Caffeine Time

Karlie Cheang

Karlie Cheang is a graphic design student at California College of the Arts in San Franscisco. She likes to learn

Coffee is one of the most exported commodities in the

CAFFEINE TIME

new things, to develop extraordinary graphic solutions for any communication issue. She also loves to design clean, smart, and effective works. Most of her projects focus on book printing, web design, logos, and branding.

Karlie Cheang

world. It originated in Yemen and by the 1400s trading brought it to Africa, Arabia, and the Mediterranean.

After achieving popularity in Europe in the 1600s, “the Wine of Araby” traveled to America, where by the end of that century it overtook beer as the favorite breakfast

CAFFEINE TIME

drink. During the Mexican-American War in 1846, it was a ration for soldiers.

Traders spread coffee to other hot climate growing areas, including the East and West Indies. And just like the Gold Rush immigrants traveling to California, green coffee beans also came by ship. San Francisco became a center for coffee roasting businesses, with coffee a main part of the City’s economy.

CAFFEINE TIME Karlie Cheang

San Francisco Press

Translated from the German by Paul Roper Copyright Š 2014 by Karlie Cheang All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any forms or by any means graphic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or information storage and retrieval systems without written permission from the copyright holder.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 87-60529 ISBN: 0-88740-101-5 Published by Schiffer Publishing Ltd. 1469 Morstein Road, West Chester, Pennsylvania 19380 This book may be purchased from the publisher.

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Manufactured in the German Democratic Republic

CONTENTS

HISTORY 5

1

EARLY 6 HISTORY

COFFEE 20 ROASTING

1 2 3 COFFEE 12 PLANT

2

PRODUCT 27

COFFEE 28 BEANS

INSTANT 56 COFFEE

4 5 6 COFFEE 40 BEVERAGES

CULTURE 63

3

LATTE 76 ART

7 8

COFFEE 64 HOUSE

HISTORY Coffee was originally called qahwahin Arabia. But, it was from the Turkish word kahveh that the modern words for coffee are derived; German kaffee. English coffee, French cafĂŠ, Dutch koffie. There have been books written about the history of coffee. It has a long and somewhat interesting history.

1

1 EARLY

HISTORY

Coffee It was “born” in Ethiopia, it wasn’t until the very late 1800’s that coffee was introduced into other parts of Africa. Today Tanzania and Kenya grow some of the best tasting coffee on the planet. There is a legend that a long time ago (some have it around the year 800 BC, others around 500 AD), an Ethiopian goat herder by the name of Kaldi, noticed that some of his goats were frolicking about much more than they normally did. He saw that they had been eating something from a bush with dark shiny leaves. Upon closer inspection, he saw that they had been eating the red berries from the bushes. Kaldi ate some of the coffee cherries himself, and, being amazed at the stimulating effect that they had, brought some to the local monk. The monk boiled the cherries and made a beverage that was strong and bitter. Like Kaldi, the monk felt the effect of the caffeine in the drink and liked it very much.

The beverage soon became popular as the monks found that it helped keep them awake during long hours of prayer. In coffee’s early history, it was not consumed in the same way that we do today. Since the pulp of the coffee cherry was sweet, it was first eaten alone or with the seeds. In some places, the

green unroasted coffee beans were ground up and mixed with animal fat. This mixture was then pressed into small lumps and was used by travelers for energy.

The Arabs were the first to use the green coffee beans alone. After removing the pulp and skin, they would crush the green beans and mix them with water to make their coffee drink. It was not until the 14th century that the current method of roasting coffee became popular. And even then, for many years, the drink and the grounds were consumed together.

By the early 1500s roasted coffee was traded all over Arabia—from Turkey to North Africa. During the latter half of the 17th century, coffee became very popular in Europe. Since the Europeans had to buy their coffee from the Arabs, the Arabs were very protective of their coffee plants. In fact, in Arabia it was a crime punishable by death for a European to have a coffee plant in his possession. Eventually some plants were smuggled out. The coffee plant, however, does not tolerate frost and would not grow in the colder European climate. Because of the dramatic increase in demand for coffee, around 1700 AD, the Dutch managed to get coffee plants and started to grow coffee in their colonies in Indonesia. Java, Sumatra, Timor and Bali were all Dutch colonies in

EARLY HISTORY

7

which coffee was introduced and grown. The French

on growing conditions and preparation methods,

and the British soon followed suit, by establishing

those in each general coffee-growing region in the

coffee plantations in the French & English colonies

world exhibit common characteristics that you can

in the Americas and in India. Coffee soon spread to

learn to recognize, linking them in a geographic

the Spanish colonies throughout all of Central and

coffee “family.“ East Africa and Arabia—Beans from

South America.

the region that gave birth to coffee generally have

The Coffee Belt Encircling the world, within the tropical latitudes, is a narrow belt. This tropical region supports the coffee tree, which requires abundant sunshine, moderate rainfall, yar-round warm temperatures and no frost. Two species of

family are coffees from Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Yemen, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Dutch traders spread coffee cultivation to Indonesia by the late 17th century. These coffees are usually smooth, earthy and exotic-tasting, withlow

tance. The robusta is, as the name implies, a robust

acidity and full body. The family includes coffees from

The arabica, which accounts for about 75 percent

HISTORY

qualities, and medium to full body. Included in this

coffee tree produce coffees of commerical imporspecies, resistant to disease, with a bigh in caffeine.

8

rich flavor, sparkling acidity, unique floral or winy

Java, Sulawesi and Sumatra.

of world production, thrives in volcanic soil at

Coffee from Papua New Guinea, while geographi-

high altitudes of 3,000 to 6,500 feet. Arabica yields

cally related, has a spicier, more pointed flavor with

the world’s best coffees, more refined than robusta

brighter acidity—an exception to the family rule. The

coffees, with a caffeine level less than half that of

French,

robusta beans. The slower growing cycle of arabica

coffee here in the 1720. Today’s best coffees from

coffee trees at higher elevations concentrates still

this family are clean-tasting and lively, with light to

more flavor in the beans, producing someof the finest

medium body. Included in this group are Colombia,

of all coffees. Many nations within the coffee belt

Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,

produce fine arabica coffees. While coffees will differ

Nicaragua and Panama as well as coffee from Kona,

from one country or area to the next, depending

the south-western coast of the island of Hawaii.

Dutch and Portuguese began cultivating

EARLY HISTORY

9

The Propagation of the Coffee Plant is closely

Ethiopian rule of the negus Caleb, who conquered the

interwoven with that of the early history of coffee

country in 525. Certainly the discovery of the beverage

drinking, but for the purposes of this chapter we

resulted in the cultivation of the plant in Abyssinia and

shall consider only the story of the inception and

in Arabia; but its progress was slow until the 15th and

growth of the cultivation of the coffee tree, or shrub,

16th centuries, when it appears as intensively carried

bearing the seeds, or berries, from which the drink,

on in the Yemen district of Arabia. The Arabians were

coffee, is made. Careful research discloses that most

jealous of their new found and lucrative industry,

authorities agree that the coffee plant is indigenous

and for a time successfully prevented its spread to

to Abyssinia, and probably Arabia, whence its culti-

other countries by not permitting any of the precious

vation spread throughout the tropics.

berries to leave the country unless they had first been

The first reliable mention of the properties and uses of the plant is by an Arabian physician toward the close of the ninth century A.D., and it is reasonable to suppose that before that time the plant was found growing wild in Abyssinia and perhaps in Arabia. If it be true, as Ludolphus writes, that the Abyssinians

10

HISTORY

steeped in boiling water or parched, so as to destroy their powers of germination. It may be that many of the early failures successfully to introduce the cultivation of the coffee plant into other lands was also due to the fact, discovered later, that the seeds soon lose their germinating power.

came out of Arabia into Ethiopia in the early ages,

However, it was not possible to watch every avenue

it is possible that they may have brought the coffee

of transport, with thousands of pilgrims journeying

tree with them; but the Arabians must still be given

to and from Mecca every year; and so there would

the credit for discovering and promoting the use of

appear to be some reason to credit the Indian tradition

the beverage, and also for promoting the propagation

concerning the introduction of coffee cultivation into

of the plant, even if they found it in Abyssinia and

southern India by Baba Budan, a Moslem pilgrim, as

brought it to Yemen. Some authorities believe that

early as 1600, although a better authority gives the

the first cultivation of coffee in Yemen dates back to

date as 1695. Indian tradition relates that Baba Budan

575 A.D., when the Persian invasion put an end to the

planted his seeds near the hut he built for himself at

Chickmaglur in the mountains of Mysore, where,

from Kananur, Malabar, to Java, the first coffee plants

only a few years since, the writer found the descen-

introduced into that island. They were grown from

dants of these first plants growing under the shade

seed of the Coffea arabica brought to Malabar from

of the centuries-old original jungle trees. The greater

Arabia. They were planted by Governor-General

part of the plants cultivated by the natives of Kurg

Willem Van Outshoorn on the Kedawoeng estate near

and Mysore appear to have come from the Baba Bu-

Batavia, but were subsequently lost by earthquake

dan importation.

and flood. In 1699 Henricus Zwaardecroon imported

It was not until 1840 that the English began the cultivation of coffee in India. The plantations extend now from the extreme north of Mysore to Tuticorin. In the latter part of the 16th century, German, Italian, and Dutch botanists and travelers brought back from the Levant considerable information regarding the new plant and the beverage. In 1614 enterprising Dutch

some slips, or cuttings, of coffee trees from Malabar into Java. These were more successful, and became the progenitors of all the coffees of the Dutch East Indies.

The Dutch were then taking the lead in the propagation of the coffee plant. In 1706 the first samples of Java coffee, and a coffee plant grown in Java, were received at the Amsterdam botanical gardens.

traders began to examine into the possibilities of

Many plants were afterward propagated from the

coffee cultivation and coffee trading. In 1616 a coffee

seeds produced in the Amsterdam gardens, and these

plant was successfully transported from Mocha to

were distributed to some of the best known botanical

Holland. In 1658 the Dutch started the cultivation of

gardens and private conservatories in Europe. While

coffee in Ceylon, although the Arabs are said to have

the Dutch were extending the cultivation of the

brought the plant to the island prior to 1505. In 1670

plant to Sumatra, the Celebes, Timor, Bali, and other

an attempt was made to cultivate coffee on European

islands of the Netherlands Indies, the French were

soil at Dijon, France, but the result was a failure. In

seeking to introduce coffee cultivation into their

1696, at the instigation of Nicolaas Witsen, then

colonies. Several attempts were made to transfer

burgomaster of Amsterdam, Adrian Van Ommen,

young plants from the Amsterdam botanical gardens

commander at Malabar, India, caused to be shipped

to the botanical gardens at Paris; but all were failures.

