CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL FOOD PRODUCTION
CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL FOOD PRODUCTION IMPACTS, VULNERABILITIES & REMEDIES
Golam Kibria Ph. D. (Australia) Senior Environmental Scientist Goulburn-Murray Rural Water Authority, Victoria, Australia
A. K. Yousuf Haroon Dr. Sci. (Norway) National Technical Adviser, Support to the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Project of GEF-FAO Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
Dayanthi Nugegoda Ph. D. (U. K.) Professor of Ecotoxicology RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
NIPA
NEW INDIA PUBLISHING AGENCY Pitam Pura, New Delhi-110 088
Published by Sumit Pal Jain for
NEW INDIA PUBLISHING AGENCY 101, Vikas Surya Plaza, CU Block, L.S.C. Mkt., Pitam Pura, New Delhi-110 088, (India) Ph.: 011-27341616, Fax: 011-27341717, Mob: 09717133558 E-mail: info@nipabooks.com Web: www.nipabooks.com Copyright:Authors, 2013 ISBN : 978-93-81450-512
Citation Kibria, G., A. K. Y. Haroon and D. Nugegoda 2013. Climate change and agricultural food production – Impacts, vulnerabilities and remedies. New India Publishing Agency (NIPA), New Delhi, India;
For comments about the book, (Please contact) kibriahome@optusnet.com.au dharoon@ymail.com dayanthi.nugegoda@rmit.edu.au
Conflict of interests There are no conflicts of interest. Dr Golam Kibria has written the whole book including the five chapters. Dr. Haroon and Prof. Nugegoda peer reviewed the chapters and agreed to act as co-authors of the book.
Declaration 1 The authors’ current official title and current official address included in the book is in good faith and intention only to reflect the authors’ current status etc. However, the works does not relate to authors office works and was carried out during after hours, weekends and on leaves; this is a voluntary work dedicated for third world and least developed countries, for which the authors did not receive any financial benefits or payment or royalty. The views expressed in the book are of the authors only and doesn’t reflect the views of the organization/countries etc. they presently belong to or belonged to in the past.
Declaration 2 All figures/diagrams/tables included in the book were acknowledged in the reference section of each chapter as well as at the bottom of each figure/ diagram/table and were used in good faith and intention of promoting science in particular in the third world countries such as the Asia-Pacific and Africa regions where information are not readily available or lacking on climate change and agricultural food production and as part of knowledge sharing and promotion of awareness on environment and climate change impacts.
Declaration 3 This publication may be of assistance to you but the authors or the publisher do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw of any kind or wholly appropriate for your particular purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequences which may arise from relying on any information in this book.
Acknowledgements
Professor Margaret Britz, Food Microbiologist and Industrial Biotechnologist, and Dean of Science, Engineering and Technology, University of Tasmania, Australia encouraged the lead author (Golam Kibria) to write up this book. She reviewed and made some valuable comments on Chapter 3 (climate change impacts on food contamination and food safety) that significantly helped to improve the chapter and the book.
