Elements of Entomology BASIC CONCEPTS
Elements of Entomology BASIC CONCEPTS
H. LEWIN DEVASAHAYAM Associate Professor of Plant Pathology (Retd.) Tamil Nadu Aricultural University Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
NEW INDIA PUBLISHING AGENCY New Delhi – 110 034
NEW INDIA PUBLISHING AGENCY 101, Vikas Surya Plaza, CU Block, LSC Market Pitam Pura, New Delhi 110 034, India Phone: + 91 (11)27 34 17 17 Fax: + 91(11) 27 34 16 16 Email: info@nipabooks.com Web: www.nipabooks.com Feedback at feedbacks@nipabooks.com Š Author, 2013 ISBN: 978-93-81450-63-5 All rights reserved, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher or the copyright holder. This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author/s, editor/s and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The author/s, editor/s and publisher have attempted to trace and acknowledge the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission and acknowledgements to publish in this form have not been taken. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify it, in subsequent reprints. Trademark notice: Presentations, logos (the way they are written/presented), in this book are under the trademarks of the publisher and hence, if copied/resembled the copier will be prosecuted under the law. Composed, Designed and Printed in India
Preface ‘Entomology’ is a branch of Agricultural Science dealing with the study of insects. Knowledge about insects has become all the more important because of the enormous damage they cause to cultivated crops, stored grains and stored products. There are about 1.0 million species of insects, which constitute just above 50 per cent of other Arthropods, all living plants and animals put together. However, a small percentage of about 1,000 species are considered to be pests in the true sense, while others are wild and harmless. Insect pests cause damage to cultivated crops and other vegetation in several ways. Many of these phytophagous insects feed on the foliage or other plant parts. Some of them bore into plant parts, such as stems, branches, roots, flowers, fruits or grains and feed on the inner contents. Some pierce the plant parts and suck and feed on the plant sap. Besides causing such direct damage, some of them also do harm indirectly by transmitting many diseases in plants, livestock and even humans, while some insects are beneficial to man in several ways. But the injurious activities of insects are of greater concern to man than their beneficial activities. To meet his multifarious demands for food, clothing, shelter and various other requirements, man cultivates various crops and raises many domesticated animals and birds. Several insects also depend on these for their living. When the requirements for man and insects happen to be the same, then a stifle is on for their survival and existence. Man in his efforts to safeguard his interests and to obtain maximum returns from the crops according to their genetic potential tries to destroy the pests by various means. Insects are ubiquitous and can adapt themselves to any type of environment according to the need and can survive and multiply unabated. So, even with all his vast potential, intelligence, ingenuity and technical know-how, man has not been able to eradicate the much inferior pests completely. As such the struggle for supremacy between man and the insects continues as a perpetual one. Acquiring knowledge about the morphology and anatomy of insects, their behavior, habits, taxonomy, development, reproduction, distribution, origin, adaptation etc., as well as adequate knowledge about the various plant protection techniques will go a long way in adopting appropriate and apt methods to combat and eradicate them to the maximum possible extent. It is with these objectives this book has been compiled in four parts. Part I deals with the morphology, anatomy, adaptations and classification of insects, especially insect pests. Not all insects are harmful to mankind. While most of the insects are wild and quite harmless, a few are even beneficial to man in one way or another. An elaborate account of beneficial insects, both productive and helpful ones has been given in Part II. Part III is devoted exclusively
vi Preface
to various methods of plant protection, plant protection chemicals and plant protection appliances. Besides insect pests, a few non-insect pests such as, phytoparasitic nematodes and mites are also responsible for causing considerable damage to various crops resulting in huge economic loss. As such Part IV deals exclusively with plant parasitic nematodes and mites. This book has been written based on the syllabus of under graduate students of Agricultural Universities. For compilation of the book, lot of information has been collected from several books brought out by both Indian and International authors, as well as from many other sources and I am very much indebted to the authors concerned. The text is also substantiated with many hand-drawn figures and illustrations. Besides students of Agriculture, I hope that this book will be of immense use to those who are interested in the field of entomology and even to the post graduate students of Agriculture. It will also serve as a valuable reference book for those who are employed in the Department of Agriculture, especially those who are involved in plant protection work. The author is thankful to friends and colleagues, who have inspired, encouraged and helped him in his endeavor to complete the book successfully. The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to M/S. New India Publishing Agency, 101-Vikas Surya Plaza, Pitam Pura, New Delhi for the excellent manner in which the book has been brought out.
H. Lewin Devasahayam
List of Figures Figures Number 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.