EARLY HISTORY

11

2 COFFEE

PLANT

The Coffee Tree

shows certain characteristics that accompany this

It is scientifically known as Coffea arabica, is native

condition of the seed. In every plant having two seed

to Abyssinia and Ethiopia, but grows well in Java,

leaves, the mature leaves are netted–veined, which is

Sumatra, and other islands of the Dutch East Indies;

a condition easily recognized even by the layman; also

in India, Arabia, equatorial Africa, the islands of

the parts of the flowers are in circles containing two

the Pacific, in Mexico, Central and South America,

or five parts, but never in threes or sixes.

and the West Indies. The plant belongs to the large sub-kingdom of plants known scientifically as the Angiosperms, or Angiospermæ, which means that the plant reproduces by seeds which are enclosed in a box-like compartment, known as the ovary, at the

The stems of plants of this class always increase in thickness by means of a layer of cells known as a cambium, which is a tissue that continues to divide throughout its whole existence. The fact that this

base of the flower.

cambium divides as long as it lives, gives rise to a

The word Angiosperm is derived from two Greek

on looking at the stem of a tree of this type when it has

words, sperma, a seed, and aggeion, pronounced

been sawed across, tell the age of the tree. In the spring

angeion, a box, the box referred to being the ovary.

the cambium produces large open cells through which

This large sub-kingdom is subdivided into two

large quantities of sap can run; in the fall it produces

classes. The basis for this division is the number of

very thick-walled cells, as there is not so much sap

leaves in the little plant which develops from the seed.

to be carried. Because these thin–walled open cells of

The coffee plant, as it develops from the seed, has two

one spring are next to the thick–walled cells of the

little leaves, and therefore belongs to the class Dicoty-

last autumn, it is very easy to distinguish one year’s

ledoneæ. This word dicotyledoneæ is made up of the

growth from the next; the marks so produced are

two Greek words, di(s), two, and kotyledon, cavity

called annual rings. We have now classified coffee

or socket. It is not necessary to see the young plant

as far as the class; and so far we could go if we had

that develops from the seed in order to know that it

only the leaves and stem of the coffee plant. In order

had two seed leaves; because the mature plant always

to proceed farther, we must have the flowers of

peculiar appearance in woody stems by which we can,

COFFEE PLANT

13

the plant, as botanical classification goes from this

(Uragoga), all of which are of economic importance.

point on the basis of the flowers. The class Dicoty-

The members of this family are noted for their action

ledoneæ is separated into sub- classes according to

on the nervous system. Coffee, as is well known,

whether the flower’s corolla (the showy part of the

contains an active principle known as caffein which

flower which ordinarily gives it its color) is all in

acts as a stimulant to the nervous system and in small

one piece, or is divided into a number of parts. The

quantities is very beneficial. Cinchona supplies us

coffee flower is arranged with its corolla all in one

with quinine, while Ipecacuanha produces ipecac,

piece, forming a tube-shaped arrangement, and

which is an emetic and purgative. The families are

accordingly the coffee plant belongs to the sub-class

divided into smaller sections known as genera, and to

Sympetalæ, or Metachlamydeæ, which means that its

the genus Coffea belongs the coffee plant. Under this

petals are united.

genus Coffea are several sub–genera, and to the sub–

The next step in classification is to place the plant in the proper division under the sub-class, which is the order. Plants are separated into orders according to their varied characteristics. The coffee plant belongs to an order known as Rubiales. These orders are

14

HISTORY

genus Eucoffea belongs our common coffee, Coffea arabica. Coffea arabica is the original or common Java coffee of commerce. The term “common” coffee may seem unnecessary, but there are many other species of coffee besides arabica.

again divided into families. Coffee is placed in the

These species have not been described very frequently;

family Rubiaceæ, or Madder Family, in which we

because their native haunts are the tropics, and the

find herbs, shrubs or trees, represented by a few

tropics do not always offer favorable conditions for

American plants, such as bluets, or Quaker ladies,

the study of their plants.All botanists do not agree in

small blue spring flowers, common to open meadows

their classification of the species and varieties of the

in northern United States; and partridge berries

coffea genus. M.E. de Wildman, curator of the royal

(Mitchella repens). The Madder Family has more

botanical gardens at Brussels, in his Les Plantes Tropi-

foreign representatives than native genera, among

cales de Grande Culture, says the systematic division

which are Coffea, Cinchona, and Ipecacuanha

of this interesting genus is far from finished; in fact,

it may be said hardly to be begun. The coffee plant

tough texture. The parchment encloses the magic

most cultivated for its berries is, as already stated,

bean in its last wrapping, a delicate silver-colored

Coffea arabica, which is found in tropical regions,

skin, not unlike fine spun silk or the sheerest of tissue

although it can grow in temperate climates. Unlike

papers. And this last wrapping is so tenacious, so true

most plants that grow best in the tropics, it can stand

to its guardianship function, that no amount of rough

low temperatures. It requires shade when it grows in

treatment can dislodge it altogether; for portions of it

hot, low-lying districts; but when it grows on elevated

cling to the bean even into the roasting and grinding

land, it thrives without such protection.

processes. Coffee is said to be “in the husk,” or “in the parchment,” when the whole fruit is dried; and it is

The Coffee Fruit The fruit consists of two parts,

called “hulled coffee” when it has been deprived of its

each one containing a single seed, or bean. These

hull and peel. The matter forming the fruit, called the

beans are flattened laterally, so as to fit together,

coffee berry, covers two thin, hard, oval seed vessels

except in the following instances: in the peaberry,

held together, one to the other, by their flat sides.

where one of the ovules never develops, the single ovule, having no pressure upon it, is spherical; in the rare instances where three seeds are found, the grains are angular. The coffee bean with which the consumer is familiar is only a small part of the fruit. The coffee fruit is very like a cherry, though somewhat elongated and having in its upper end a small umbilicus. But mark with what ingenuity the package has been constructed! The outer wrapping is a thin, gossamer-like skin which encloses a soft pulp, sweetish to the taste, but of a mucilaginous consistency. This pulp in turn is wrapped about the inner-seal—called the parchment, because of its

These seed vessels, when broken open, contain the raw coffee beans of commerce. They are usually of a roundish oval shape, convex on the outside, flat inside, marked longitudinally in the center of the flat side with a deep incision, and wrapped in the thin pellicle known as the silver skin. When one of the two seeds aborts, the remaining one acquires a greater size, and fills the interior of the fruit, which in that case, of course, has but one cellule. This abortion is common in the arabica variety, and produces a bean formerly called gragé coffee, but now more commonly known as peaberry, or male berry.

COFFEE PLANT

15

16

HISTORY

The Coffee Flower They are small, white, and

the top of the corolla tube, together with the top of

very fragrant, having a delicate characteristic odor.

the two-cleft pistil. The calyx, which is so small as to

They are borne in the axils of the leaves in clusters, and

escape notice unless one is aware of its existence, is

several crops are produced in one season, depending

annular, with small, tooth–like indentations. The size

on the conditions of heat and moisture that prevail

and condition of the flowers are entirely dependent

in the particular season. Moreover, the different

on the weather. The flowers are sometimes very small,

blossomings are classed as main blossoming and

very fragrant, and very numerous; while at other

smaller blossomings. In semi-dry high districts, as

times, when the weather is not hot and dry, they are

in Costa Rica or Guatemala, there is one blossoming

very large, but not so numerous. Both sets of flowers

season, about March, and flowers and fruit are not

mentioned above “set fruit,” as it is called; but at times,

found together, as a rule, on the trees.

especially in a very dry season, they bear flowers that

But in lowland plantations where rain is perennial, blooming and fruiting continue practically all the year; and ripe fruits, green fruits, open flowers, and

are few in number, small, and imperfectly formed, the petals frequently being green instead of white. These flowers do not set fruit.

flower buds are to be found at the same time on the

The flowers that open on a dry sunny day show a

same branchlet, not mixed together, but in the order

greater yield of fruit than those that open on a wet

indicated. The flowers are also tubular, the tube of

day, as the first mentioned have a better chance of

the corolla dividing into five white segments. Dr.

being pollinated by the insects and the wind. The

P.J.S. Cramer, chief of the division of plant breeding,

beauty of a coffee estate in flower is of a very fleeting

Department of Agriculture, Netherlands India, says

character. One day it is a snowy expanse of fragrant

the number of petals is not at all constant, not even

white blossoms for miles and miles, as far as the 263

for flowers of the same tree. The corolla segments are

eye can see, and two days later it reminds one of the

about one-half inch in length, while the tube itself is

lines from Villon’s Des Dames du Temps Jadis. But

about three-eighths of an inch long. The anthers of

here, the winter winds are not to blame: the soft,

the stamens, which are five in number, protrude from

gentle breezes of the perments.

COFFEE PLANT

17

It usually takes about five years for a coffee tree to

which can not always be counted on. In this process

bear its first full crop, at which stage it will have

the berries are spread in a thin layer on open drying

grown and been pruned to maintain a height of about

grounds, or barbecues, often having cement or brick

6 feet. The tree can continue to be productive for 15

surfaces. The berries are turned over several times a

years or more, annually producing enough cherries

day in order to permit the sun and wind thoroughly

to yield about one pound of roasted coffee. Not all

to dry all portions. The sun窶電rying process lasts

coffee cherries ripen at the same time, and anybranch

about three weeks; and after the first three days of this

of a tree ight simultaneously bear blossoms, green

period, the berries must be protected from dews and

fruit and ripe cherries. So quality coffees must be

rains by covering them with tarpaulins, or by raking

picked entirely by hand, a process that requires

them into heaps under cover. If the berries are not

threee or four visits per tree each year. In one day,

spread out, they heat, and the silver skin sticks to the

an experienced coffee plantation worker can pick up

coffee bean, and frequently discolors it. the berries are

to 200 pounds of ripe cherries, equivalent to about

stored after thoroughly dry.

50 pounds of green coffee beans. Once the cherries have been picked, the beans must be extracted from them. The task may be accomplished by one of two different methods, determined by the avalability of water in the region where the coffee is grown.

The dry method of preparing the berries is not only the older method, but is considered by some operators as providing a distinct advantage over the wet process, since berries of different degrees of ripeness can be handled at the same time. However, the success of this method is dependent largely on the continuance of clear warm weather over quite a length of time,

18

HISTORY

Drying coffee beans under the sun.

The wet method of preparation is the more modern form, and is generally practised on the larger plantations that have a sufficient supply of water, and enough money to instal the quite extensive amount of machinery and equipment required. It is generally considered that washing results in a better grade of bean. In this method the cherries are sometimes thrown into tanks full of water to soak about twenty-four hours, so as to soften the outer skins and underlying pulp to a condition that will make them easily removable by the pulping machine—the idea being to rub away the pulp by friction.

Dried berries coffee beans.

Coffee berries after the ferment–and–wash method of wet.

