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Explore Our Ancestors’ Origin Through DNA

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Explore Our Ancestors’ Origin Through DNA

New York City, New York Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the publisher, addressed “Attention: Permissions Coordinator,” at the address below.

Dedicated To James Watson and Maurice Wilkins.

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Origin

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Traits

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Code

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Unity

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Table Of Contents

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Origin

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Introduction Most of the DNA in cells are a combination of both parents’ genetic makeup; however, mitochondrial DNA is just inherited from the mother. The world is full of conflict and unhappiness because so many people are out of touch with universal harmony. We are all part of something much greater than ourselves. To live well is to learn how to function as a part of the whole.

The world could be joyful and vibrant if people could just find their place in it. “We can now say that, in all probability, there was gene flow from Neanderthals to modern humans,” lead study author Ed Green of the University of California, Santa Cruz, said in a prepared statement. That’s no surprise to anthropologist Erik Trinkhaus, whose skeleton-based claims of Neanderthal-modern human interbreeding—previously contradicted with DNA evidence—appear to have been vindicated by the new gene study, to be published tomorrow.

The world could be joyful and vibrant if people could just find their place in it. “We can now say that, in all probability, there was gene flow from Neanderthals to modern humans,” lead study author Ed Green of the University of California, Santa Cruz, said in a prepared statement. That’s no surprise to anthropologist Erik Trinkhaus, whose skeleton-based claims of Neanderthal-modern human interbreeding—previously contradicted with DNA evidence—appear to have been vindicated by the new gene study, to be published tomorrow.

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Whatever you can do to feel a connection to your [biological] ancestors is worth doing.

Genetically, they are a part of you. You should know who they are.�- Diahan Southard, genetic genealogist Using DNA testing to enhance your ancestral discovery needs both skills as a genealogist and information about genetics, according to Diahan Southard, a genetic genealogist, during a Thursday afternoon session of Rootstech 2015. Southard outlined what you need to understand about DNA testing when seeking family history.

All DNA testing uses the same basic sampling method. You order the test online from one of 3 potential companies, depending on the test you desire (described below) and options available, and are sent a kit. You send back either a cheek swab or saliva sample, which the company then uses to extract your DNA. In return you’ll receive an e-mailed report identifying such things as potential relatives (those who also sent in DNA and are closely matched with your DNA) and ancestral geography (where your ancestors may have originated thousands of years prior).

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Origin

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Chimpanzee On the surface, this and other recent studies contradict the general consensus suggested by the fossil record: that the last common ancestor of the two species, a flat-footed ape, lived some Older male chimps seven million years ago. But sped evolution and reset both observations could still be era of our last common true, said paleoanthropologist ancestor with apes.

John Hawks of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, who was not involved in the new study. The apelike common ancestor species might have endured until 7 to 10 million years ago, long after the genetic split between chimps and humans, he said.

It’s one of the fundamental questions,” McVean says. Such alterations in genes play a role in inherited diseases and allow for glimpses into our evolutionary history, he says, when compared to other mammals. In the study, the researchers looked for mutations in the genes of nine chimps: two fathers, two mothers, and five of their offspring.That would largely explain the difference seen between gene-based and fossil-based estimates of the date the species diverged. “We also don’t know if mutation rates varied widely in the ancient past; maybe they were different than now,” says study senior author Gil McVean of the United Kingdom’s Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics in Oxford. That could also change estimates of the age of an ancestral genetic split between men and chimps. “That’s something only looking at more primates might help tell us,” McVean says. Such alterations in genes play a role in inherited diseases and allow for glimpses into our evolutionary history, he says, when compared to the other mammals.

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Humanity’s genetic split from an ape-like ancestor came about 13 million years ago, far earlier than the long-supposed era of a common ancestor of early humans and apes, suggests a first study of chimp gene mutations. Along with shining a new genetic light on human origins, the findings published on Thursday in the journal Science point to the role that evolution plays in fostering mutations, some linked to inherited diseases, in our genes. That would largely explain the difference seen between gene-based and fossil-based estimates of the date the species diverged. “We also don’t know if mutation rates varied widely in the ancient past; maybe they were different than now,” says study senior author Gil McVean of the United Kingdom. Wellcome for Human Genetics in Oxford.

500,000 YPB

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“For me, ancestry is just one thing that connects us to people, and feeling connected to other people is generally a good thing.”