Percentage of insect species in Phylum – Arthropoda ........................................................................... 5 Percentage of insects in relation to total living organisms .................................................................... 5 Number of species in each of the classes of Phylum – Arthropoda ..................................................... 6 Morphology of a typical insect (e-g) Cockroach ................................................................................. 10 Morphology of a typical insect – lateral view (e-g) Grasshopper ..................................................... 10 Anatomy of the integument (Exoskeleton) of an insect ..................................................................... 16 Moulting in an insect .......................................................................................................................... 18 Morphology of the head of an insect (e-g) Grasshopper ................................................................... 19 Types of antennae in insects .............................................................................................................. 22 Biting and chewing type of mouthparts (e-g) Grasshopper .............................................................. 25 Piercing and sucking type of mouthparts (Bug type) ........................................................................ 27 Piercing and sucking type of mouthparts (Mosquito type) .............................................................. 28 Siphoning type of mouthparts (e-g) Butterfly ................................................................................... 29 Chewing and lapping type of mouthparts (e-g) Honeybee ................................................................ 30 Sponging type of mouthparts (e-g) Housefly .................................................................................... 31 Types of legs in insects ...................................................................................................................... 34 Mechanism of the basic wing strokes in flight of an insect ................................................................ 37 Wing of a Hymenopteran showing the margins and angles ................................................................ 38 Wing coupling structures .................................................................................................................... 39 A hypothetical insect wing showing the arrangement of veins .......................................................... 41 External genitalia of female grasshopper ............................................................................................ 43 External genitalia of male grasshopper ............................................................................................... 44 Arrangement of internal organs in insects (e-g) Grasshopper ............................................................ 45 Transverse section through the crop .................................................................................................. 47 Longitudinal section of the gizzard ..................................................................................................... 48 Transverse section through the stomach ............................................................................................ 48 Transverse section of the rectum ........................................................................................................ 49 The salivary system ........................................................................................................................... 49 The alimentary system (e-g) Grasshopper ........................................................................................ 50 The circulatory system (e-g) Grasshopper ........................................................................................ 54 The nervous system (e-g) Grasshopper ............................................................................................. 56 Spiracles, tracheae and tracheoles ....................................................................................................... 63 Vertical, longitudinal section of the head and thorax (e-g) Grasshopper ............................................ 64 Vertical, longitudinal section of the abdomen (e-g) Grasshopper ....................................................... 64 The respiratory system ...................................................................................................................... 64 Internal reproductive organs of a female insect (e-g) Grasshopper .................................................... 66 Longitudinal section of an ovariole ..................................................................................................... 66
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List of Figures
Figure Number 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48-A. 48-B. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82.
Internal genitalia of a male insect (e-g) Grasshopper ......................................................................... 68 Longitudinal section of a testes follicle of a grasshopper ................................................................... 69 A campaniform sense organ ................................................................................................................ 73 A scolophore of the integument type ................................................................................................. 73 Longitudinal section of the base of the antanna showing Johnston’s organ ....................................... 74 Male cicada showing auditory and sound drums ................................................................................ 75 Fore-leg of locust showing tympanum ............................................................................................... 75 Tympanum of a locust viewed from within ....................................................................................... 75 Tympanum on the first abdominal segment of grasshopper .............................................................. 75 Chemosensory peg organ in the antenna of grasshopper ................................................................... 76 Compound eye adapted for apposition image .................................................................................... 79 Compound eye adapted for superposition image ............................................................................... 79 Gradual metamorphosis (e-g) Grasshopper ....................................................................................... 83 Complete metamorphosis (e-g) Butterfly .......................................................................................... 84 Types of larvae ................................................................................................................................... 85 Different types of metamorphosis in insects ..................................................................................... 90 Paurometabolous development – Ventral view of posterior abdominal segments ............................. 92 (e-g) Female grasshopper Paurometabolous development – Ventral view of posterior abdominal segments ............................. 93 (e-g) Male grasshopper Thysanura – Lepismatidae (Silver fish) ........................................................................................... 113 Collembola – Tomoceridae (Spring tail) ............................................................................................. 114 Ephimeroptera – Ephemeridae (May fly) ......................................................................................... 116 Plecoptera (Stone fly) ....................................................................................................................... 116 Dictyoptera – Blattidae (Cockroach) ................................................................................................ 118 Dictyoptera – Mantidae (Praying mantis) ........................................................................................ 118 Orthoptera – Tettigonidae (Long-horned grasshopper) ..................................................................... 120 Orthoptera – Gryllidae (Cricket) ....................................................................................................... 120 Orthoptera – Gryllotalpidae (Mole cricket) ...................................................................................... 121 Orthoptera – Acrididae (Grasshopper) ............................................................................................. 121 Phasmida – Phyllidae (Leaf insect) .................................................................................................... 122 Phasmida – Phasmidae (Stick insect) ................................................................................................. 122 Dermaptera – Labiduridae (Earwig) ................................................................................................... 123 Embioptera – Oligotomidae (Web spinner) ....................................................................................... 124 Isoptera – Termitidae (White ant) ..................................................................................................... 127 Psocoptera – Psocidae (Book louse) ................................................................................................. 128 Mallophaga – Menoponidae (Bird louse) .......................................................................................... 128 Siphunculata – Pediculidae (Human head louse) ................................................................................ 129 Siphunculata – Haematopinidae (Buffalo louse) ................................................................................ 129 Hemiptera – Gerridae (Pond skater) .................................................................................................. 131 Hemiptera – Gerridae (Water strider) ................................................................................................ 131 Hemiptera – Miridae (Tea mosquito bug) ......................................................................................... 131 Hemiptera – Cimicidae (Bed bug) ...................................................................................................... 131 Hemiptera – Pyrrhocoridae (Red cotton bug) ................................................................................... 132 Hemiptera – Tingidae (Lacewing bug) ............................................................................................... 133 Hemiptera – Belostomatidae (Giant Water bug) ................................................................................ 133 Hemiptera – Nepidae (Water scorpion) ............................................................................................. 133 Hemiptera – Nepidae (Water scorpion) ............................................................................................. 133
List of Figures
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Figure Number 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131.