COFFEE PLANT

19

3 COFFEE

ROASTING

Factory Preparation

European climate. Because of the dramatic increase

The coffee bean is not ready for beverage purposes

in demand for coffee, around 1700 AD, the Dutch

until it has been properly “manufactured,” that is,

managed to get coffee plants and started to grow coffee

roasted, or “cooked.” Only in this way can all the

in their colonies in Indonesia. Java, Sumatra, Timor

stimulating, flavoring, and aromatic principles

and Bali were all Dutch colonies in which coffee was

concealed in the minute cells of the bean be extracted

introduced and grown. The French and the British

at one time. An infusion from green coffee has a

soon followed suit, by establishing coffee plantations

decidedly unpleasant taste and hardly any color.

in the French & English colonies in the Americas and

Likewise, an underdone roast has a disagreeable

in India. Coffee soon spread to the Spanish colonies

“grassy” flavor; while an overdone roast gives a

throughout all of Central and South America.

charred taste that is unpalatable to the average citizen of the United States working on either the smallest or the largest scale. A wholesale plant may be considered to be one in which coffee is roasted in batches of one bag or more at a time; and with this definition, nearly all the roasting in the United States is done in a wholesale way.and Bali were all Dutch

In spite of the generally admitted fact that freshly roasted coffee makes the best infusion, most of the coffee used today is not roasted at or near the place where it is brewed, but in factories that are provided with special equipment for the roasting of coffee in a wholesale way. The reasons for this are various, partly

colonies in which coffee was introduced and grown.

relating to the mere economy of buying and manufac-

The French and the British soon followed suit, by

trained skill that is needed both for selecting suitable

establishing coffee plantations in the French &

green coffees to make a satisfactory blend, and for the

English colonies in the Americas and in India. Coffee

roasting work itself. The proportion of consumers who

soon spread to the Spanish colonies throughout all of

roast their own coffee is so small as to be negligible, at

Central and South America. Eventually some plants

least in the United States. The average person who buys

were smuggled out. The coffee plant, however, does

coffee today, for brewing use, never sees green coffee

not tolerate frost and would not grow in the colder

at all, unless as an “educational hibit” in some dealer’s

turing on a large scale, and partly relating to the

COFFEE ROASTING

21

display window. To make the roasting establishments of large size; but this tendency is offset by the problem of distributing the roasting coffee so that it will reach the ultimate consumer in good condition.

Roasting enterprises on a comparatively small scale would probably be much more numerous on account of the “fresh–roast” argument, except for the fact that coffee–roasting machines can not be installed so easily as the grinding mills, meat–choppers, and slicing machines, that find extended use in small stores.

The steam, smoke, and chaff given off by the coffee as it is roasted must be disposed of by an outdoor connection, without annoying the neighbors or creating a fire hazard. From these general remarks, it can easily be seen that the size of individual roasting establishments will vary greatly, according to the skill of the proprietor in meeting the disadvantages of working on either the smallest or the largest scale. A wholesale plant may be considered to be one in which coffee is roasted in batches of one bag or more at a time; and with this definition, nearly all the roasting in the United States is done in a wholesale way. For many years the regular factory machines have been of a size suitable for roasting two bags of coffee at a time; but roasters of larger size have recently come

22

HISTORY

A sixteen-cylinder coal roasting plant in a New York factory.

into considerable use. Plants treating from fifty to a hundred and fifty bags per day are the most common; but the daily capacity runs up to a thousand bags or more. The minimum cost of equipping a plant is somewhere between five thousand dollars and ten thousand dollars. The individual machines are of standard construction; but the arrangement in a particular building, especially for the larger plants, is worked out with great care and with numerous special features, so that the goods can be handled from start to finish with minimum expense for floor space, labor, power, etc. The practical coffee roaster locates his roasting room in the top floor of his factory building. He usually has a large skylight in the roof, directly over the roasting equipment.

A modern gas coffee-rasting plant with a capacity of 1,000 bags a day.

In addition to the advantage as regards good light and the convenient discharge of smoke, steam, and odors, through the roof, the top-story location makes it possible to send the roasted coffee by gravity through the various bins which may be needed in connection with subsequent operations, such as grinding, and for temporary storage before the final packaging and shipping. The indispensable coffee operations are roasting and cooling; and in parctically all United States plants the cooling is followed by�stoning�.

COFFEE ROASTING

23

Roasting Coffee is the transformation of the chemical and physical properties of green coffee beans into roasted coffee products. The roasting process is integral to producing a savoury cup of coffee. When roasted, the green coffee bean expands to nearly double its original size, changing in colour and density. As the bean absorbs heat, the colour shifts to yellow and then to a light “cinnamon” brown then to a dark and oily colour. During roasting oils appear on the surface of the bean. The roast will continue to darken until it is removed from the heat source. At lighter roasts, the bean will exhibit more of its “origin flavor”—the flavors created in the bean by the soil and weather conditions in the location where it was grown. Coffee beans from famous regions like Java, Kenya, Hawaiian Kona, and Jamaican Blue Mountain are usually roasted lightly so their signature characteristics dominate the flavor.

As the beans darken to a deep brown, the origin flavors of the bean are eclipsed by the flavors created by the roasting process itself. At darker roasts, the “roast flavor” is so dominant that it can be difficult to distinguish the origin of the beans used in the roast.

The arms of a coffee roasting machine turn to help the beans roast evenly.

24

HISTORY

These roasts are sold by the degree of roast, ranging from “Light Cinnamon Roast” through “Vienna

Roast” to “French Roast” and beyond. Many consider

Roasters are typi cally horizontal rotating drums that

that a “full city” roast is a great roast because it is “not

tumble the green coffee beans in a current of hot

too light” and “not too dark”. In the 19th century

combustion gases; the roasters operate in either batch

coffee was usually bought in the form of green beans

or continuous modes and can be indirect or direct-

and roasted in a frying pan. This form of roasting

fired. At the end of the roasting cycle, the roasted

requires much skill to do well, and fell out of flavour

beans are cooled using forced air

when vacuum sealing of pre-roasted coffee became possible. Unfortunately, because coffee emits CO2 for days after it is roasted, one must allow the coffee

Home Roasting Today home roasting is becoming

popular again. Computerised drum roasters are

to get slightly stale before it can be vacuum sealed.

available which simplify home roasting, and some

For this reason two technologies have recently been

popcorn poppers. Once roasted, coffee loses its flavor

employed: Illy has begun to use pressurised cans

quickly. Although some prefer to wait 24 hours after

and many roasters bag whole beans immediately

roasting to brew the first cup, all agree that it begins

after roasting in bags with pressure release valves.

to get off-flavors and bitterness about 1-2 weeks

The coffee roasting process consists essentially of

after roasting even under ideal conditions like being

cleaning, roasting, cooling, grinding, and packaging

stored in an airtight container or de-gassing valve

operations. Bags of green coffee beans are hand or

bag. Up until the 20th century, it was more common

machine-opened, dumped into a hopper, and screened

for at–home coffee drinkers to roast their coffee in

to remove debris. The green beans are then weighed

their residence than it was to buy pre–roasted coffee.

and transferred by belt or pneumatic conveyor to

Home roasting is the process of buying green coffee

storage hoppers. From the storage hoppers, the

beans and roasting them in your own home. Roasting

green beans are conveyed to the roaster. Roasters

coffee in the home is something that has been

typically operate at temperatures between 370 and

practiced for centuries, and has included methods

540 °F, and the beans are roasted for a period of time

such as heating over fire coals, roasting in cast iron

ranging from a few minutes to about 30 minutes.

pans, and rotating iron drums over a fire or coal bed.

home roasters simply roast in an oven or in air

Italian B.G. Coffee Grinder

COFFEE ROASTING

25

PRODUCT Coffee production is the industrial process of converting the raw fruit of the coffee plant into the finished coffee. The cherry has the fruit or pulp removed, leaving the seed or bean, which is then dried. While all green coffee is processed, the method that is used varies and can have a significant effect on the flavor of roasted and brewed coffee.

2

4 COFFEE

BEANS

Introduction to Coffee Beans

store their roasted beans in large, open containers

A coffee bean is a seed of the coffee plant, and is the

holding twenty pounds each or more. Unless they’re

source for coffee. It is the pit inside the red or purple

selling a truly amazing amount of coffee, much is it

fruit often referred to as a cherry. Even though they

is likely stale. If a supermarket without an in-store

are seeds, they are incorrectly referred to as ‘beans’

roaster is your only option, look for sealed plastic,

because of their resemblance to true beans. Coffee

Mylar, or foil bags with the roasting date printed on

cherries or coffee berries—most commonly contain

them. You want a roasting date, not an expiration

two stones with their flat sides together.

date—the latter is misleading, since you don’t know

A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, instead of the usual two. This is called a peaberry.

Like Brazil nuts (a seed) and white rice, coffee seeds consist mostly of endosperm. The two most economically important varieties of coffee plant are the Arabica and the Robusta; 75-80% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and 20% is Robusta.

Arabica seeds consist of 0.8-1.4% caffeine and Robusta seeds consist of 1.7-4% caffeine. As coffee is one of the world’s most widely consumed beverages,

whether the retailer is being unrealistically optimistic about how long they consider the beans to be fresh.

The pre-ground, canned coffees sold in supermarkets are de facto stale (though many people believe that Illy canned coffee, which is packed under pressure, not vacuum, is an exception to this rule). Foil-wrapped vacuum-packed containers should be avoided; since freshly roasted beans emit carbon dioxide, the tight packaging, indicates that this outgassing has stopped and the beans are stale.

coffee seeds are a major cash crop, and an important

The carbon dioxide emission lasts for up to two weeks

export product, counting for over 50% of some devel-

after roasting, so the foil bags should have one-way

oping nations’ foreign exchange earnings.The United

exhaust valves so that they don’t expand. Coffee is

States imports more coffee than any other nation. The

often at its best the day after it is roasted; therefore,

per capita consumption of coffee in the United States

beans roasted that same day are not an absolute

in 2011 was 4.24 kg (9 lbs), and the value of coffee

requirement, though it will mean that they’ll be

imported exceeded $8 billion.Some “gourmet” shops

usable for a longer period.

COFFEE BEANS

29

(robusta), because robusta cherries contain twice as much caffeine as arabica. Caffeine itself has a bitter taste, making robusta more bitter. C. arabica contains less caffeine than any other commercially cultivated species of coffee.

Wild plants grow to between 9 and 12 m tall, and have an open branching system; the leaves are opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, 6-12 cm long and 4-8

Arabica Coffea arabica is a species of coffee tree that produces arabica coffee, accounting for the majority of the coffee consumed in the world. This species of tree is the oldest known tree to be cultivated for coffee production. Until the beginning of the 20th century, it was virtually the only type of tree from which coffee was harvested commercially. It is a species of Coffea originally indigenous to the mountains of the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia. It is also known as the “coffee shrub of Arabia”, “mountain coffee” or “arabica coffee”.

Coffea arabica is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, being grown in southwest Ethiopia for well over 1,000 years. It is said to produce better tasting coffee than the other major commercially grown coffee species, Coffea canephora

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PRODUCT

cm broad, glossy dark green. The flowers are white, 10–15 mm in diameter and grow in axillary clusters.