—Jeremy Hardy The genetic study team reached their conclusion after comparing the genomes of five living humans—from China, France, Papua New Guinea, southern Africa, and western Africa—against the available “rough draft” of the Neanderthal genome.

(Get the basics on genetics.) The results showed that Neanderthal DNA is 99.7 percent Identical to modern human DNA, versus, for example, 98.8 percent for modern humans and chimps, according to the study. (Related: “Neanderthals Had Same ‘Language Gene’ as Modern Humans.”

All modern ethnic groups, other than Africans, carry traces of Neanderthal DNA in their genomes, the study says—which at first puzzled the scientists. Though no fossil evidence has been found for Neanderthals and modern humans coexisting in Africa.Neanderthals, like modern humans, are thought to have arisen on these continents.

Americas Africa Europe Asia Australia

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Neanderthals were our closest evolutionar y relatives. They left Africa before modern humans, venturing into Europe as far back as 300,000 years ago, and were still there when our ancestors embarked on the same journey about 60,000 years ago. Neanderthals and modern humans actually lived alongside each other in Europe for several thousand years before Neanderthals vanished some 30,000 years ago. Their disappearance is one of the most enduring mysteries in all of human evolution process.

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Timeline They made and used a diverse set of sophisticated tools, controlled fire, lived in shelters, made and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals and also ate plant foods, and occasionally made symbolic or ornamental objects. There is evidence that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead and occasionally even marked their graves with offerings, such as flowers. No other primates, and no earlier human species, had ever practiced this sophisticated and symbolic behavior.

“They’ve finally seen the light, because it’s been obvious to many us that this happened,” said Trinkaus, of Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, who wasn’t part of new study.

Neanderthals are our closest extinct human relative. Some defining features of their skulls include the large middle part of the face, angled cheek bones, and a huge nose for humidifying and warming cold, dry air.

Their bodies were shorter and stockier than ours, another adaptation to living in cold environments. But their brains were just as large as ours and often larger - proportional to their brawnier bodies.

Pierolapithecus

Austra

13,000,000 YPB

4,000,000 YPB

Sachelanthropus 7,000,000 YPB

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Homo Babilis 2,500,000 YPB

Ergastar 1,700,000 YPB

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Traits

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Hybrid

Back of Head

Their hybrid children bore genes from both lineages, but eventually modern human genes diluted Neanderthal genes to the extent that the species seemed to disappear from the archaeological record around 30,000 years ago. Modern science is pretty darn certain that Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons (our more direct ancestors) interbred in Europe.

I want you to put your hand on the back of your head. Imagine you’re protecting yourself from a fall, that’ll help get the position right. Now, move your hand maybe a centimeter down. Your skull should now be sloping inwards to meet your neck.

Without moving your hand off this position, check for a bump in the middle, a part of your skull that doesn’t follow the smooth flowing curve down to your neck.

Don’t worry if you can’t find it, not everyone has one. For those of you who found it - congratulations, that’s an “occipital bun” (or “occipital ridge” depending on the shape, but mine’s a bun). It’s also a distinctly Neanderthal trait.

The two weren’t even all that different to begin with - both had tools, language, and culture. Both had very similar builds. Both were “human” in a way we’d recognize, even if the difference between them was far greater than any two current ethnicities. Really, Neanderthals were just more cold -adapted. They were build a little slower and more compact, because they lose less heat that way. We can observe similar builds among ethnic groups from arctic climates as well, to a lesser degree.

Neanderthal skulls were also shaped a little differently and were a little thicker, providing better insulation against cold.

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Occipital bun

Traits

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A comparison of Neanderthal and average modern human finger bones shows how much more robust Neanderthal hands were especially the tips (distal phalanges).

In fact, research suggests that the slenderness of modern human hands helped to give us the advantage over Neanderthals.

While Neanderthals had much greater hand strength, our precision grip gave us the technological and cultural leap in developing more sophisticated tools and art. Of course, there is a huge amount of modern human variation in hand and finger size.

Russian arm wrestling champion Denis Cyplenkov may be a Neanderthal throwback in the hand department–his party trick is crushing walnuts between his fingers.

