Mango Area Under Cultivation Mango is almost grown in all states of India. It is mainly cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and West Bengal.
Botanical Name :- Mangifera indica Family :- Anacardiaceae Plant Discription : It is a large, branched perennial erect tree with wide evergreen crown which attains a great height. Flowers appear in large terminal inflorescences producing fruit which is a fleshy drupe.
Centre of Origin : South East Asia Pollination System : Cross pollinated Chromosome No. : 2n=40 Nutritional Levels : Moisture (%)
Protein (%)
Fat (%)
Mineral matter (%)
Fibre (%)
Carbohydrate (%)
Calories (K Cal)
81
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.8
16.9
74
Phosphorus (mg/100g)
Potassium (mg/100g)
Calcium (mg/100g)
Magnesium (mg/100g)
Iron (mg/100g)
Sodium (mg/100g)
Copper (mg/100g)
16
205
14
270
1.3
26
0.11
Manganese (mg/100g)
Zinc (mg/100g)
Sulphur (mg/100g)
Chlorine (mg/100g)
Molybdium (mg/100g)
Cromium (mg/100g)
0.13
0
17
3
0
0.006
Carotene (mg/100g)
Thiamine (mg/100g)
Riboflavin (mg/100g)
Niacin (mg/100g)
Vitamin C (mg/100g)
Choline (mg/100g)
Folic acid-Free (mg/100g)
2743
0.08
0.09
0.9
16
0
0
Minerals
Vitamins
Folic acid- Total (mg/100g) 0
Mango Diseases Powdery Mildew (Oidium mangiferae) : Powdery mildew is one of the most serious diseases of mango affecting almost all the varieties. The characteristic symptom of the disease is the white superficial powdery fungal growth on leaves, stalk of panicles, flowers and young fruits. The affected flowers and fruits drop pre-maturely reducing the crop load considerably or might even prevent the fruit set. Rains or mists accompanied by cooler nights during flowering are congenial for the disease spread. Control : Alternate spraying of Wettable sulphur 0.2 per cent (2 g Sulfex/litre), Tridemorph O.1 per cent (1 ml Calixin/litre) and Bavistin @ 0.1 % at 15 days interval are recommended for effective control of the disease. The first spray is to be given at panicle emergence stage.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) : It is of widespread occurrence in the field and in storage. The disease causes serious losses to young shoots, flowers and fruits under favorable climatic conditions (high humidity, frequent rains and the temperature range of 2432째C). The disease produces leaf spot, blossom blight, withered tip, twig blight and fruit rot symptoms. Tender shoots and foliage are easily affected which ultimately cause die back of young branches. Older twigs may also be infected through wounds, which in severe cases may be fatal. Black spots develop on panicles. Severe infection destroys the entire inflorescence resulting in failure of fruit setting. Young infected fruits develop black spots, shrivel and drop off. Fruits infected at mature stage carry the fungus into storage and cause considerable loss during storage, transit and marketing. Control : The diseased twigs should be pruned and burnt along with fallen leaves. Spraying twice with Carbendazirn (Bavistin 0.1%) at 15 days interval during flowering controls blossom infection. Spraying of copper fungicides (0.3%) is recommended for the control of foliar infection. Postharvest disease of mango caused by anthracnose could be controlled by dip treatment of fruits in 0 Carbendazim (0.1%) in hot water at 52 C for 15 minutes.
Die Back (Botryodiplodia (Lasiodiplodia) theobromae) : Die back is one of the serious diseases of mango. The disease on the tree may be noticed at any time of the year but it is most conspicuous during October-November. The disease is characterized by drying of twigs and branches followed by complete defoliation, which gives the tree an appearance of scorching by fire. Initially it is evident by discoloration and darkening of the bark. The dark area advances and extends outward along the veins of leaves. The affected leaf turns brown and its margins roll upwards. At this stage, the twig or branch dies, shrivels and leaf falls. This may be accompanied by exudation of yellowish brown gum.