The fruit is a drupe (though commonly called a “cherry”; the plural form is simply “cherry” that used only when referring to the fruit of C. arabica. When referring to the actual cherry fruit, the appropriate plural is “cherries”) 10-15 mm in diameter, maturing bright red to purple and typically contains two seeds (the coffee seeds). is genetically distinct: it has four sets of chromosomes, whereas robusta, and liberica each have two. Sensory descriptions: The taste of arabica beans differ between varieties and growing regions—the same variety grown in different parts of the world will taste different. These taste notes can be as varied as berries (blueberry is often particularly noted in Ethiopian Harrar), earthy (a characteristic associated with

Indian and Indonesian coffees,) citrus (common

between 15 and 24 °C. Commercial cultivars mostly

with Central Americans), or chocolate (see note

only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed

on mocha).

as low as 2 m to facilitate harvesting. Unlike Coffea

Originally found in the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, Coffea arabica is now rare in its native state, and many populations appear to be mixed native and planted trees. It is common there as an understorey shrub. It has also been recovered from the Boma Plateau in South Sudan. C. arabica is also found on Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya, but it is unclear whether this is a truly native or naturalised occurrence. The conservation of the genetic variation of Coffea arabica relies on conserving healthy populations of wild coffee in the Afromontane rainforests

canephora, C. arabica prefers to be grown in light shade. citation needed Two to four years after planting, C. arabica produces small, white, highly fragrant flowers. The sweet fragrance resembles the sweet smell of jasmine flowers. Flowers opening on sunny days results in the greatest numbers of berries.

This can be a curse, however, as coffee plants tend to produce too many berries; this can lead to an inferior harvest and even damage yield in the following years, as the plant will favour the ripening of berries to the detriment of its own health.

of Ethiopia. Genetic research has shown coffee cultivation is threatening the genetic integrity of wild coffee because it exposes wild genotypes to cultivars.

Coffea arabica accounts for 80 percent of the world’s coffee production.Arabica takes about seven years to mature fully, and does best with 1.0-1.5 meters of rain,

Coffea arabica is a species of coffee tree that produces arabica coffee, accounting for the majority of the coffee consumed in the world.

evenly distributed throughout the year. It is usually cultivated between 1,300 and 1,500 m altitude, but there are plantations as low as sea level and as high as 2,800 m.The plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and does best with an average temperature

COFFEE BEANS

31

On well-kept plantations, overflowering is prevented by pruning the tree. The flowers only last a few days, leaving behind only the thick dark green leaves. The berries then begin to appear. These are as dark green as the foliage, until they begin to ripen, at first to yellow and then light red and finally darkening to a glossy deep red. At this point they are called ‘cherries’ and are ready for picking.

The berries are oblong and about 1 cm long. Inferior coffee results from picking them too early or too late, so many are picked by hand to be able to better select them, as they do not all ripen at the same time. They are sometimes shaken off the tree onto mats, which means ripe and unripe berries are collected together.

The trees are difficult to cultivate and each tree can produce from 0.5 to 5.0 kg of dried beans, depending on the tree’s individual character and the climate that season. The real prize of this cash crop are the beans inside. Each berry holds two locules containing the beans. The coffee beans are actually two seeds within the fruit; there is sometimes a third seed or one seed, a peaberry in the fruit at tips of the branches. These seeds are covered in two membranes; the outer one is called the “parchment coat” and the inner one is called the “silver skin”. On Java Island, trees are

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PRODUCT

planted at all times of the year and are harvested year round. In parts of Brazil, however, the trees have a season and are harvested only in winter. The plants are vulnerable to damage in poor growing conditions (cold, low pH soil) and are also more vulnerable to pests than the C. robusta plant. Arabica coffee production in Indonesia began in 1699. Indonesian coffees, such as Sumatran and Java, are known for heavy body and low acidity. This makes them ideal for blending with the higher acidity coffees from Central America and East Africa.

Unroasted coffee(COFFEA ARABICA) beans.

COFFEE BEANS

33

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PRODUCT

According to legend, human cultivation of coffee began after goats in Ethiopia were seen mounting each other after eating the leaves and fruits of the coffee tree. In Ethiopia, though, people in some locales still drink an herbal tea made from the leaves of the coffee tree. The first written record of coffee made from roasted coffee beans comes from Arab scholars, who wrote that it was useful in prolonging their working hours. The Arab innovation in Yemen of making a brew from roasted beans, spread first among the Egyptians and Turks, and later on found its way around the world. Coffea arabica was first described by Antoine de Jussieu, who named it Jasminum arabicum after studying a specimen from the Botanic Gardens of Amsterdam. Linnaeus placed it in its own genus Coffea in 1737. One strain of Ethiopian Coffea arabica naturally contains very little caffeine. While beans of normal C. arabica plants contain 12 milligrams of caffeine per gram of dry mass, these newly found mutants contain only 0.76 milligrams of caffeine per gram, but with all the taste of normal coffee.

COFFEE BEANS

35

Ethiopia, C. canephora grows indigenously in Western and Central Africa. It was not recognized as a species of Coffea until the 19th century, about a hundred years after Coffea arabica. Approximately 30% of the coffee produced in the world is robusta. It is mostly grown in Vietnam, where French colonists introduced it in the late 19th century, though it is also grown in Africa and Brazil, where it is often called conilon.

It is a species of coffee that has its origins in central and western sub–Saharan Africa. It is a species of flowering plant in the Rubiaceae family. Though widely known as Coffea robusta, the plant is scientifically identified as Coffea canephora, which has two main varieties, Robusta and Nganda.

The plant has a shallow root system and grows as a robust tree or shrub to about 10 metres. It flowers irregularly, taking about 10-11 months for cherries to ripen, producing oval-shaped beans. The robusta plant has a greater crop yield than that of C. arabica, and contains more caffeine—2.7% compared to arabica’s 1.5%. Originating in upland forests in

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PRODUCT

In recent years, Vietnam, which produces mostlybusta, has surpassed Brazil, India, and Indonesia to become the world’s single largest exporter of robusta coffee. Brazil is still the biggest producer of coffee in the world, producing one-third of the world’s coffee, though 80% of that is C. arabica.

Robusta is easier to care for and has a greater crop yield than C. arabica, so is cheaper to produce.

Roasted robusta beans produce a strong, full–bodied coffee with a distinctive earthy flavour, but usually with more bitterness than arabica due to its pyrazine content.Since arabica beans are believed to have

Unroasted robusta beans are said to conjure a scent of grains or nuts while roasted robustas have been described as having a burnt rubber or plastic smell.

smoother taste with less acidity and a richer flavour, they are often considered superior, while the harsher robusta beans are mostly used as a filler in lower–grade coffee blends. However, the powerful flavour can be desirable in a blend to give it perceived “strength” and “finish”, noticeably in Italian coffee culture.

Good–quality robusta beans are used in traditional Italian espresso blends, to provide a full-bodied taste and a better foam head (known as crema).

COFFEE BEANS

37

38

PRODUCT

COFFEE BEANS

39

5 COFFEE

BEVERAGES

Coffee Drink It is a brewed beverage with a strong flavor prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffea plant. The beans are found in coffee “cherries”, which grow on trees cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in equatorial Latin America, Southeast Asia, South Asia and Africa. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world.

Coffee is slightly acidic and can have a stimulating effect on humans due to its caffeine content. It is one of the most–consumed beverages in the world. Many studies have examined the health effects of coffee, and whether the overall effects of coffee consumption

(espresso on the bottom), whileadding espresso to water (espresso on the top) is instead referred to as a long black. The term ‘Americano’ means ‘American’, and comes from Italian and American Spanish, dating to the 1970s. There a popular false etymology that holds that the name has its origins in World War 2 when American G.I.s in Europe would dilute espresso with hot water to approximate the coffee to which they were accustomed. Most commonly, an Americano is used when one wishes a brew–coffee sized drink from an espresso bar. Americanos—particularly short, long black style Americanos—are also used within artisanal espresso preparation for beans that produce

are positive or negative has been widely disputed.

strong espresso. This is particularly used for single

Caffè Americano It also called Americano. It

espresso shots can prove overpowering.

origin espresso, where many find that undiluted

is a style of coffee prepared by adding hot water to espresso, giving it a similar strength to, but different

This is particularly used of lighter coffees and roasts

flavor from, regular drip coffee. The strength of

not generally associated with espresso, such as beans

an Americano varies with the number of shots of

of Ethiopian or Sumatran origins. For this prepa-

espresso and the amount of water added. The name

ration, generally a ratio of 1:1 espresso to water is

is also spelled with varying capitalization and use of

used, to prevent excess dilution, with the espresso

diacritics: e.g., café americano. In the United States,

pulled directly into a cup with existing water to

“Americano” is used broadly to mean combining hot

minimize disruption to the crema, which is also made

water and espresso in either order, but in a narrower

by extracting an espresso shot for longer, significantly

definition it refers to adding water to espresso

longer than a lungo.

Hot caffè Americano.

COFFEE BEVERAGES

41

Espresso It is coffee brewed by forcing a small

in other brewing methods. There is no universal

amount of nearly boiling water under pressure

standard defining the process of extracting espresso,

through finely ground coffee beans. Espresso is

but there are several published definitions which

generally thicker than coffee brewed by other

attempt to place constraints on the amount and type

methods, has a higher concentration of suspended and dissolved solids, and has crema on top (a foam with a creamy consistency). As a result of the pressurized brewing process, the flavors and chemicals in a typical cup of espresso are very concentrated. Espresso is the base for other drinks, such as a caffè latte, cappuccino, caffè macchiato, cafe mocha, or caffè Americano. Espresso has more caffeine per unit volume than most beverages, but the usual serving size is smaller—a typical 60 mL (2 US fluid ounces) of espresso has 80 to 150 mg of caffeine, a little less than the 95 to 200 mg of a standard 240 mL (8 US fluid ounces) cup of drip–brewed coffee.

Espresso is made by forcing very hot (about 95° C) water under high pressure through finely ground, compacted coffee. Tamping down the coffee promotes the water’s even penetration of the grounds.