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A telling example came from an Iraqi cave known as Shanidar, 250 miles north of Baghdad, near the border with Turkey and Iran. There, archaeologist Ralph Solecki discovered nine nearly complete Neanderthal skeletons in the late 1950s. One belonged to a 40- to 45-year-old male with several major fractures. Ablow to the left side of his head had crushed an eye socket and almost certainly blinded him. The bones of his right shoulder and upper arm appeared shriveled, most likely the result of a trauma that led to the amputation of his right forearm. His right foot and lower right leg had also been broken while he was alive. Abnormal wear in his right knee, ankle and foot shows that he suffered from injury-induced arthritis that would have made walking painful, if not impossible. This was really the first demonstration that Neanderthals behaved in what we think of as a fundamentally human way.

Traits

Though the fossil evidence is not definitive, Neanderthals appear to have descended from an earlier human species, Homo erectus, between 500,000 to 300,000 years ago. Neanderthals shared many features with their ancestors and us. At the same time, Neanderthals were stocky, a build that would have conserved heat efficiently. From musculature marks on Neanderthal fossils and the heft of arm and leg bones, researchers conclude they were also incredibly strong. Yet their hands were remarkably like modern humans.

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Wide fingers

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Straight, Thick Hair

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20% 30%

10%

Population For Thick Hair Inheritance Western Asian Latin American Others

Genetic analysis has revealed that 70% of modern East Asians inherited Neanderthal mutations in genes involved in the production of keratin filaments, which may be responsible for straightening and thickening hair. There is a lot of variation in the shape and texture of modern human hair. Broadly speaking, African hair is mainly coiled and dry; Asian hair is straighter and thicker; and European hair is somewhere in between. A Neanderthal inheritance of straight, thick hair may have helped modern humans to adapt to non-African environments; straighter hair tends to be oily and thicker hair is insulating, which would have been an advantage in colder northern latitudes.

Traits

Traits

70%

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Elongated skull

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Low Braincase

Receding Forehead

Traits

The Discovery Recent genetic studies have shown that Neanderthal DNA spanning at least 20% of their ancient genome survives in modern humans of non-African ancestry. If you are of European or Asian heritage, then around 2% of your genome originated from Neanderthals. This legacy was picked up from around 80,000 years ago, when successive waves of modern humans began migrating from Africa into Asia and Europe, encountering and interbreeding with their Neanderthal cousins who had evolved there from around 250,000 years ago.

Their hybrid children bore genes from both lineages, but eventually modern human genes diluted Neanderthal genes to the extent that the species seemed to disappear from the archaeological record around 30,000 years ago. Modern humans and Neanderthals were not the same. Studies have found that present-day people of non-African ancestry trace an average of around 2 percent of al their genomes to these Neanderthals.

The remnants are alive in the genomes of Europeans and Asians today. If you exhibit any of the traits, they may just be an echo of your inner Neanderthal. Modern human faces tend to be small and tucked into the lower half of the head under a rounded brain case. The Neanderthal face tended to be larger, with a brain case set back in a longer skull. An elongated skull may hint at a Neanderthal inheritance and is particularly common in the British Isles, Scandinavia and Iberia.

Suprainiac Fossa

Supraorbital torus

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Technological Revolution DNA technology has revolutionized modern science. As it evolves, more and more applications are discovered to help us understand all living organisms and most importantly ourselves as human beings. DNA, or the genetic material—passed along from one generation to the next—holds many clues that have unlocked the mysteries behind human behavior, biological inheritance, biological identities, genetic diseases, evolution, and aging. Recent advances in DNA technology including PCR, cloning, DNA fingerprinting, gene therapy and genetic disease diagnosis have started to shape medicine, forensic sciences, environmental sciences, and national security.

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The Overview Ways To Test

DNA contains the instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive, and reproduce. To carry out these functions, DNA sequences must be converted into messages that can be used to produce proteins, which are the complex molecules that do most of the work in our bodies.

These instructions are found inside every cell, and are passed down from parents to their children.

We all inherit half of our genetic materials (DNA) from our biological father and half from our biological mother. By comparing the genetic fingerprints between alleged parents and children, we can determine paternity and maternity conclusively using DNA testing technology. A standard family relationship DNA test uses the 13 core loci on a DNA piece to form a genetic profile of each tested party. These 13 loci were proved to be highly variable among individuals. In fact, only identical twins will inherit the same patterns on these loci. By using buccal swab or blood samples, the paternity DNA test starts with extracting DNA and preparing it for PCR. PCR amplifies the limited amount of extracted DNA, making billions of copies that will be used to generate the genetic profile.