Typeset at: Rituraj # 97 17 96 66 02 Printed at: Jai Bharat Printing Press, Delhi
About the Authors Golam Kibria, Ph. D. (Australia) : He is currently Senior Environmental Scientist with the Australia’s Largest Rural Water Authority (Goulburn–Murray Rural Water Authority, Victoria, Australia) and been there since April 2001. His current research activities include among others assessing the impacts of climate change on inputs, transport and bioavailability of pollutants in aquatic ecosystems; impacts of climate change on water resources, water quality, agriculture and fisheries; and Australian bush fire impacts. His other research activities are innovation/development/use of new and cutting edge technology such as the passive sampling technology to monitor hydrophobic and hydrophilic chemicals in waterways including pesticides, herbicides, trace metals and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). In the recent time, he has also been involved in risk assessment of harmful chemicals to humans, livestock, flora and fauna, drinking water, aquatic organisms and aquatic ecosystems; assessing microbial pathogen risks using traditional, biochemical and molecular (DNA fingerprinting) techniques; ecotoxicological studies with native fish and potential for green house gas (GHG) emissions from water reservoirs. He is currently conducting a wide range of environmental and human health related research in close cooperation and collaboration of Australia’s most reputable and key scientific organizations such as the RMIT University, University of Technology (Sydney), University of Melbourne, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO, Australia), Department of Primary Industries (Werribee and Queenscliff Research Centre, Melbourne, Australia), the Centre for Ecotoxicology (Department of Environment, Climate Change & Water, NSW, Australia), Catchment Management Authorities and other Water authorities and International Universities (University of Hong Kong, City University of Hong Kong). Dr Kibria is the Leader of the Global Artificial Mussels Watch Program (Australian branch), which is being run in ten countries including Australia. Previously he was actively involved in low technology-low inputs and environment friendly integrated agriculture-livestock-aquaculture farming systems in Africa; assessing impacts of irrigation, flood control structures and coastal shrimp/prawn farming projects and environment and biodiversity in Bangladesh. Dr Kibria is an Adjunct Professor with the City University of Hong Kong and Senior Associate with the RMIT University, Australia where he coordinates cooperative research and training with the above Universities, and development of environmental curriculum and examining student’s works etc. He was awarded an Australian Research Scholarship, which enabled him to complete a degree of the Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph. D.) in Environmental Management from the Victoria University of Technology, Australia. He has also completed a Master of Science degree from the U.K. through a British Council Award. Dr. Kibria received the following international prizes: Runner up prize for a scientific review (ICLARM, Philippines) and an award for paper/poster presentation on Artificial Mussel Technology (Australasian Society for Ecotoxicology, Australia). In addition, he has also received the following appreciation certificates for contributions in national and international innovative research and training programmes: CSIRO, Australia (for valuable contributions in risk assessment of aquatic herbicides and development of improved herbicide residue sampling technique) and City University of Hong Kong, College of Science and Engineering-Cooperative Education Centre (for meticulously planning, running and supervising cooperative environmental education program). Previously, Dr. Kibria worked in different countries under different capacities which are as follows: Visiting Scientist with the University of Melbourne, Lecturer/Researcher with the Spencer Institute/Lincoln Marine Science Centre, South Australia, and Specialist with the United Nations Development Program in Zimbabwe and Senior Scientist, Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh. He already published 30 peer-reviewed papers in national and international journals, 20 peer-reviewed technical reports and 54 popular scientific articles and is the lead author of a recently (2010) published book Climate change and Chemicals: Environmental and biological aspects (co-authored by A. K. Y. Haroon, Dayanthi Nugegoda and Gavin Rose) published by New India Publishing Agency (NIPA), New Delhi, India and is the co-author of a chapter in the book Encyclopedia of Aquatic Ecotoxicology titled Water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic ecosystems (Editors Jean-François Férard and Christian Blaise to be published soon from Canada by Springer). He is a member of the Australasian Society for Ecotoxicology and The Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), USA. A. K. Yousuf Haroon, Dr. Sci. (Norway) : He is currently the National Technical Adviser, Support to Sustainable Management of the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Project of GEFFAO, Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI) since June 2010. Prior to joining the BOBLME Project, he worked as the National Adviser in the DANIDA supported Strengthening Institutional Capacity of DoF Project, Agriculture Sector Support Programme II (ASPS-II), Regional Fisheries and Livestock Development Component (RFLDC), Bangladesh. His current research activities and field of interests include donor funded overall project management and implementation; marine fisheries and integrated coastal zone management; fish, sharks-rays & phytoplankton taxonomy; limnology, hydrobiology & wetland ecology; warm water aquaculture and captive breeding of carps, minnows and catfishes; feeding strategies, niches, selectivity & daily ration of freshwater fishes; fish population dynamics, stock assessment of natural depressions & impact assessment of flood control structures on fisheries and their mitigative measures; integrated rice-fish/shrimp farming and its synergies and training of fisheries managers, youths and fishers. Previously, Dr. Yousuf served the Department of Fisheries (DoF), Bangladesh as an ecologist;