This process produces an almost syrupy beverage by extracting both solid and dissolved components. The “crema” is produced by emulsifying the oils in the ground coffee into a colloid, which does not occur

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PRODUCT

of ground coffee used, the temperature and pressure

being the maximum that could easily be pulled on a

of the water, and the rate of extraction. Generally,

lever machine, while the double is the standard shot

one uses an espresso machine to make espresso. The

today. Single baskets are sharply tapered or stepped

act of producing a shot of espresso is often termed

down in diameter to provide comparable depth to the

“pulling” a shot, originating from lever espresso

double baskets and, therefore, comparable resistance

machines, which require pulling down a handle

to water pressure. Most double baskets are gently

attached to a spring-loaded piston, forcing hot water

tapered (the “Faema model”), while others, such as

through the coffee at high pressure. Today, however,

the La Marzocco, have straight sides. Triple baskets

it is more common for the pressure to be generated by

are normally straight-sided.

an electric pump. Espresso is both a coffee beverage and a brewing method. It is not a specific bean, bean

Portafilters will often come with two spouts, usually

blend, or roast level. Any bean or roasting level can

closely spaced, and a double-size basket—each spout

be used to produce authentic espresso. For example,

can optionally dispense into a separate cup, yielding

in southern Italy, a darker roast is generally preferred.

two solo-size (but doppio–brewed) shots, or into a

Farther north, the trend moves toward slightly lighter

single cup (hence the close spacing). True solo shots

roasts, while outside Italy, a wide range is popular.

are rare, with a single shot in a café generally being

The size can be a single, double, or triple, which corresponds roughly to a 1, 2, and 3 US fluid ounce (approximately 30, 60 or 90ml) standard (normale) shot, and use a proportional amount of ground coffee, roughly 7-8, 14-16, and 21-24 grams; correspondingly sized filter baskets are used. The Italian term doppio is often used for a double, with solo and triplo being more rarely used for singles and

half of a doppio shot. In espresso–based drinks, particularly larger milk-based drinks, a drink with three or four shots of espresso will be called a “triple” or “quad”, respectively, but this does not mean the shots themselves are triple or quadruple shots. Rather, generally double shots will be used, with one and a half shots used in a triple (split via the two spouts), and two shots used in a quad.

triples. The single shot is the traditional shot size,

COFFEE BEVERAGES

43

History Angelo Moriondo’s Italian patent for a

espresso is given in (Morris 2007), which is a source of

steam-driven

beverage

various statements below. In Italy, the rise of espresso

making device, which was registered in Turin in

consumption was associated with urbanization,

1884, is notable. Author Ian Bersten, whose history of

espresso bars providing a place for socialization.

coffee brewers is cited below, claims to have been the

Further, coffee prices were controlled by local author-

first to discover Moriondo’s patent. Bersten describes

ities, provided the coffee was consumed standing up,

the device as “… almost certainly the first Italian bar

encouraging the “stand at a bar” culture.

“instantaneous”

coffee

machine that controlled the supply of steam and water separately through the coffee” and Moriondo Angelo Moriondo, inventor of an important precursor to the espresso coffee machine.

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PRODUCT

as “... certainly one of the earliest discoverers of the expresso machine, if not the earliest.” Unlike true espresso machines, it was a bulk brewer, and did not

In the English–speaking world, espresso became popular, particularly in the form of cappuccino, due to the tradition of drinking coffee with milk and the exotic appeal of the foam. In the United States, this

brew coffee “expressly” for the individual customer.

was more often in the form of lattes, with or without

Seventeen years later, in 1901, Milanese Luigi

been invented in the 1950s by Italian American

Bezzera came up with a number of improvements

Lino Meiorin of Caffe Mediterraneum in Berkeley,

to the espresso machine. He patented a number

California, as a long cappuccino, and was then

of these, the first of which was applied for on the

popularized in Seattle, and then nationally and inter-

19th of December 1901. It was titled “Innovations

nationally by Seattle-based Starbucks in the late 1980s

in the machinery to prepare and immediately serve

and 1990s. In the United Kingdom, espresso grew in

coffee beverage.” In 1905, the patent was bought by

popularity among youth in the 1950s, who felt more

Desiderio Pavoni, who founded the “La Pavoni”

welcome in the coffee shops than in public houses

company and began to produce the machine indus-

(pubs). Espresso was initially popular, particularly

trially (one a day) in a small workshop in Via Parini

within the Italian diaspora, growing in popularity

in Milan.The popularity of espresso developed in

with tourism to Italy exposing others to espresso,

various ways; a detailed discussion of the spread of

as developed by Eiscafès established by Italians in

flavored syrups added. The latte is claimed to have

Germany. Initially, expatriate Italian espresso bars were downmarket venues, serving the working class Italian diaspora and thus providing appeal to the alternative subculture / counterculture. This can still be seen in the United States in Italian American neighborhoods, such as Boston’s North End, New York’s Little Italy, and San Francisco’s North Beach.

As specialty coffee developed in the 1980s (following earlier developments in the 1970s and even 1960s), an indigenous artisanal coffee culture developed, with espresso instead positioned as an upmarket drink.

with the opening of Western coffee shop chains. A distinctive feature of espresso, as opposed to brewed coffee, is espresso’s association with cafés, due both to the specialized equipment and skill required, thus making the enjoyment of espresso a social experience.

Home espresso machines have increased in popularity with the general rise of interest in espresso. Today, a wide range of home espresso equipment can be found in kitchen and appliance stores, online vendors, and department stores.

Today, coffee culture commentators distinguish large

Initially, espresso machines were not available for

chain, midmarket coffee as “Second Wave Coffee”,

home use; development of domestic machines began

and upmarket, artisanal coffee as Third Wave Coffee.

in the 1970s, and remained expensive and bulky, and

In the Middle East, espresso is growing in popularity,

required skill to operate. In recent years, the invention of convenient counter-top home espresso makers based on coffee pods has increased the quantity of espresso consumed at home. The popularity of home espresso making parallels the increase of home coffee roasting. Some amateurs pursue both home roasting coffee and making espresso. The origin of

A manual espresso machine.

the term “espresso” is the subject of considerable debat. Although some Anglo–American dictionaries simply refer to “pressed–out,” “espresso,” much like the English word “express”, conveys the senses of “just for you” and “quickly.”

A modern espresso machine.

COFFEE BEVERAGES

45

Cappuccino A cappuccino is an Italian coffee

harmonious balance of rich, sweet milk and espresso.

drink which is traditionally prepared with espresso,

The cappuccino is prepared with one single shot of

hot milk, and steamed–milk foam. The name comes

espresso, textured milk and foam. A minimum of 1

from the Capuchin friars, referring to the colour

centimeter of foam depth A cappuccino is a beverage

of their habits. The Viennese bestowed the name

between 150 and 180 ml in total volume. It comes

Kapuziner in the 19th century, although their version

from the diminutive form of cappuccio in Italian,

included whipped cream, which the Italians found

meaning ‘hood’ or something that covers the head,

rather heavy. is a coffee drink topped with foamed

thus ‘cappuccino’ reads ‘small capuchin’.

milk It is made in a steam–producing espresso machine. The espresso is poured into the bottom third of the cup, followed by a similar amount of hot milk.

The top third of the drink consists of milk foam; this foam can be decorated with artistic drawings made with the same milk, called latte art. In a traditional cappuccino, as served in Europe and artisan coffee houses in the United States, the total of espresso and milk/foam make up between approximately 150-180 ml. Commercial coffee chains in the US more often

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PRODUCT

The coffee beverage has its name not from the hood but from the colour of the hooded robes worn by monks and nuns of the capuchin order.

This colour is quite distinctive and ‘capuchin’ was a common description of the colour of red-brown in 17th-century Europe. The capuchin monks chose the particular design of their orders’ robes both in colour and shape of the hood back in the 16th century, inspired by Francis of Assisi’s preserved 13th century

serve the cappuccino as a 360 ml drink or larger.

vestments. The long and pointed hood was charac-

The World Barista Championships have been

‘capuchins’ (hood-wearing). It was, however the

arranged annually since 2000, and during the course

choice of red-brown as the order’s vestment colour

of the competition, the competing barista must

that, as early as the 17th century, saw ‘capuchin’ used

produce to four sensory judges among other drinks

also as a term for a specific colour. While Francis of

four cappuccinos, defined in Rules and Regulations

Assisi humbly used uncoloured and un-bleached

as a coffee and milk beverage that should produce a

wool for his robes, the capuchins coloured their

teristic and soon gave the brothers the nickname

vestments to differ from Franciscans, Benedictines,

counterpart “Franziskaner”: ‘Kapuziner’ shows up on

Augustinians and other orders. ‘Cappuccino’ in its

Coffee House menus all over the Austro-Hungarian

Italian form is not known in Italian writings until the

Empire around this time, and is in 1805 described

20th century, but the German–language ‘Kapuziner’

in a Wörterbuch (as ‘coffee with cream and sugar’

is mentioned in the 18th century in Austria, and is

(although it does not say how it is composed).

described as ‘coffee with sugar, egg yolks and cream’

‘Kapuziner’ is mentioned again in writings in the

in dictionary entries from 1800 onwards. Although

1850s, described as ‘coffee with cream, spices and

it seems the ‘Kapuziner’ may have had whipped

sugar’. Other coffees containing cream surfaces

cream on top, it seems likely the name comes from

in Vienna, and outside Austria these are referred

the specific capuchin–colour of the beverage’s mix of

to as ‘Viennese Coffee’ or ‘Café Viennois’, -coffee

coffee, cream and eggs.

with whipped cream-. Predecessors of Irish Coffee,

History and Evolution The consumption of coffee

in Europe was initially based on the traditional Ottoman preparation of the drink, by bringing to boil

sweetened coffee with different alcohols, topped with whipped cream also spreads out from Vienna. The ‘Kapuziner’ obviously had its name from the colour

the mixture of coffee and water together, sometimes by adding sugar. The British seem to have started filtering and steeping coffee already in the 2nd part of the 17th century and France and continental Europe followed suit. By the 19th century coffee was brewed in different devices designed for both home and public Cafés. Adding milk to coffee is mentioned by Europeans already in the 1600s, and sometimes advised. It seems ‘Cappuccino’ originated as the coffee beverage “Kapuziner” in the Viennese coffee houses in the 1700s at the same time as the

COFFEE BEVERAGES

47

became widespread only during the 1950s, and ‘cappuccino’ was re-defined, now made from espresso and frothed milk (though far from the quality of steamed milk today). As the espresso machines improved, so did the dosing of coffee and the heating of the milk. Outside Italy, ‘cappuccino’ spread, but was generally made from dark coffee with whipped cream, as it still is in large parts of Europe.

The ‘Kapuziner’ remained unchanged on the Austrian coffee menu, even in Trieste, which by 1920 belonged to Italy and in Budapest, Prague, Bratislava and other cities of the former Empire. Espresso machines were of coffee with a few drops of cream, nicknamed so because the capuchin monks in Vienna and elsewhere wore vestments with this colour. Another popular coffee was Franziskaner, with more cream (or milk), referring to the somewhat ‘lighter’ brown colour of the robes of monks of the Franciscan order.

Cappuccino as we write it today is first mentioned in northern Italy in the 1930s, and photographs from that time show a ‘viennese’—a coffee topped with whipped cream sprinkled with cinnamon or chocolate. The steamed milk atop is a later addition.

Though coffee was brewed differently all over Europe after WW2, in Italy, the real espresso machines

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PRODUCT

introduced at the beginning of the 20th century, after Luigi Bezzera of Milan filed the first patent in 1901., and although the first generations of machines certainly did not make espresso the way we define it today, coffee making in Cafés changed in the first decades of the 20th century. These first machines made it possible to serve coffee ‘espresso’ specifically to each customer. The cups were still the same size, and the dose of beans were ground coarse as before.