Hemiptera – Corixidae (Water boat man) .......................................................................................... 134 Hemiptera – Cicadidae (Cicada) ........................................................................................................ 135 Hemiptera – Cercopidae (Spittle bug) ............................................................................................... 135 Hemiptera – Membracidae (Tree hopper) ......................................................................................... 135 Hemiptera – Jassidae (Mango hopper) ............................................................................................. 136 Hemiptera – Jassidae (Green leaf hopper) ........................................................................................ 136 Hemiptera – Delphacidae (Brown plant hopper) .............................................................................. 136 Hemiptera – Lophopidae (Sugarcane hopper) ................................................................................... 136 Hemiptera – Aphididae (Apple wooly aphid) ................................................................................... 138 Hemiptera – Margarodidae (Mango mealy bug) ................................................................................ 138 Hemiptera – Margarodidae (Cottony cushion scale) ......................................................................... 139 Hemiptera– Diaspididae (Rose hard scale) ........................................................................................ 139 Thysanoptera – Thripidae (Rice thrips) ........................................................................................... 140 Thysanoptera – Thripidae (Chilli thrips) .......................................................................................... 140 Neuroptera – Mantispidae (Mantid fly) ........................................................................................... 141 Neuroptera – Nemopteridae (Thread lacewing fly) ........................................................................... 142 Mecoptera – Panorpidae (Scorpion fly) ............................................................................................ 143 Lepidoptera – Papilionidae (Lemon butterfly) .................................................................................. 146 Lepidoptera – Pieridae (Cabbage butterfly) ...................................................................................... 146 Lepidoptera – Lycaenidae (Anar butterfly) ....................................................................................... 147 Lepidoptera – Lycaenidae (Blue butterfly) ....................................................................................... 147 Lepidoptera – Gelechiidae (Rice grain moth) .................................................................................... 147 Lepidoptera – Gracillariidae (Citrus leaf miner) ................................................................................ 148 Lepidoptera – Plutellidae (Diamond-back moth) ............................................................................... 148 Lepidoptera– Limacodidae (Slug caterpillar) ..................................................................................... 149 Lepidoptera – Pyraustidae (Red gram spotted pod borer moth) ....................................................... 150 Lepidoptera – Pterophoridae (Bottle gourd plume moth) ................................................................. 150 Lepidoptera – Geometridae (Tea looper) .......................................................................................... 151 Lepidoptera – Sphingidae (Horned caterpillar moth) ........................................................................ 151 Lepidoptera – Sphingidae (Hawk moth) ........................................................................................... 151 Lepidoptera – Noctuidae (American cotton boll worm moth) .......................................................... 152 Lepidoptera – Noctuidae (Gram cut worm moth) ............................................................................. 152 Lepidoptera – Noctuidae (Snake gourd semilooper moth) ................................................................ 152 Lepidoptera – Noctuidae (Tobacco caterpillar moth) ........................................................................ 152 Lepidoptera – Noctuidae (Castor semilooper moth) ......................................................................... 152 Lepidoptera – Noctuidae (Citrus fruit sucking moth) ....................................................................... 152 Lepidoptera – Lymantriidae (Rose hairy caterpillar moth) ............................................................... 153 Diptera – Culicidae (Malaria mosquito) ............................................................................................ 155 Diptera – Culicidae (Filariasis and Encephalitis) ............................................................................... 155 Diptera – Cecidomyiidae (Gingelly gall fly) ...................................................................................... 155 Diptera – Psychoidae (Sand fly) ....................................................................................................... 156 Diptera – Tabanidae (Common gad fly) ............................................................................................ 157 Diptera – Hippoboscidae (Dog fly) .................................................................................................. 159 Siphonaptera – Pulicidae (Rat flea) ................................................................................................... 159 Hymenoptera – Formicidae (Red tree ant) ........................................................................................ 163 Hymenoptera – Formicidae (Black ant) ............................................................................................ 163 Hymenoptera – Vespidae (Social wasp) ............................................................................................ 164 Hymenoptera – Sphecidae (Digger wasp) ......................................................................................... 164 Hymenoptera – Megachilidae (Leaf cutter bee) ................................................................................. 165
x List of Figures
Figure Number 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179.