Lacalization Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus and is called nuclear DNA. However, a small amount of DNA is found in the mitochondria and is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA. Because the cell is very small, and organisms have many DNA molecules per cell, each DNA molecule must be tightly packaged. This packaged form of DNA is called a chromosome. In sexual reproduction, organisms inherit half of their nuclear DNA from the male parent and half from the female parent. However, organisms inherit their entire mitochondrial DNA from the female parent. This occurs because only egg cells keep their mitochondria during the fertilization.

Code

Functionality

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1953 James Watson Using available X-ray data and model building, they were able to solve the puzzle that had baffled scientists for decades.

They published the now-famous paper in Nature in April, 1953 and in 1962 they were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology.

1944 Oswald Avery

1954 George Gamow

By the 1940s, scientists understanding of the principles of inheritance had moved on considerably. However, it wasn’t until 1944 that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was identified as the ‘transforming principle’.

Theoretical physicist and astronomer George Gamow decided to make the race more interesting - he created an exclusive club known as the “RNA Tie Club”, in which each member would put for ward their ideas about how nucleotide bases were transformed into proteins by the cells.

1965 Marshall Nirenberg In 1957, Marshall Nirenberg arrived at the National Institute of Health as a postdoctoral fellow in Dr. DeWitt Stetten, Jr.’s laboratory.

He decided to focus his research on nucleic acids and protein synthesis in the hope of cracking ‘life’s code’.

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Great Contribution In the history of DNA, the Eugenics movement is a notably dark chapter, which highlights the lack of understanding regarding the new discovery at the time.

1977 Frederick Sanger He moved with the Medical Research Council to the Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, where DNA sequencing became a natural extension of his work with proteins. He initially began working on sequencing RNA.

2002 Formal Prime Minister UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and US President Bill Clinton announce a ‘working draft’ of the human genome. It is produced by researchers working in the public and private sectors. This is international effort to map and sequence the 3 billion “letters”and to locate 100,000 genes.

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Double Helix

Sugar Phosphate Backbone

Base Pair

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The double helix describes the appearance of double-stranded DNA, which is composed of two linear strands that run opposite to each other, or anti-parallel, and twist together. Each DNA strand within the double helix is a long, linear molecule made of smaller units called nucleotides that form a chain. The chemical backbones of the double helix are made up of sugar and phosphate molecules that are connected by sugar-phosphate backbones.

The sentence “This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest” may be one of science’s most famous understatements. It appeared in April 1953 in the scientific paper where James Watson and Francis Crick presented the structure of the DNA-helix, the molecule that carries genetic information from one generation to the other. Nine years later, in 1962, they shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Maurice Wilkins, for solving one of the most important of all biological riddles. Half a century later, important new implications of this contribution to science are still coming to the bright light.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the heritable material found in all cells. DNA provides the instructions to build, maintain, and regulate cells and organisms and is passed on when cells divide and when organisms reproduce. In this unit, the molecular structure of DNA and its packaging within cells will be examined. In 1953, using data obtained by Rosalind Franklin, James Watson and Francis Crick determined that DNA exists in a form known as the double helix. A helix is a winding structure like a corkscrew; DNA is known as a double helix because there are two intertwined strands within each molecule of DNA. Each chain of the double helix is made up of repeating units called nucleotides.

Code

The Breakthrough

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Base Structure

G

T

C

N

O

N

O

N

NH

NH

O

N

HN

N

H 2N O

HN Adenine Thymine Guanine Cytosine

2

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HN

HN

HN

NH

2

A

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Asparagine

Lecucine

Phenylalanine

It’s also known as asparamide, it is amino acid that is found in many proteins, particularly in plant proteins, such as in asparagus.

It is considered a non-essential amino acid.

Asparagine is not an essential amino acid, which means that it can be synthesized from central metabolic pathway.

It is an amino acid used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an amino group, an carboxylic acid group, and an isobutyl side chain, classifying it as a nonpolar amino acid.

Leucine is a tad different from the other two BCAAs isoleucine and valine.

The element is an essential amino acid (a building block for proteins in the body), meaning the body needs it for health but cannot make it. You have to get it from food.

Phenylalanine is found in 3 forms. The body changes phenylalanine into tyrosine, which is needed to make proteins and brain chemicals.

Proline

Isolecucine

It is formally not an amino acid, but an imino acid. Nonetheless, it is called an amino acid.

The primary amine on the carbon of glutamate semialdehyde forms a Schiff base with the aldehyde which is then reduced, yielding proline. When proline is in a peptide bond, it does not have a hydrogen on the amino group, so it cannot donate a hydrogen bond to stabilize an helix or a sheet.