The too high temperature of the boilers scalded the coffee and several attempts at improving this came in the years after the 1st World War. By the end of the 2nd World War, the Italians launched the ‘age

of crèma’ as the new coffee machines could create

years Europeans have started to drink cappuccino

a higher pressure, leading to a finer grind and the

throughout the entire day. Especially in Australia and

now classic ‘crèma’. The first small cups appear in the

Western Europe cappuccino is popular at cafés and

1950s, and the machines could by now also heat milk.

terraces during the afternoon and in restaurants after

The modern ‘cappuccino’ was born. In Vienna, the

dinner. In Italy, cappuccino is consumed only before

espresso bars were introduced in the 1950s, leading

10 am, and Italians consider it very “strange” to ask

to both the ‘kapuziner’ and the ‘cappuccino’ being

for a cappuccino after that hour. In the United States,

served as two different beverages alongside each

cappuccinos have become popular concurrent.

otherIn the United Kingdom, espresso coffee initially gained popularity in the form of the cappuccino, influenced by the British custom of drinking coffee with milk, the desire for a longer drink to preserve the café as a destination, and the exotic texture of the beverage. Cappuccino was traditionally a taste largely appreciated in Europe, Australia, South America and some of North America.

By the mid–1990s cappuccino was made much more widely available to North Americans, as upscale coffee houses sprang up. In Italy, and throughout continental Europe, cappuccino was traditionally consumed early in the day as part of the breakfast, with some kind of sweet pastry. Generally, Europeans did not drink cappuccino with meals other than breakfast, preferring espresso throughout the day and following dinner. However, in recent

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Latte A latte Coffee and milk have been part of European cuisine since the 17th century (there is no mention of milk in coffee pre 1600 in Turkey or in the Arab world). ‘Caffèlatte’, ‘Milchkaffee’, ‘Café au lait’ and ‘Café con leche’ are domestic terms of traditional ways of drinking coffee, usually as part of breakfast in the home. Public Cafés in Europe and the US it seems have no mention of the terms until the 20th century, although ‘Kapuziner’ is mentioned in Austrian coffee houses in Vienna and Trieste in the 2nd half of the 1700s as ‘coffee with cream, spices and sugar’ (being the origin of the Italian ‘cappuccino’).

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term caffè latte was first used in English in 1867

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as caffè latte by William Dean Howells in his essay

in German homes it was still called ‘milchkaffee’. The

“Italian Journeys”. Kenneth David maintains that “...

Italians used the term ‘caffèlatte’ domestically, but it

breakfast drinks of this kind have existed in Europe

is not known from cafès like ‘Florian’ in Venice or

for generations, but the (commercial) caffè version

any other coffee houses or places where coffee was

of this drink is an American invention”. The French

served publicly. Even when the Italian espresso bar

term ‘Café au lait’ was used in cafés in several

culture bloomed in the years after WW2 both in Italy,

countries in western continental Europe from 1900

and in cities like Vienna and London, ‘espresso’ and

onwards, while the French themselves started using

‘cappuccino’ are the terms, ‘latte’ is missing on coffee

the term ‘café crème’ for coffee with milk or cream.

menus. In Italian latte means milk—so ordering a

The Austrian-Hungarian empire (eastern Europe)

“latte” in Italy will get the customer a glass of milk. In

had its own terminology for the coffees being served

English-speaking countries ‘latte’ is shorthand for “caf

term is used in the US for brewed coffee and scalded milk. In France, ‘caffè latte’ is mostly known from American coffee chains; a combination of espresso and steamed milk equivalent to a ‘latte’ is in French called ‘grand crème’ and in German ‘Milchkaffee’ or ‘Melange’. Variants include replacing the coffee with another drink base such as masala chai, mate or matcha, and other types of milk, such as soy milk are also used. cafè amb llet or the Portuguese galão. The Caffe Mediterraneum in Berkeley, California claims Lino Meiorin, one of its early owners, “invented” and “made the latte a standard drink.” The latte was popularized in Seattle, Washington in the early 1980s and spread more widely in the early 1990s. In northern Europe and Scandinavia, a similar ‘trend’ felatte” or “caffellatte” (“caffè e latte”), which is similar

started in the early 1980s as ‘Café au lait’ became

to the French café au lait, the Spanish café con leche,

popular again, prepared with espresso and steamed

the Catalan cafè amb llet or the Portuguese galão.

milk. ‘Caffè Latte’ started replacing this term

sometimes incorrectly spelled latté or lattè in English

around 1996-97. In Italy, caffelatte is almost always

with different kinds of accents, which can be a hyper-

prepared at home, for breakfast only. The coffee is

foreignism or a deliberate attempt to help customers

brewed with a stovetop Moka pot and poured into

realize the word is not pronounced as this combi-

a cup containing heated milk. (Unlike the interna-

nation of letters would normally be interpreted by

tional latte drink, the milk in the Italian original is

native speakers. In northern Europe and Scandinavia

not foamed.) Outside Italy, a caffè latte is typically

the term ‘café au lait’ has traditionally been used

prepared in a 240 mL glass or cup with one standard

for the combination of espresso and milk, but this

shot of espresso.

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Mocaccino It also called caffè mocha, is a chocolate-flavored variant of a caffelatte. Café mocha takes its name from the Red Sea coastal town of Mocha, Yemen, which as far back as the fifteenth century was a dominant exporter of coffee, especially to areas around the Arabian Peninsula. Mocha coffee has a chocolate flavor. The cafe mocha was created to mimic that natural flavor. Like a caffè latte, it is based on espresso and hot milk, but with added chocolate, typically in the form of sweet cocoa powder, although many varieties use chocolate syrup. Mochas can contain dark or milk chocolate. Café mocha, in its most basic formulation, can also be referred to as hot chocolate with (e.g. a shot of) espresso added.

Like cappuccino, café mochas typically contain the well-known milk froth on top, although, as is common with hot chocolate, they are sometimes served with whipped cream instead. They are usually topped with a dusting of either cinnamon or cocoa powder and marshmallows may also be added on top for flavor and decoration. A variant is white café mocha, made with white chocolate instead of milk or dark. There are also variants of the drink that mix the two syrups; this mixture is referred to by several names, including black and white mocha, tan mocha, marble mocha, tuxedo mocha and zebra.

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53

(“incorrect coffee”) in The Netherlands, and “café com leite” (“coffee with milk”) in Portugal and Brazil. In the French-speaking areas of Switzerland, a popular variation is the “café renversé” (“reverse coffee”), which is made by using the milk as a base and adding espresso, in reversal of the normal method of making a “café au lait”.

In northern Europe, café au lait is the name most often used in coffee shops. At home, café au lait can be prepared from dark coffee and heated milk; in cafés, it has been prepared on espresso machines from espresso and steamed milk ever since these machines became available in the 1940s—thus it refers to the

Cafe au lait bowls in a style traditionally used in France.

usua “coffee + milk” combination, depending on the

Café au Lait (French for “coffee with milk”) is a French coffee drink. The meaning of the term differs between Europe and the United States; in both cases it means some kind of coffee with hot milk added, in contrast to white coffee, which is coffee with room temperature milk or other whitener added. In Europe, “café au lait” stems from the same continental tradition as “café con leche” in Spain, “kawa biała” (“white coffee”) in Poland, “Milchkaffee” (“milk coffee”) in Germany, “koffie verkeerd”

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location, not to a specific drink. “Café au lait” and “caffè latte” are used as contrasting terms, to indicate whether the beverage is served in the “French” or the “Italian” way, the former being in a white porcelain cup or bowl, the latter in a kitchen glass and always made from an espresso machine, whereas “café au lait” might be espresso or dark coffee based. In many American coffeehouses, a café au lait is a drink of strong drip brewed or French pressed coffee, to which steamed milk is added; this contrasts with a caffè latte, which uses espresso as a base. American café

au lait is generally served in a cup, as with brewed

café au lait is made with scalded—milk warmed over

coffee, being served in a bowl only at shops which

heat to just below boilingrather than steamed milk.

wish to emphasize French tradition. Café au lait in

Inclusion of roasted chicory root as an extender

New Orleans has been popularized contemporarily

in coffee became common in colonial Louisiana,

in part by Café du Monde. There, it is made with milk

and eventually was incorporated as a regular coffee

and offee mixed with chicory, giving it a strong, bitter

additive. The bitterness of the chicory offsets the

taste. Unlike the European café style, a New Orleans

sweetness of the powdered–sugar–covered beignet.

Café au lait served in Norway; espresso and steamed milk served in a bowl.

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6 INSTANT

COFFEE

Instant Coffee It also called soluble coffee and coffee powder, is a beverage derived from brewed coffee beans.

Instant coffee is commercially prepared by either freeze-drying or spray drying, after which it can be rehydrated. Instant coffee in a concentrated liquid form is also manufactured. Examples of popular instant coffee brands are Extra, Folgers, Maxwell House, Nescafé and Starbucks VIA. Advantages of instant coffee include speed of preparation (instant coffee dissolves instantly in hot water), lower shipping weight and volume than beans or ground coffee (to prepare the same amount of beverage), and long shelf life—though instant coffee can spoil if not kept dry.

Instant or soluble coffee was invented and patented in 1890, by David Strang of Invercargill, New Zealand, under patent number 3518. It was sold under the trading name Strang’s Coffee citing the patented “Dry Hot-Air” process. The invention was previously attributed to Satori Kato, a Japanese scientist working in Chicago in 1901. Kato introduced the powdered substance in Buffalo, New York, at the Pan–American Exposition. George Constant Louis Washington developed his own instant coffee process shortly thereafter, and first marketed it commercially (1910).

The Nescafé brand, which introduced a more advanced coffee refining process, was launched in 1938.High-vacuum freeze-dried coffee was developed shortly after World War II, as an indirect result of wartime research into other areas. The National Research Corporation was formed in Massachusetts as a process-development company employing high-vacuum technology. It developed high-vacuum processes to produce penicillin, blood plasma and streptomycin for US military use.

As the war ended, NRC looked to adapt its processes for peacetime uses. It formed Florida Foods Corporation to produce concentrated orange juice powder, and originally sold its product to the United States Army. That company later changed its name to Minute Maid. Instant coffee is available in powder or granulated form contained in glass jars, sachets or tins. The user controls the strength of the resulting product, by adding more or less powder to the water, ranging from thin “coffee water” to very strong and almost syrupy coffee. A novel way is to use coffee bags, similar to tea bags. Instant coffee is also convenient for preparing iced coffee like the Greek frappé, which is popular in warmer climates and hot seasons.

In some countries, such as Portugal, Spain and I

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57

dia, instant coffee is commonly mixed with hot milk

concentrates the coffee solution to about 15-30%

instead of boiling water. In other countries, such

coffee by mass. This may be further concentrated

as South Korea, instant coffee commonly comes

before the drying process begins by either vacuum

pre-mixed with non–dairy creamer and sugar and

evaporation or freeze concentration.

is called “coffee mix”. As with regular coffee, the green coffee bean itself is first roasted to bring out flavour and aroma. Rotating cylinders containing the green beans and hot combustion gases are used in most roasting plants. When the bean temperature reaches 165 °C the roasting begins, accompanied by a

Since the mass production of instant coffee began in post-WWII America, freeze-drying has grown in popularity to become a common method. Although it is sometimes more expensive, it generally results

These batch cylinders take about 8-15 minutes to

granules are rapidly frozen (slow freezing leads to

complete roasting with about 25-75% efficiency.

large ice crystals and a porous product and can also

Coffee roasting using a fluidized bed only takes from

affect the colour of the coffee granules). Frozen coffee

thirty seconds to four minutes, and it operates at

is placed in the drying chamber, often on metal trays.

lower temperatures which allows greater retention

A vacuum is created within the chamber. The strength

of the coffee bean aroma and flavor. The beans are

of the vacuum is critical in the speed of the drying

then ground finely. Grinding reduces the beans to

and therefore the quality of the product. Care must

0.5-1.1-millimetre pieces in order to allow the coffee

be taken to produce a vacuum of suitable strength.