Control : Pruning of the diseased twigs 2-3 inches below the affected portion and spraying Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) on infected trees controls the disease. The cut ends of the pruned twigs are pasted with Copper Oxychloride (0.3%).
Phoma Blight (Phoma glomerata) : The symptoms of the disease are observed only on old leaves. Initially, the lesions are angular, minute, irregular, yellow to light brown, scattered over leaf lamina. As the lesions enlarge, their colour changes from brown to cinnamon and they become almost irregular. In case of severe infection such spots coalesce forming patches resulting in complete withering and defoliation of infected leaves. Control : The disease is controlled by spraying Benomyl (0.2%) just after the appearance of the disease followed by 0.3% Miltox (Copper Oxychloride + Zineb) at 20 day interval.
(e) Bacterial Canker (Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae) : Canker is a serious disease in India. The disease causes fruit drop (10-70%), yield loss (10-85%) and storage rot (5-100%). Many commercial cultivars of mango including Langra, Dashehari, Arnrapali, Mallika and Totapuri are susceptible to this disease. The disease is found on leaves, petioles, twigs, branches and fruits. The disease first appears as minute water soaked irregular lesions on any part of leaf or leaf lamina. Several lesions coalesce to form irregular necrotic cankerous patches. In severe infections the leaves turn yellow and drop off. Cankerous lesions also appear on petioles, twigs and young fruits. The water soaked lesions also develop on fruits which later turn dark brown to black. They often burst open, releasing highly contagious gummy ooze containing bacterial cells. Control : Three sprays of Streptocycline (0.01%) or Agrimycin-100 (0.01%) after first visual symptom at 10 day intervals and monthly sprays of Carbendazim (Bavistin 0.1%) or Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) are effective in controlling the disease.
Red Rust (Cepbaleuros virescens) : The disease attack causes reduction in photosynthetic activity and defoliation of leaves thereby reducing the vitality of the host plant. The disease is evident by the rusty red spots mainly on leaves and sometimes on petioles and bark of young twigs. . The spots are greenish grey in colour and velvety in texture. Later, they turn reddish brown. The circular and slightly elevated spots sometimes coalesce to form larger and irregular spots. The affected portion of stem cracks. In case of severe infection, the bark becomes thick, twigs get enlarged but remain stunted and the foliage finally dries up. Control : Two to three sprays of Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) is effective in controlling the disease.
Sooty Mould (Meliola mangiferae) : The disease is common in the orchards where mealy bug, scale insects and hoppers are not controlled efficiently. The disease in the field is recognized by the presence of a black sooty mould on the leaf surface. In severe cases, the trees turn completely black due to the presence of mould over the entire surface of twigs and leaves. The severity of infection depends on the honey dew secretion of the above insects. Honey dews secretions from insects stick to the leaf surface and provide necessary medium for fungal growth. Although the fungus causes no direct damage, the photosynthetic activity of the leaf is adversely affected.
Control : Pruning of affected branches and their prompt destruction followed by spraying of Wettasulf (0.2% )+ Metacid (0.1 %)+ gum acacia (0.3%) helps to control the disease.
Diplodia Stem-end Rot (Lasiodiplodia theobromae) : The fungus enters through mechanically injured areas on the stem or skin. The fungus grows from the pedicel into a circular black lesion around the pedicel. Control : Careful handling to minimize mechanical injuries. Postharvest dip of fruits in Carbendazirn (0.1%) in hot water at 52 ¹ 1°C for 15 minutes controls the disease in storage and transit.
Mango Disorders Spongy Tissue : It is a major problem in Alphonso, where a pulp patch fails to ripen. This malady is caused due to inactivity of ripening enzymes due to high temperature, convective heat and post harvest exposure to sunlight. O
Control : Use of mulching and post harvest exposure to low temperatures between 10-15 C for 10-18 hours has been useful in reducing the malady.