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Department of Biology, University of Basrah, Iraq as a Teaching Assistant; Master Plan Organization of the National Water Plan Project, Bangladesh Water Development Board as a Fisheries Consultant and the BFRI as Senior, Principal and Chief Scientist. He completed the Doctorate of Science (Dr. Sci.) from the world famous school of fisheries, the Institute of Fisheries and Marine Biology (IFM), University of Bergen, Norway. Dr. Yousuf completed higher educational training from the Centre for Environmental & Estuarine Studies (CEES), Solomons, University of Maryland, Maryland, USA; Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand and Tietgen Business College, Odens, Denmark. Dr. Yousuf visited USA, UK, Iraq, Kuwait, Thailand, Norway, Sweden, Netherlands, Denmark, and Sri Lanka and is at ease to work with multinational group/team). He has to his credits more than 47 peer-reviewed research papers published in national and international journals, 42 technical reports, training modules, peer-reviewed proceeding’s papers and 11 popular scientific articles relevant to limnologyhydrobiology, phytoplankton taxonomy and various aspects of Bangladesh fisheries. He was an active member of the Network of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries Professionals (NTAFP), Penang, Malaysia and life-member of the Asian Fisheries Society, WorldFish Centre, Penang, Malaysia. Dr. Yousuf co-authored the book Climate change and chemicals: Environmental and biological aspects with Golam Kibria, Dayanthi Nugegoda and Gavin Rose in 2010, 460 pp. published by New India Publishing Agency (NIPA), New Delhi, India. He is also a contributing author of Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna of Bangladesh. Vol. 24, Marine Fishes (for Elasmobranch fishes: Sharks, skates and rays and marine fishes) and Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna of Bangladesh. Vol. 23, Freshwater Fishes both published in 2009 by the prestigious Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Dhaka. At the moment in addition to his work as the National Technical Adviser to the Support to Sustainable Management of the BOBLME Project, BFRI, Dr. Yousuf is compiling his newly finished book on Shark and shark fisheries in the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh and Integrated Rice-Fish farming: Ecology, food-feeding habit and strategy, niche measures, yield potential, insecticide use, IPM issues and conflicts. Dayanthi Nugegoda, Ph. D. (U. K.): She (B. Sc. Hons (Colombo), Ph. D. (London)) is a Professor of Ecotoxicology with the RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. Professor Dayanthi Nugegoda leads the Ecotoxicology and Environmental Biology Research Team within the School of Applied Sciences and is a core member of the College of Science Engineering and Technology, Water Effective Tools and Technologies (WETT) research group at RMIT University. She is also Research Leader for Freshwater Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) in the Victorian Centre for Aquatic Pollution Identification and Management (CAPIM), Bio21, Melbourne University. Her current research includes Ecotoxicology and Environmental Biology with a focus on aquatic ecotoxicology, pesticides, trace metals, EDCs and their effects on fish and invertebrates. Her other research interests include biomonitoring of environmental contamination using fish and invertebrates in water and earthworms in soil; development of toxicity tests using Australian species; use of enzymes and hormones as biomarkers of environmental exposures to xenobiotics; monitoring the effects of dry land salinity on freshwater ecosystems and bioremediation of metal contaminated and salinized sites; minimising nutrient pollution from aquaculture and evaluating water quality with a focus on reclaimed and recycled water. She is deeply committed to international issues being an Alumnus of the University of Colombo, Sri Lanka and the University of London, U. K. and having work experience in Sri Lanka, the UK, Germany, China, Singapore and Vietnam. Professor Nugegoda has received the following awards, scholarships and fellowships: Visiting Professorial Fellowship, Flinders Research Centre for Coasts and Catchments, RMIT Faculty of Life Sciences; Research Supervision Award; Visiting Research Fellowships from the GSF National Research Centre for Environment and Health, Munich, Germany to collaborate on the research project “Biomarkers of pollution in fish from contaminated sites in the Yangtze River region, China” with the Institute of Ecological Chemistry; Drapers Company/Queen Mary College Award for Postgraduate Study, University of London; Open Commonwealth Scholarship awarded by the Commonwealth Scholarship Commission of the U. K.; Fulbright-Hayes Graduate Student Award for study in the U. S. and a Scholarship for the best results in the First Examination in Natural Sciences, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka. She has published a total of 88 refereed publications in international and national refereed journals, co-authored the book Climate change and chemicals: Environmental and biological aspects with Golam Kibria, A. K. Y Haroon and Gavin Rose in 2010, published by New India Publishing Agency (NIPA), New Delhi, India and 12 refereed publications in Conference proceedings. She supervised 3 Postdoctoral Research Fellows; one on an ARC funded Australian Postdoctoral Fellow Industry (APDI), several Ph. D. (14), M. Sc. (3) and B. Sc. Honours Theses (24) at RMIT University and Victoria University, Australia in addition to previous research supervision at The National University of Singapore and The University of Colombo, Sri Lanka. She currently supervises 5 Ph. D., 2 M. Sc. and 2 Honours Research candidates. She is the RMIT representative at the Council of the Queenscliff