Sets of scored rollers designed to crush rather than cut the bean are used. Once roasted and ground, the coffee is dissolved in water. This stage is called extraction. Water is added in 5-10 percolation columns at temperatures of 155 to 180 °C; this

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drying is the removal of water by sublimation.

popping sound similar to that produced by popcorn.

to be put in solution with water for the drying stage.

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Freeze Drying The basic principle of freeze

in a higher-quality product. Agglomerated wet coffee

The drying chamber is warmed, most commonly by radiation but conduction is used in some plants and convection has been proposed in some small pilot plants. A possible problem with convection is uneven drying rates within the chamber, which would give

an inferior product. Condensation-the previously frozen water in the coffee granules expands to ten times its previous volume. The removal of this water vapor from the chamber is vitally important, making the condenser the most critical and expensive component in a freeze-drying plant.

A benchtop manifold freeze窶電rier.

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Spray Drying This method isn’t really old yet and

the warmer air. The product temperature will lie

actually the most remarkable method, because this

around 20°C to 30°C under the outlet temperature.

method it is about drying of liquids which can’t be

The drying air can be heated with aid of steam, direct

heated through their properties without a significant

gas–fired air warmers or indirect air heaters that burn

change of the product properties. A heated egg or

gas, liquid or solids. The product falls down in the

melted cheese will taste different than the original

spray tower, where the drops stay for around 10 to 30

product. And we want the original product, but

seconds. At the bottom of the tower the drops are dry

without the liquid. Basically the principle works like

and separated from the air by a cyclone.

this: de liquid or substance will be sprinkled into a hot cylinder by a sprayer. During the downfall the liquid will evaporate. That liquid will lift off and will be captured. The products that fall down are powder flakes made out milk or another product.

In spray dryers the material that has to be dried will suspend in the air, that is to say that the liquid changes in to a misty fog (atomized) which has a large surface area. The atomized liquid will be exposed to a steam hot air in a drying room. The liquid evaporates fast and the solids recover as powder that exists of fine, hollow spherical parts. Air inlet temperatures to about 250°C or even higher are used, but thanks to evaporation the air temperature increases very fast till a temperature of about 95°C: the outlet temperature of the air. The product takes almost immediately a high temperature (50°C) and gives its liquid to

Part of the spray drying machine.

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CULTURE Coffee culture describes a social atmosphere or series of associated social behaviors that depends heavily upon coffee, particularly as a social lubricant. The term also refers to the diffusion and adoption of coffee as a widely consumed stimulant by a culture. In the late 20th century, particularly in the Western world and urbanized centers around the globe, espresso has been an increasingly dominant form.

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7 COFFEE

HOUSE

Coffee House

carried between coffee houses by their patrons, and

Coffee house and coffee shop are related terms for

sometimes runners would flit from one coffee house

an establishment which primarily serves prepared coffee and other hot beverages. Café or cafe or caff may refer to a coffeehouse, bar, tea room, small and cheap restaurant, transport cafe, or other casual eating and drinking place, depending on the culture.

A coffeehouse may share some of the same characteristics of a bar or restaurant, but it is different from a cafeteria. As the name suggests, coffeehouses focus on providing coffee and tea as well as light snacks.

The coffee houses that sprang up across Europe, starting around 1650, functioned as information exchanges for writers, politicians, businessmen and scientists. Like today’s websites, weblogs and discussion boards, coffee houses were lively and often unreliable sources of information that typically specialised in a particular topic or political viewpoint.

They were outlets for a stream of newsletters, pamphlets, advertising free–sheets and broadsides.

Depending on the interests of their customers, some coffee-houses displayed commodity prices, share prices and shipping lists, whereas others provided foreign newsletters filled with coffee-house gossip from abroad. Rumours, news and gossip were also

to another within a particular city to report major events such as the outbreak of a war or the death of a head of state.

Coffee houses were centres of scientific education, literary and philosophical speculation, commercial innovation and, sometimes, political fermentation.

Collectively, Europe’s interconnected web of coffeehouses formed the internet of the Enlightenment era.

Coffee houses have been grabbing our attention as of late. We always hear good things from our customers about the Kiln Room, a boardroom adjacent to the The Woods Coffee shop. The atmosphere is casual and inviting, the wifi bandwith plentiful and the coffee, of course, keeps flowing.

It’s only a theory, but we think that coffee shops like the Woods are successful so successful on our site is because, ever since the first coffee houses sprung up in the Middle East, coffee has always been associated not only with meetings, but the exchange and flowering of new ideas. Today, the idea of a coffee house usually brings to mind a cozy place that serves gourmet coffee and espresso drinks , with couches to lounge in while

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History The Ottoman chronicler İbrahim Peçevi

between was set up in Oxford in 1652 by a Jewish man

reports in his writings (1642-49) about the opening

named Jacob at the Angel in the parish of St Peter in

of the first coffeehouse in Istanbul:

the East. A building on the same site now houses a

Until the year 962, in the High, God–Guarded city of Constantinople, as well as in Ottoman lands generally, coffee and coffee houses did not

existence today.

The first coffeehouse in London was opened in 1652

Aleppo and a wag called Shams from Damascus

in St Michael’s Alley, Cornhill. The proprietor was

came to the city; they each opened a large shop in

Pasqua Rosée, an Armenian servant of a trader in

the district called Tahtakale, and began to purvey

Turkish goods named Daniel Edwards, who imported

coffee. Various legends involving the introduction

the coffee and assisted Rosée in setting up the estab-

of coffee to Istanbul at a “Kiva Han” in the late 15th

lishment in St Michael’s Alley, Cornhill. From 1670

century circulate in culinary tradition, but with

to 1685 the amount London coffee-houses began to

no documentation. Coffee houses in Mecca soon

multiply, and also began to gain political importance

became a concern as places for political gatherings

due to their popularity as places of debate. By 1675,

to the imams who banned them, and the drink, for

there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in England.

Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530, the first

Pasqua Rosée also established the first coffeehouse in

coffee house was opened in Damascus, and not long

Paris in 1672 and held a city–wide coffee monopoly

after there were many coffee houses in Cairo.

until Procopio Cutò opened the Café Procope in

coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the Ottoman Empire, and coffeehouses were established and quickly became popular. The first coffeehouses appeared in Venice in 1729, due to the traffic

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Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is also still in

exist. About that year, a fellow called Hakam from

Coffee House in Europe In the 17th century,

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cafe-bar called The Grand Cafe. Oxford’s Queen’s

1686. This coffeehouse still exists today and was a major meeting place of the French Enlightenment; Voltaire, Rousseau, and Denis Diderot frequented it, and it is arguably the birthplace of the Encyclopédie, the first modern encyclopedia. In 1667, Kara Hamie, a former Ottoman Janissary from Constantinople,

opened the first coffeeshop in Bucharest (then the

purportedly wore drag to gain entrance to a coffee-

capital of the Principality of Wallachia), in the center

house in Paris. In a well–known engraving of a Pari-

of the city, on what today lies the main building of

sian café of c. 1700, the gentlemen hang their hats on

the Nat=ional Bank of Romania. America had its

pegs and sit at long communal tables strewn with pa-

first coffeehouse in Boston, in 1676. The banning

pers and writing implements. Coffeepots are ranged

of women from coffeehouses was not universal, but

at an open fire, with a hanging cauldron of boiling

does appear to have been common in Europe. In

water. The only woman present presides, separated

Germany women frequented them, but in England

in a canopied booth, from which she serves coffee

and France they were banned. Émiliedu Châtelet

in tall cups.

Coffeehouse in London, 17th century.

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CULTURE

The traditional tale of the origins of the Viennese café begins with the mysterious sacks of green beans left behind when the Turks were defeated in the Battle of Vienna in 1683. All the sacks of coffee were granted to the victorious Polish king Jan III Sobieski, who in turn gave them to one of his officers, Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki. Kulczycki began the first coffeehouse in Vienna with the hoard. However, it is now widely accepted that the first coffeehouse was actually opened by an Armenian merchant named Hovannes Diodato. In London, coffeehouses preceded the club of the mid-18th century, which skimmed away some of the more aristocratic clientele. Jonathan’s CoffeeHouse in 1698 saw the listing of stock and commodity prices that evolved into the London Stock Exchange.

Lloyd’s Coffee House provided the venue for merchants and shippers to discuss insurance deals, leading to the establishment of Lloyd’s of London insurance market, the Lloyd’s Register classification society, and other related businesses. Auctions in salesrooms attached to coffeehouses provided the start for the great auction houses of Sotheby’s and Christie’s. Antico Caffè Greco in Rome, Caffè Pedrocchi in Padua, Caffè dell’Ussero in Pisa and Caffè Fiorio in Turin.

COFFEE HOUSE

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CULTURE

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The second location of Starbucks in Seattle was opened in 1977.

Coffee shops in the United States arose from the

folk sic revival. This was likely due to the ease at

espresso- and pastry–centered Italian coffeehouses

accommodating in a small space a lone performer

of the Italian American immigrant communities in

accompanying himself or herself only with a guitar.

the major U.S. cities, notably New York City’s Little

Both Greenwich Village and North Beach became

Italy and Greenwich Village, Boston’s North End,

major haunts of the Beats, who were highly identified

and San Francisco’s North Beach. From the late

with these coffeehouses. As the youth culture of the

1950s onward, coffeehouses also served as a venue

1960s evolved, non-Italians consciously copied these

for entertainment, most commonly folk performers

coffee houses. The political nature of much of 1960s folk music made the music a natural tie–in with coffeehouses with their association with political action. A number of well known performers like Joan Baez and Bob Dylan began their careers performing in coffeehouses. Blues singer Lightnin’ Hopkins bemoaned his woman’s inattentiveness to her domestic situation due to her overindulgence in coffeehouse socializing in his 1969 song “Coffeehouse Blues”. Starting in 1967 with the opening of the historic Last Exit on Brooklyn coffeehouse, Seattle became known for its thriving countercultural coffeehouse scene; the Starbucks chain later standardized and mainstreamed this espresso bar model.

From the 1960s through the mid–1980s, churches and individuals in the United States used the coffeehouse concept for outreach. They were often storefronts and had names like The Lost Coin (Greenwich Village),

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CULTURE

The Gathering Place (Riverside, CA), Catacomb

The Last Exit on Brooklyn, founded 1967 was for

Chapel (New York City), and Jesus For You (Buffalo,

coffeehouse.