Very similar to leucine in most every way.

Isoleucine promotes muscle recovery, regulates the blood-sugar levels and stimulates HGH release. But isoleucine holds its own in terms of wound healing. It helps in the formation of hemoglobin and is strongly involved in the formation of blood-clots, the body’s primary defense against infection through open wounds.

We are all fROM The same Ancestor

We Have The Same connection

Unity

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Rise of DNA Test Process As an African American, I don’t know where my African ancestors originated from. The only geographic location I can point to as my ancestral home is Tennessee. So I’m fascinated by the potential knowledge I could gain from Advances in DNA this new generation of tests for genetic testing are allowing ancestry. But before I fork over more than people to uncover $200 for such a test, the skeptic in me needs information about some answers. What can a DNA test really themselves. tell me about where I come from? How do these tests work? And can they be wrong? ompanies that offer genetic testing services for finding out about ancestry use several different testing methods. Lineage-based approaches analyze DNA on the Y chromosome, which is passed down almost unchanged from fathers to sons, or else analyze mitochondrial DNA, which is passed down nearly unchanged from mothers to their children. Small genetic changes in the Y chromosome occur as this information is passed from successive fathers to sons. These changes, if they persist, become markers of descent. Likewise, as mitochondrial DNA is passed down, slight mutations occur, and if these mutations persist, they also become genetic markers that can help distinguish one matrilineal line from another.

Taking these tests is straightforward. A person swipes the inside of his or her cheek for a saliva sample, which is sent to a lab. There, the DNA is extracted, amplified, and analyzed. It is then compared to and matched with DNA samples from a reference database of haplotypes – a set of closely linked genes or DNA polymorphisms – that have been identified in specific populations. If a person’s DNA sequences match certain sequences in the database, the information can be used to determine the populations with which that person shares maternal or paternal ancestry.

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The Database “Lineage testing can trace your ancestry back to real existing people who carried that particular DNA type throughout prehistory until today,” explains Peter Forster, a geneticist at the University of Cambridge in the U.K. and cofounder of Roots for Real, a company in Cambridge that uses mitochondrial DNA tests to determine maternal ancestry. Another strategy for ancestry tracking is admixture testing. This kind of test focuses on the 22 pairs of nonsex chromosomes in every cell. Since one of the chromosomes has been inherited from the person’s mother and one from the father, they contain recombined segments of DNA from all of a person’s ancestors. The test compares an individual’s DNA with specific sequences of DNA that are more prevalent in people from one area of the world than from another area. Admixture testing can determine which of the major bio-geographical population groups a person belongs to.

In both lineage and admixture testing, the larger the databases used to compare with a client’s DNA, the more accurate the results are likely to be. Even so, large databases may not cover everyone. For example, if a client has a close database match with a person living in western Africa, does this mean that region is the most likely ancestral origin of his or her maternal or paternal lineage – or could that person be a closer genetic match to people from elsewhere, but who’re not yet included in any database? it could be true or it could be an error.

If that person has other evidence, however, that he or she has a grandparent of East Asian descent, it makes a stronger case for the results being accurate.

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Genetic Connection

60%

African

30%

Latin

10%

Asian

20%

White

The Community Today, over 300 Genetic Communities all around the world are available to explore, with many more on the horizon. We will compare your DNA to all of the available Genetic Communities and identify one or more community to which you have a connection based on your DNA profile. These Genetic Communities provide coverage around the globe and are often more specific than what’s possible to discover with an ethnicity estimate, thus providing a more recent and closer connection to you and Your family past.

Some Genetic Communities trace their roots back to groups of people who were isolated geographically. Mountains, rivers, lack of roads, or other barriers made it likely that each new generation would marry someone who lived close to home. Others have their roots in a group of people who typically married others of the same religion or ethnic group. In each case, over time these groups came to share a significant amount of DNA. Their modern-day descendants who inherited some of that DNA make up Genetic Communities. And, this is just the beginning.

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White

Unity

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Asian

30% Latin

Ecosystem To date, the primary focus of most community genetics studies has been on the influences of genetic variation in plants on foliar arthropod communities. In a wide variety of ecosystems, different plant genotypes often support different compositions of associated foliar arthropod communities.