Marine Consortium and serves in the RMIT Animal Ethics Committee. She was appointed to the expert advisory panel on ecotoxicology for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Parks Authority 2005; on the Animal Alternatives and Global Bioaccumulation Advisory Groups, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC); appointed to the Steering Committee of the latter in 2008; elected to the Pesticide Policy Advisory Group for the Forest Stewardship Council of Australia 2008-2009; International Reviewer Research Grants Council of Hong Kong and Ireland; International assessor National Research Council of South Africa (since 2006) and the Research Grants Council of Norway 2011. She is a Member of the Sri Lankan Association for the Advancement of Science; Member of the Asian Fisheries Society and the Australian Society of Limnology. She is an elected Representative for the State of Victoria for the Australasian Society for Ecotoxicology 2000–2006, Vice President 2007-2009, and Scientific Member of the Society for Ecotoxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), USA (since 1995) and Current President of SETAC Australasia.
Preface Agriculture (crops, livestock and fisheries) is the lifeblood of every country as it contributes to national food security, national social stability and environmental protection. In many countries, virtually in every developing country or less developed country, agriculture is the biggest single industry, where agriculture sector typically employs over 50% of the labour force with industry and commerce in turn depending upon it as a source of raw materials and as a market for manufactured goods. In Africa (e.g. Liberia, Somalia, Guinea Bissau, African Republic, Chad, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Congo, Ghana, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Niger), and in Asia (e.g. Myanmar/Burma, Cambodia, Nepal, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Vietnam, North Korea, Bangladesh, Indonesia, India) agriculture is the largest supporter of livelihoods of rural people as demonstrated by high agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) of those countries. Agriculture, livestock and fisheries production are sensitive to climate and can be affected by climate change. Climate change is one of the greatest economic, social and environmental challenges that the globe is facing. Climate change is projected to cause a rise in global air temperature, sea surface temperature (SST), atmospheric CO2, sea level rise and an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme events (storms, cyclones, floods, droughts, heat waves and bush fires). As a consequence of climate change, the agriculture system (crops) is likely to be most affected but also the livestock and fisheries production are likely to be vulnerable. The book “Climate Change and Agricultural Food Production: Impacts, Vulnerabilities and Remedies” is an attempt to address the important facts and figures relating to climate change impacts on agricultural food production based on: a. climate change impacts on various food production sectors, namely agriculture, livestock and fisheries; b. food contamination, food safety and food security issues related to climate changes; c. adaptation and mitigation measures to counteract or minimise or reduce the effects of climate change on agriculture, livestock and fisheries, and d. the green house gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture, livestock and fisheries sectors. Climate change is projected to have an effect on local agriculture and the net result could be harmful (e.g. frequent droughts, salinization of agriculture land due to sea level rise) or beneficial (e.g. enhanced CO2 and higher yield, longer growing season, increased precipitation) or mixed. On a worldwide basis, global warming would benefit the mid- to high latitude zones for agriculture (for a small change of temperature of 1-3°C), whereas low latitudes, semi-arid and tropical areas will have much reduced crop and livestock yields. Though CO2 fertilization (increase of CO2) could lead to increase in agricultural productivity/yields in C3 plants compared to C4 plants but recent FACE (free air CO2 enrichment) experiments indicated that yield responses are less than previously reported and to be no more than half of the levels (~50% less) that have been achieved in enclosure studies (laboratory and open-top chamber studies) over the years. With higher temperatures and overall decreased water supplies, beef-cattle and sheep are likely to experience increased incidences of stress related deaths; the other climate change related effects on livestock are reduction in animal weight, reproduction rates and milk yields. Climate change has both direct and indirect impacts on fish stocks that are exploited commercially. Rise in sea temperature have already caused in shifts in distribution of marine fish towards both north and south poles (e.g. cod, common sole, sardines, anchovies have moved towards north pole) and some fish species also found moving to deeper areas with warming. This movement will affect the regional economics of fishing since both the quantity and quality of marine fish catch and its distribution within and between nations’ exclusive economic zones will be impacted as a consequence of climate change. The continued ocean warming is likely to affect successful recruitment, growth and productivity of prominent coastal organisms including fish. Increases in CO2 levels will make the ocean more acidic, adversely affecting many organisms that use calcium carbonate for their skeletons and shells, such as corals, molluscs and some phytoplankton. The rise of temperature will enhance aquaculture production in temperate areas due to increased growth rates and food conversion efficiencies, longer growing season. However, rise in temperature and consequent decrease of oxygen supply, extreme weather events (floods), sea level rise (e.g. loss of land for freshwater aquaculture, loss of freshwater fisheries) all of the above could affect the aquaculture or fish production.