NY). Christian music was performed, coffee and food was provided, and Bible studies were convened as people of varying backgrounds gathered in a casual setting that was purposefully different than the traditional church. An out–of–print book, published by the ministry of David Wilkerson, titled, A Coffeehouse Manual, served as a guide for Christian coffeehouses, including a list of name suggestions for coffeehouses. From the 1960s served as a guide for Christian coffeehouses, including a list of name

suggestions for coffeehouses. In general, prior to about 1990, true coffeehouses were little known inmost American cities, apart from those located on or near college campuses, or in districts associated with writers, artists, or the counterculture. During this time the word “coffeeshop” usually denoted familystyle restaurants that served full meals, and of whose revenue coffee represented only a small portion. More Caffe Reggio on MacDougal Street in New

recently that usage of the word has waned and now “coffeeshop” often refers to a true coffeehouse.

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CULTURE

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8 LATTE

ART

Latte Art

NRC looked to adapt its processes for peacetime uses.

It is a method of preparing coffee created by

It formed Florida Foods Corporation to produce

pouring steamed milk into a shot of espresso and

concentrated orange juice powder, and originally sold

resulting in a pattern or design on the surface of the

its product to the United States Army.

resulting latte. It can also be created or embellished by simply “drawing” in the top layer of foam. Latte art is particularly difficult to create consistently, due to the demanding conditions required of both the espresso shot and milk. This, in turn, is limited by the experience of the barista and quality of the espresso machine. The pour itself, then, becomes the last challenge for the latte artist.sition. George Constant Louis Washington developed his own instant coffee process shortly thereafter, and first marketed it commercially. The Nescafé brand, which introduced a more advanced coffee refining process,

History Latte art developed independently in different countries, following the introduction of espresso and the development of microfoam, the combination of crema and microfoam allowing the pattern; it presumably was initially developed in Italy.

In the United States, latte art was developed in Seattle in the 1980s and 1990s, and particularly popularized

by David Schomer. Schomer credits the development of microfoam (“velvet foam” or “milk texturing”) to Jack Kelly of Uptown espresso in 1986, and by 1989 the heart pattern was established and a signature at

was launched in 1938.

Schomer’s Espresso Vivace. The rosette pattern was

High-vacuum freeze-dried coffee was developed

technique based on a photograph he saw from Cafe

shortly after World War II, as an indirect result of

Mateki in Italy. Schomer subsequently popularized

wartime research into other areas. The National

latte art in his course “Caffe Latte Art”. At the same

Research Corporation was formed in Massachu-

time Luigi Lupi from Italy met Schomer on the internet

setts as a process-development company employing

and they exchanged videos they made on Latteart

high-vacuum technology. It developed high-vacuum

and Cappuccini Decorati. Latte art is a mixture of

processes to produce penicillin, blood plasma and

two colloids: the crema, which is an emulsion of

streptomycin for US military use. As the war ended,

coffee oil and brewed coffee; and the microfoam,

then developed by Schomer in 1992, recreating the

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77

which is a foam of air in milk. Milk itself is an emulsion of butterfat in water, while coffee is a mixture of coffee solids in water. Neither of these colloids are stable—crema dissipates from espresso, while microfoam separates into drier foam and liquid milk—both degrading significantly in a matter of minutes, and thus latte art lasts only briefly.

Before the milk is added, the espresso shot must have a creamy brown surface, an emulsion known as crema. As the white foam from the milk rises to meet the red/brown surface of the shot, a contrast is created and the design emerges. As the milk is poured, the foam separates from the liquid and rises to the top.

If the milk and espresso shot are “just right,” and the pitcher is moved during the pour, the foam will rise to create a pattern on the surface. Alternatively, a pattern may be etched with a stick after the milk has been poured, rather than during the pour.

Some controversy exists within the coffee community as to whether or not there is excessive focus on latte art amongst baristas. The argument is that too much focus on the superficial appearance of a drink leads some to ignore more important issues, such as taste.

This is especially relevant with new baristas.

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CULTURE

When a white circle or ring appears on the coffee, lift the pitcher up again and stop pouring milk. Practice will neat and symmetrical.

Styles There are two main types of latte art: free pouring and etchin. Free pouring is far more common in American cafes, and requires little additional time in preparing a drink. The two most common forms of poured latte art are a heart shape and the “rosetta” Etching is stenciling because it is also applied only once the milk has been poured.

or “rosette”, also known as “fern” which resembles a type of flower or fern. Of these, hearts are simpler and more common in macchiatos, while rosettes are more complex and more common in lattes. For free pouring, the cup is either kept level or tilted in one direction.

As the milk is poured straight into the cup, the foam begins to surface on one side. The barista then moves the pitcher from side to side as they level the cup, or simply wiggle the spout back and forth, and finishes by making a quick strike through the previously poured pattern. This “strike” creates the stem portion of the flower design, and bends the poured zig-zag into a flower shape. A more direct pour and less wiggling yields a heart shape, and minor variation (reduced lobes, larger stem) yields an apple shape.

More complex patterns are possible, some requiring multiple pours. Some examples of advanced latte art techniques are that of the tulip, wave heart, swan, or even a scorpion.

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Etched patterns range from simple geometric shapes to complicated drawings, such as crosshatched patterns, animals, and flowers, and are generally performed with a coffee stirrer of some sort. Etched latte art typically has a shorter lifespan than free poured latte art as the foam dissolves into the latte more quickly. the etching technique occurs only once the milk has been poured into the coffee. Etching is usually applied when the barista wants to create more detailed latte art. The barista manipulates the surface of the finished coffee with a skewer, toothpick or any other long, thin object, to create patterns and designs.

Caramelised syrup, cinnamon or chocolate sauce is sometimes used to help create the desired pattern.

For example, a simple etching pattern called ‘the web’ is created by pouring two or more circles of syrup or chocolate sauce onto the surface of the drink.

Then, using a tool such as a toothpick, the sauce is dragged from the middle of the cup to the outer rim.

To create a more detailed effect, the dragging is alternated from centre to the rim, and from the rim to the centre. Another technique that is considered to be in the same category as etching is stenciling because it is also applied only once the milk has been poured.

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LATTE ART

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i

BIBLIOGRAPHY “History of Coffee - Above Grounds Coffee.” Above Grounds Coffee. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“Announcements (more).” Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music & Wayback Machine. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“All About Coffee - The Original Classic Edition.”

Scribd. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“Coffee Beans out Mexico and Guatemala.” Mexico Other Food & Beverage. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“Coffee

Production.”

Wikipedia.

Wikimedia

Foundation, 04 Feb. 2014. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“ABOUT COFFEE.” History. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“Espresso.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 30 Mar. 2014. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“COFFEE MENU & FLAVORS...” COFFEE MENU & FLAVORS... N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

86

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Cappuccino.” District Cafe Jogja. N.p., n.d. Web. 03

“My Blog.” My Blog. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014

Apr. 2014.

“Coffeehouse.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 30 Mar. 2014. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“Latte.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 30 Mar. 2014. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“Instant Coffee.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 04 Feb. 2014. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“Bean Sprout Company Ordered by Court to Clean up Its Act or Perish.” World News. N.p., n.d. Web. 03

“A Debate on Instant Coffee.” Hazyview Mpumlanga

Apr. 2014.

South Africa. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“Tata Coffee | Products | Instant Coffee | Private

“More Incredible 3D Latte Art by Kazuki Yamamoto.”

Label.” Tata Coffee | Products | Instant Coffee |

Bored Panda RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

Private Label. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“Plants Are the Strangest People.” : Bad Influence “Coffee Culture.” Mygola.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 03

(Coffea Arabica). N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

Apr. 2014.

“Coffeeberry – A Powerful Super-Antioxidant.”

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N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

“Coffea Arabica.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 04 Feb. 2014. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

87

INDEX A Abyssinia 10, 13 Afromontane rainforests 31 Agriculture 17 Americano 41, 42 Amsterdam 11, 35 Angelo Moriondo 44 Angiosperm 13 Antico 69 Arab 49 Arabia 7, 8, 10, 13, 30, 53 Assisi 46

B Bali 7, 11,21 Barista Championships 46 Batavia 11 Budan 10 Burundi 8 Brussels 14

C CafĂŠ au Lait 50, 51, 54, 55 Cappuccino 42, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49 Celebes 11

88

INDEX

Ceylon 11 Costa Rica 8, 17

I Illy 25, 29

D

J

Damascus 66

Jamaican Blue Mountain 24

Dicotyledoneæ 13, 14

Java 7, 8, 11, 13, 21, 24, 32, 33

Dylan 72 Du Temps Jadis 17

K Kaldi 7

E

Kapuziner 47

Émiliedu Châtelet 67

Kedawoeng 11

Espresso 37, 41, 42, 51, 53, 54, 55, 65, 72, 77, 78

Kenneth David 40

Ethiopia 7, 8, 10, 13, 30, 31, 35, 36

Kenya 7, 8, 24, 31 Koffie verkeerd 54

F

Kotyledon 13

Foil-wrapped 29

Kiln Room 65

G

Kurg 11

Guatemala 8, 17

L

Guinea 8

latitudes 8

Governor-General 11

Ludolphus 10

H

M

Hawaiian Kona 24

Malawi 8

Holland 11

Mecca 10, 66

INDEX

89

Metachlamydeæ 14

T

Milchkaffee 50, 51, 54

Tanzaniz 7

Mocaccino 53 Mysore 11

Timor 7

Moslem 10

Turkish 66

N

U

New Orleans 55

Uganda 8

Nicolaas Witsen11

Uragoga 15

P

V

Persian 10

Vienna 24, 47, 48, 49, 50, 69

Pilgrim 10

Villon’s Des Dames 17

Portafilters 43 Procopio Cutò 66

R Rubiaceae 36

S St Michael’s Alley 66 Sumatra 7 Sumatran 41 Sulawesi 8 Sympetalæ 14

90

INDEX

W Willem Van Outshoorn 11

Y Yemen 8, 10, 35, 53

This book was designed by Karlie Cheang.

It was printed and bound by Prepress, Inc., San Franscisco.

The text type face is Minion Pro, designed by Robert Slimbach, which is an enlargement of Slimbach’s original Minion type, licenced by Adobe Systems, Mountain View, California, in 1989.

The captions are set in Helvetica, designed by Max Miedinger with Eduard Hoffmann in 1957.

Karlie Cheang

Karlie Cheang is a graphic design student at California College of the Arts in San Franscisco. She likes to learn

Coffee is one of the most exported commodities in the

CAFFEINE TIME

new things, to develop extraordinary graphic solutions for any communication issue. She also loves to design clean, smart, and effective works. Most of her projects focus on book printing, web design, logos, and branding.

Karlie Cheang

world. It originated in Yemen and by the 1400s trading brought it to Africa, Arabia, and the Mediterranean.

After achieving popularity in Europe in the 1600s, “the Wine of Araby” traveled to America, where by the end of that century it overtook beer as the favorite breakfast

CAFFEINE TIME

drink. During the Mexican-American War in 1846, it was a ration for soldiers.

Traders spread coffee to other hot climate growing areas, including the East and West Indies. And just like the Gold Rush immigrants traveling to California, green coffee beans also came by ship. San Francisco became a center for coffee roasting businesses, with coffee a main part of the City’s economy.