Coleoptera – Cicindelidae (Tiger beetle) ............................................................................................ 166 Coleoptera – Carabidae (Predacious ground beetle) ........................................................................... 167 Coleoptera – Hydrophylidae (Water scavenger beetle) ..................................................................... 134 Coleoptera – Scarabeidae (Cockchafer) ............................................................................................. 169 Coleoptera – Scarabeidae (Rose flower cutting beetle) ...................................................................... 169 Coleoptera – Scarabeidae (Dung roller beetle) ................................................................................... 169 Coleoptera – Buprestidae (Jewel beetle) ........................................................................................... 169 Coleoptera – Elateridae (Click beetle) ............................................................................................... 170 Coleoptera – Dermestidae (Khapra beetle) ....................................................................................... 171 Coleoptera – Anobiidae (Wood boring beetle) ................................................................................... 171 Coleoptera – Bostrychidae (Lesser grain beetle) ............................................................................... 171 Coleoptera – Cucujidae (Saw-toothed grain beetle) ........................................................................... 172 Coleoptera – Coccinellidae (Brinjal spotted beetle) ........................................................................... 173 Coleoptera – Tenebrionidae (Red flour beetle) .................................................................................. 173 Coleoptera – Meloidae (Blister beetle) .............................................................................................. 174 Coleoptera – Cerambycidae (Mango stem borer) .............................................................................. 174 Coleoptera – Curculionidae (Ash weevil) .......................................................................................... 176 Coleoptera – Curculionidae (Mango leaf twisting weevil) ................................................................. 176 Strepsiptera (Stylopid) ..................................................................................................................... 176 Honey bee (Apis indica) .................................................................................................................... 188 Newton’s beehive .............................................................................................................................. 196 Accessories required for bee keeping ................................................................................................. 199 The mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori) ............................................................................................ 210 The lac insect (Laccifer lacca) ........................................................................................................... 216 Equipments used for collecting insects .............................................................................................. 236 Equipments used for killing, mounting and preserving insects .......................................................... 238 Parasitoids attacking different growth stages of pests ....................................................................... 254 Types of parasitoids ......................................................................................................................... 256 Types of parasitoids ......................................................................................................................... 256 Types of predatory insects Coccinella species ...............................................................................................258 Types of predatory insects Dragon fly ............................................................................................................259 Types of predatory insects Dragon fly ............................................................................................................259 Types of predatory insects (The Green lace wing bug) ...................................................................................260 Types of predatory spiders .............................................................................................................. 261 Garden syringe .................................................................................................................................. 327 Bucket sprayer .................................................................................................................................. 328 Hydraulic knapsack sprayer ............................................................................................................. 328 Rocker sprayer .................................................................................................................................. 329 Foot sprayer ..................................................................................................................................... 329 Marut knapsack sprayer ................................................................................................................... 331 Flit pump .......................................................................................................................................... 332 Power mist blower ............................................................................................................................ 333 Hand rotary duster ............................................................................................................................ 336 Cyano gas pump ............................................................................................................................... 338 Soil injector ....................................................................................................................................... 338 Flame thrower ................................................................................................................................... 339 Morphology of a typical nematode Tylenchorhynchus ..................................................................................349 Schematic view of the mouth region of a typical nematode ............................................................... 350
List of Figures
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Figure Number 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191.
Stomatostylet (e-g) Class – Secernentea, Order – Tylenchida ........................................................... 352 Odontostylet (e-g) Class – Adenophorea, Order – Dorylaimida ....................................................... 352 Cross section through the oesophageal region of a nematode ............................................................ 353 Dorylaimid type of oesophagous ...................................................................................................... 353 Tylenchid type of oesophagous ........................................................................................................ 353 Male reproductive system of a nematode ......................................................................................... 356 Female reproductive system of a nematode ...................................................................................... 357 Root knot nematode of tomato (Meloidogyne incognita) .................................................................. 367 Red gram cyst nematode (Heterodera cajani) ................................................................................... 370 Genus – Pratylenchus ........................................................................................................................ 376 Root lesion nematode Pratylenchus sp. ............................................................................................. 399 Eriophyid mite .................................................................................................................................. 399
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