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There are multiple pathways through which climate related factors may impact food contamination and food safety and food quality. Microbial organisms (Salmonella spp. Campylobacter spp., Vibrio spp.) that contribute to food borne illness can increase with increasing ambient temperature. Furthermore, an increase in temperature and humidity may enhance mycotoxins (fungal aflatoxins and Fusarium toxins) contamination in food (maize, wheat). Areas where intense rainfall is expected to increase due to climate change, pollutants such as pesticides, herbicides, trace metals, endocrine disrupting chemicals, and pharmaceuticals will increasingly be washed from soils to water bodies and may lead to water contamination in rivers, including irrigation water. Therefore, cultivation of crops for human or animal consumption using contaminated water can potentially lead to uptake and accumulation of, for example pesticides, and trace metals in edible plant parts with a possible risk to human and animal health. Climate change (rise of temperature) may cause an increase in frequencies of blue-green algal/cyanobacterial blooms that produce cyanotoxins, therefore crops irrigated with cyanobacteria contaminated water can uptake cyanotoxins such as microcystins and could be of health risks to both human and livestock. Seafood can also be contaminated by rise of temperature and salinity, for example, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, which is transmitted via consumption of molluscan shell-fish can increase due to ocean warming and changing in ocean salinity. Similarly, global warming (rise of sea surface temperature) may enhance proliferation of harmful algal blooms (e.g. diatoms, dinoflagellates) in marine environment; these algae produce toxins (e.g. Paralytic shellfish poisoning, PSP and Ciguatera fish poisoning, CFP) that can accumulate in seafood such as shell-fish and finfish and may cause food poisoning or deaths of humans due to consumption) of contaminated seafood. Research conducted reveals that future increase in temperature would enhance heavy metal accumulation in seafood and it is projected that uptake of methyl-mercury by fish and mammals will increase by 3–5% for each 1°C rise in water temperature. This may increase the risk of contaminating seafood by mercury in the future due to rise of temperature. Climate change will affect all four dimensions of food security - food availability, access to food, stability of food supplies and food utilization. However, overall impact of climate change on food security will differ across regions and over time. All quantitative assessments show that climate change will adversely affect food security in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Achieving food security under a changing climate requires substantial increase in food production in one hand as well as improved access to adequate and nutritious food and capacities to cope with the risks posed by climate change on the other hand. Food security can be achieved through adaptation and mitigation of climate changes. The adaptation can be considered as tackling the effects of climate change, whereas mitigation is tackling the cause of climate change such as reducing the sources or enhancing the sinks of GHGs. Adaptation in agriculture includes appropriate crop selection; development of heat/drought and more disease and pest tolerant crops; breeding of rice cultivars resistant to climate change such as salt, drought or flood tolerant varieties; adjustment of planting dates or changing the cropping calendar; alternative cultivation methods; cultivation of fast growing crops; diversification (integrated agriculture–fish farming); rainwater harvesting; soil conservation/control of soil erosion; sustainable water management; crop rotations; zero tillage; soil fertility management; alternate wet and dry rice culture etc. Adaptation in livestock may include breeding of livestock’s for greater tolerance to heat stress; responsive stocking rates for extensive livestock; summer housing for dairy cattle (intensive livestock); matching stocking rates with pasture production. To tackle water shortages and water crisis adaptations strategies may include water savings, water recycling, seepage loss prevention, new irrigation pipelines, desalination, wastewater reuse and new water supply. Furthermore, some other actions can be taken including building adaptive capacity by increasing support for research and knowledge, promoting awareness and improving weather forecasting technologies. Adaptation in fisheries can be achieved by adjusting fishing operations, as well as by applications of scientific and technological advances. Other adaptation in fisheries is diversification of products or markets, or to exit the fisheries or to access to higher value markets or to target different species in different years etc. In aquaculture, there are a number of adaptation strategies that