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Human Bonding The Link The term pair bond originated in 1940 in reference to mated pairs of birds; referring to a monogamous or relatively monogamous relationship. Whilst some form of monogamy may characterize around 90% of bird species, in mammals long-term pairing (beyond the brief duration of copulation itself) is rare, at around 3% (see animal monogamy). The incidence of monogamy in primate species is similarly low in contrast with polygyny (one male mating with two or more females), the most common pattern. However, regardless of mating patterns, primate life is typically characterized by long-lasting social relationships (whether sexual, care-giving, coalitionary or otherwise) formed in the context of living in durable social groups, and any such durable relationship (whether exclusive or not) is characterized by some degree of bonding.

Unity

Recent studies have shown us that humans have been migrating since Homo sapiens evolved some 200,000 years ago. This migration has not been in one direction but had happened back and forth. Our genes have been mixing since we evolved, and our genetic structure looks more like a complex, intermixed trellis than a simple candelabra.

We humans are more similar to each other as a group than we are to one another within any particular racial or genetic category. Many anthropological books have been written to explain this phenomenon.

Studies now show that each gene is only a single player in a wondrous, intricate drama involving non-additive interactions of genes, proteins, hormones, food, and life experiences and learning that interact to affect us on different levels of cognitive and behavioral functions. Each gene has an effect on multiple types of behaviors, and many behaviors are affected by many genes as well as other factors. The assumption that a single gene is causative can lead to unwarranted conclusions and an over-genuine genetic linkage.

Bibliography “A brief history of DNA.” BigPicture.

December. 2014. Web. ArSalles. Digital Image. Flickr. Yahoo!

Inc., 30 Oct. 2014. Web. Bean, Iena. Digital Image. Flickr.

Yahoo! Inc., 27 Apr. 2012. Web. “Chemical Compound.” Encyclopedia Britannica. 1 May. 2017 Daynes, Atelier. Digital Image. The New Yorker. 15 Aug. 2011. Web “Genetic Memory: Remembering Your Ancestors’ Lives.” Incognito Press. 25 April. 2016. Web. Gerace, Anthony. Digital Image.

AINT-BAD. Web.

Gibbons, Ann. The Neanderthal in My Family Tree. 2010. 11 Oct. 2012. Web. Mcnally, Joe. A reconstruction of a Neanderthal female. Digital Image.

National Geographic. 6 Mar. 2013. Web. “Nucleotides And The Double Helix.”

Cyberbridge. Web. “Neanderthals.” National Geographic.

2005. Web. “Why Am I Neanderthal?” National Geographic. 2011. Web. O’Hanlon, Leslie. “Tracing Your Ancestry.”

MIT Technology. 24 Feb. 2006. Web. Propatier, Stephen. “Can Your DNA Tell You about Your Ancestry?” Skeptoid. 18 August. 2015. Web.

Pixel Map Genator. Digital Image.

AMCHARTS. Web. “Race: Are We So Different?”

Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Web. Rettner, Rachael. “DNA: Definition, Structure & Discovery.” Live Science.

6 June. 2013. Web. “Sequencing The Neanderthal DNA.” Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. 6 June. 2013. Web. Sussman W, Robert. “There Is No Such Thing As Race.” Newsweek. Tech & Science. 4 Nov. 2014. Web.

Sogenboom, Melissa. “Things that Neanderthals do for us.” BBC. 16 Nov. 2015. Web.

Than, Ker. “Neanderthals, Humans Interbred.” National Geographic. 10 May. 2010. Web. Vergano, Dan. “Ancient Human-Chimp Link Pushed Back Millions of Years.”

National Geographic. 12 Jun. 2014. Web. Worthington, John. “AncestryGenealogy & DNA.” Abroad in the Yard. 2017. Web.

Name

Hangcheng Xu

Typeface

Sentinel Univers

Paper

MOAB Lasal Photo Matte 235

Binding

Imprint

Course

Typography 3

Instructor

Ariel Grey

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Finally, in the rapidly evolving field of genetic genealogy an up-to-date resource is here! A Genetic Genealogy Handbook: The Basics and Beyond provides genealogists with the knowledge and confidence to use DNA testing for family research. The book guides genealogists in understanding various tests and determining what DNA segments came from which ancestor. The book explains how DNA testing helps when written records stop and discusses how testing proves or disprove oral family history. So will all of this get better as we get more sophisticated genetic tests? Or could better genetic tests help amass more data that would improve the precision of these tests? Probably not—in fact, it might get more complicated.