreaming, “Students with severe disabilities are included during regular education… with the goal of providing social interaction with same-aged peers without disabilities rather than mastering academic concepts” (Adamek & Darrow, 2010, p. 50). That is, material presented during music instruction might not be accessible to the student with special
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needs, but music learning is not the goal of social mainstreaming. In contrast, inclusion entails “the [music] teacher collaborat[ing] with special education experts for adaptation ideas and support” (p. 50). In an inclusive model, music activities and curriculum are adapted so that students with special needs also progress musically. Inclusion in music class through modification of musical activities and curricular expectations may be more beneficial to students with moderate to severe intellectual disability than social mainstreaming. Katie took a leadership role in ID and withdrew in fourth grade music, while Zack’s behavior was similar in both settings. These differences could have been the result of personality or other factors. However, Katie was physically and academically incapable of many of the tasks she was asked to achieve in fourth grade music, and her off-task or withdrawn behavior may be a response to that. Because Zack’s curriculum was modified in fourth grade music, the musical challenge was appropriate in both mainstreamed and self-contained settings, and he seemed to be learning, achieving, and socially comfortable both with his age peers and in his self-contained class. Discussion and Implications This instrumental case study described the music teaching practices of Carrie Davis with regard to her instruction of two students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities in both inclusive and self-contained settings. Ms. Davis felt unprepared to teach these children, but devised strategies for including them with their age peers. These strategies included accommodations such as peer assistance and color-coding music notation as well as modifications such as offering alternate instruments or activities. When Ms. Davis taught students with ID in their categorical class, she adopted an informal “Music Play” approach. The musical modeling, teaching skill, and expertise of the ID class paraprofessionals contributed to Ms. Davis’s work with these students. Ms. Davis’s experience indicated that modification of
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curriculum in mainstreamed music classes was beneficial to exceptional students’ music learning, but sometimes other goals were considered more important than music learning. Observations of students with ID in inclusive and self-contained settings suggested ideas for balancing music learning and social goals, illustrated by changes in musical behavior when the students attended with one class or the other. In the following section, I will discuss main findings of the study in the context of current research, with a focus on policy implications. Music Teacher Preparation and Special Education Populations. In the United States, criteria for music teacher certification vary from state to state. According to the Michigan Standards for Preparation of Music Teachers (SPMT; Michigan State Board of Education, 2004), completion of an approved bachelor’s degree program in music education and passing the Michigan Tests for Teacher Certification result in licensure to teach: “…general music, instrumental (winds, strings, and percussion), and vocal/choral [music] at elementary and secondary levels [ages 5-18]” (p. 3). Although the SPMT mention “diverse students” (once, p. 9) and refer to “developmentally appropriate practice” (once, p. 9), students with exceptionalities and special education are not mentioned. In a national survey of music teacher preparation programs, Author (2010) found that only 29.6% of 109 responding music teacher preparation programs required a course on teaching music to exceptional children. Nevertheless, elementary music teachers like Ms. Davis are routinely assigned to teach all students in a school building, including students younger than 5 years old and/or students with severe enough challenges to merit instruction in a categorical classroom. In contrast, special educators who teach self-contained classes earn specific licensure to work with a particular disability group. Practitioner literature (e.g., McCord & Watts, 2006; Montgomery & Martinson, 2006) and books (Adamek and Darrow, 2010; Hammel and Hourigan, 2012) suggest that
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teachers like Ms. Davis consult a music therapist, participate in IEP meetings, and partner with special educators. Consultation with a Music Therapist. Extrapolation from an AMTA survey (American Music Therapy Association, 2013) indicates that Michigan might have 17 music therapists working in school settings2. In 2013-14, about 3,550 public schools in Michigan served 1,523,454 students spread over Participation of Music Teachers in IEP Meetings. Music teachers could learn about special education populations and teaching practices as well as individual students with special needs by listening to and collaborating with the other members of the IEP treatment team. Further, music teachers could suggest that each IEP: (1) specify the appropriate least restrictive environment for music, (2) list modifications and/or accommodations and assistive devices specific to music settings, and (3) include music learning goals. However, Ms. Davis taught about 500 students each week. Applying the 12.4% rate of students who had IEPs in Michigan would mean 62 of Ms. Davis’s students had IEPs, and because her building housed four selfcontained classrooms, the number was likely higher. Participating in each child’s IEP meeting would entail at least one hour per student each year, without considering time needed to prepare for each meeting (reading materials, consulting other treatment team members, writing assessments and goals, researching accommodations and/or modifications, etc.). If an administrator were willing to release a music teacher from three weeks per year of instructional time to contribute in this setting, it is likely that music teaching and learning would improve for
2 As of September 2013, 6,068 individuals were registered or board-certified to practice music therapy in the United States (American Music Therapy Association, 2013). Of 1,449 participants in this international survey, 13% (n=188) reported working in “children’s facilities” including daycares/preschools, early intervention programs, and k-12 schools (p. 15). Thirty-two respondents worked in Michigan (p. 24). 1,449 respondents to the survey compares to 6,068 practicing therapists in the US by an approximate factor of 4. Therefore, I multiplied