could be suitable e.g. selective breeding for adaptation to higher temperature, salinity and low quality water (low dissolved oxygen), bio-security measures; genetic improvements for higher resistance to pathogens and diseases; regular monitoring for eutrophication and harmful algal blooms; shifting to non-carnivorous species, culture of seaweeds and molluscs where feasible, and an improvement in monitoring and early warning systems etc. On a global basis, though energy sectors are the main contributors of GHG emissions (more than emissions), however, agricultural processes also contribute to global warming potential (GWP) through emission of three main GHGs: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Emission of CO2 results from combustion of fossil energy used on the farm, transportation of produce; emission of CH4 results from enteric fermentation of livestock, from animal manure, from paddy fields and from diffusion processes in fish ponds. GHG emissions from agriculture and livestock can be significantly reduced by cropland and grazing land management, for example, cropland management may include nutrient management, tillage/residue management, water management, rice management, agro-forestry-afforestation
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and/or reforestation which can reduce significant amount of CO2 and some N2O; grazing land management/pasture improvement such as grazing intensity, nutrient management can reduce significant amount of CO2; management of organic soils can reduce significant amount of CO2; restoration of degraded lands can reduce significant amount of CO2; and CH4, rice management can reduce significant amount of CH4; livestock management such as improved feeding practices can reduce significant amount of CH4; manure/bio-solid management can reduce significant amount of CH4 and bio-energy can reduce significant amount of CO2. GHG emissions from fisheries/fishing activities can be reduced by eliminating inefficient fleet structures (e.g. excessive capacity, over-fishing); improving fisheries management; reducing post-harvest losses; increasing waste recycling; shifting towards static fishing technologies; and use of more efficient vessels and gears. The book ‘Climate Change and Agricultural Food Production: Impacts, Vulnerabilities and Remedies’ provides an overview of climate change impacts on all agricultural food producing sectors (agriculture, livestock and fisheries), food contamination, and food safety (microbial pathogens, toxic biological and toxic chemical contaminants), food security and climate change adaptation and mitigation measures to counteract or minimise or reduce the effects of climate change on agriculture, livestock and fisheries. It reviews and summarizes research results, data and information from the world including Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, Latin America, North America, Polar regions and Small Island Nations. The book has been structured as textbook, reference book and extension book and written in simple and plain English with key facts and acronyms and glossary provided in each chapter with tables and figures to benefit a wide range of readers. The book would be beneficial to academic and research institutes; university students (graduates and postgraduates); agriculturists; climate scientists; economists; environmental scientists; extension workers; farmers; fisheries scientists; food chemists; food microbiologists; human health professionals; grass roots people; and government planners, regulators and environmental campaigners; and trade and business people etc.
Golam Kibria
A. K. Yousuf Haroon
Dayanthi Nugegoda
Australia kibriahome@optusnet.com.au
Bangladesh dharoon@ymail.com
Australia dayanthi.nugegoda@rmit.edu.au
Contents
Preface.............................................................................................................................................vii 1.
Climate Change and Green House Gas Emissions from Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries.........................1
2.
Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries..............................................................35
3.
Climate Change Impacts on Food Contamination and Food Safety..............................................................93
4.
Climate Change Impacts on Food Security..............................................................................................167
5.
Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Measures in Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries.......................191 Index..............................................................................................................................................283
Fi r s tf e wp a g e so ft h i sb o o ka r ep u b l i s h e d o nk i s a n . c o mb yi t sp u b l i s h e r . I fy o uwi s ht op u r c h a s eah a r d c o p y o ft h i sb o o k , p l e a s ec o n t a c tt h ep u b l i s h e r .
Publ i sher