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students with special needs at that school. Collaboration with Special Educators. Adamek and Darrow (2010) recommend close collaboration with special educators, and Hourigan and Hammel (2012) provide a sample worksheet to guide this collaboration. Ms. Davis sought out the assistance of her special education colleagues to help mitigate her lack of preparation. However, perhaps due to their inexperience with music and/or music education they did not offer suggestions. A survey of elementary music teachers revealed that when special education teachers offered specific information about characteristics of students with disabilities, this appeared to affect curriculum design and delivery in music classes (Chen, 2007). Similar to participation in IEP meetings, meaningful collaboration with special educators would require an administrative commitment to providing adequate time and resources. Suggestions for Policy and Research. Ms. Davis’s case illustrates that some elementary general music teachers work with students they are not prepared to teach, with little practical access to the supports suggested by the literature. Educational policies must reflect the inclusive nature of schools by requiring music teachers be prepared to teach students with special needs. Hourigan (2009) and Whipple & VanWeelden, (2012) explored ways music teacher education programs could improve teachers’ preparation to teach music to exceptional children, but more such research is needed. Further, school policies and administrative practices must allow music teachers adequate time to collaborate with their special education and music therapy colleagues and to participate in IEP meetings. To support these policies, researchers might seek out and describe cases, models, and systems in which these collaborations are successful. Strategies for Teaching Music Inclusive Settings. Peer assistance, color-coding, and alternate instruments comprised
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the main strategies that Ms. Davis implemented when teaching Zack and Katie with their age peers. Peer assistance is a common strategy that music teachers have used to help students with exceptionalities since these students were first included in US public education in 1975 (Atterbury, Self-Contained Settings. In the absence of any other information on how to teach children who were nonverbal, were intellectually functioning as very young children, and/or were not ambulatory, Ms. Davis applied early childhood strategies she learned in a Music Learning Theory early childhood workshop. While similar child-centered informal guidance is common to many approaches to early childhood education, it is not typically used in elementary music education. Although Ms. Davis’s decision to adapt strategies from her early childhood workshop into her teaching was not based on research, there is some support for this approach in the literature. MLT’s early childhood teaching methods were not simply intended for children under a certain age, but were designed for students in “music babble”—those who could not yet match pitch or keep a beat—regardless of chronological age (Gordon, 2003, pp. 108-111). This informal approach to music instruction may be adapted for students of any age who struggle with matching pitch or finding beat, so it is age-appropriate for this specific group of upper elementary ID students. Furthermore, MLT early childhood music instruction provides a framework for music learning at the musical and cognitive functioning level of these students. For example, several students in the ID class were nonverbal, and Music Play incorporates and values the responses of nonverbal participants. Although MLT early childhood instructional methods are not specifically intended for elementary-aged special education populations, Ms. Davis is not the only teacher to adapt these methods for older children with exceptionalities (see Valerio, Sly, Gruber, & Stockman, 2011).
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Suggestions for Research. Anecdotal evidence in the current study and Valerio, Sly, Gruber, & Stockman (2011) suggests Music Play or related early childhood approaches to music teaching and learning as viable instructional methods for older elementary school students with moderate to severe ID and Autism Spectrum Disorders. Current standards for the implementation of special education require that interventions employed to meet the needs of exceptional learners must be systematically validated (Hammel and Hourigan, 2011). Brown and Jellison (2012) and Hooper, Wigram, Carson, and Lindsay (2008) suggested that descriptive and experimental studies include measures of growth or generalization. It is interesting to note that Ms. Davis, who was viewed as an effective teacher, did not assess her students’ musical growth. Although the Sounds of Intent framework (Welch, Ockelford, Carter, Zimmermann, and Himonides, 2009) is designed to describe the musical behavior of children with profound ID, researchers might adapt it to establish a baseline and measure musical growth in slightly higherfunctioning children to validate early childhood music instructional practices as a special education intervention for older elementary students with moderate to severe ID. Balancing Music Learning and Other Goals The presence of both inclusion and social mainstreaming in Ms. Davis’s teaching assignment invited the philosophical question: should elementary music in special education operate as an arena for socialization with age peers, or focus on increasing musical skills and abilities? These goals are not mutually exclusive, but are also not necessarily complimentary. For example: Ms. Davis was asked to emphasize socialization goals in the self-contained classes, including compulsory participation. However, her training in the Music Play workshop led her to suspect that compelling participation was not beneficial to the musical growth of individual students, who would be better served by being encouraged to listen and absorb sounds until they
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voluntarily responded. The question of balance could be explored in research regarding the effects of emphasizing social goals on the music learning outcomes of students with special needs. Because music teacher preparation typically does not include focus on non-musical goals, and music educators are not qualified to address therapeutic goals without the consultation of a credentialed professional, such research could also seek to better define how much emphasis on socialization and other non-music goals is appropriate in a music education setting. Conclusion In examining music teaching and learning in self-contained and inclusive instruction, it seems that each setting is valuable to the musical and social development of the students. Using a play-based early childhood instructional model presents a viable option for teaching music to children with moderate to severe ID in a self-contained setting. This instruction may provide needed scaffolding for these students to feel more successful in an inclusive setting. An inclusive grade-level music class with a modified curriculum and variety of instructional supports may be more beneficial to the music learning of students with moderate to severe ID than social mainstreaming; it appears that modifying curriculum is viable and beneficial. In order to tap the potential of music--for what it is and for what it can do--music teachers must be prepared to engage all students in inclusive and self-contained settings.
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