Mango Malformation : Malformation is widely prevalent in northern India, particularly in the states of Punjab, Delhi and western U.P. where more than 50% of the trees suffer from this malady. The malformed panicles remain unproductive and are characterized by a compact mass of male flowers, greenish in colour and stunted in growth. The main and secondary rachis is thick and short and bears flowers with relatively larger bracts, sepals and petals as compared to normal flowers. The malformed panicles remain intact on the trees for a considerable long period. The complexity of the disorder is attributed to cultural, nutritional and factors like, mites, fungal, viral, hormonal imbalance etc. The exact cause and control of the malady is yet to be established. Control : Spraying of Planofix (200 ppm) during the first week of October followed by deblossoming at bud burst stage is recommended as a remedial measure against malformation.
Biennial Bearing : The term biennial, alternate or irregular bearing generally signifies the tendency of mango trees to bear a heavy crop in one year (On year) and very little or no crop in the succeeding year (Off year). Most of the commercial varieties of north India, namely, Dashehari, Langra and Chausa are biennial bearers, while south Indian varieties like Totapuri Red Small, Bangalora, and Neelum are known to be regular bearers. When a tree produces heavy crop in one season, it gets exhausted nutritionally and is unable to put forth new flush thereby failing to yield in the following season. The problem has been attributed to the causes like genetical, physiological, environmental and nutritional factors. Control : For overcoming biennial bearing, deblossoming is recommended to reduce the crop load in the 'On' year so that it is balanced in the 'Off year. Proper maintenance of orchard by way of effective control of pests and diseases and regular cultural operations may also result in better performance of the tree every year. Soil application of Paclobutrazol (PP333) or Cultar @ 4 g/tree in the month of September resulted in early flowering with higher fruit set and yield. It may be applied every year for regular fruiting, particularly in young trees.
Ringing of branches is recommended as means of inducing flowering in the 'Off' year. However, Weak, stunted, unhealthy trees should not be ringed to force flowering. It involves removal of 1 cm wide ring of bark on a branch of about 15 cm thickness. Ringing stops vegetative growth and results in accumulation of carbohydrates and other metabolites in the portion of the branch above the ring, thereby creating physiological condition for flowering. Ringing should be done in August or early September, well before the time of fruit-bud differentiation.
Fruit Drop : The intensity of fruit drop varies from variety to variety. Among the commercially grown varieties, Langra is more susceptible to drop, while Dasheri is the least. The fruit drop is more or less a continuous process and can be classified into three phases, viz. (i) pinhead drop, (ii) post-setting drop and (iii) May-month drop. The fruit drop in first two phases are insignificant compared to the third phase which affects the final yield significantly and needs more attention. Embryo abortion, climatic factors, disturbed water relation, lack of nutrition, attack of disease and pest and hormonal imbalances are the major factors that lead to fruit drop. Control : The foliar application of Alar (B-nine) @ 100 ppm or NAA 20 ppm at pea stage of fruit was found effective in controlling fruit drop in mango.
Black Tip : Black tip is a serious disorder, particularly in the cultivar Dasheri. The affected fruits become unmarketable and reduce the yield to a considerable extent. The damage to the fruit gets initiated right at marble stage with a characteristic yellowing of tissues at distal end. Gradually, the colour intensifies into brown and finally black. At this stage, further growth and development of the fruit is retarded and black ring at the tip extends towards the upper part of the fruit. Black tip disorder has generally been detected in orchards located in the vicinity of brick kilns. It has been reported that the gases like carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and ethylene constituting the fumes of brick kiln are known to damage growing tip of fruits and give rise to the symptoms of black tip. Apart from these factors, irrigation, condition of the tree and management practices also play important role in deciding the severity of the disorder. Control : Planting of mango orchards in North-South direction and 5-6 km away from the brick kilns may reduce incidence of black tip to a greater extent. The incidence of black tip can also be minimized by spraying Borax (1%) or other alkaline solutions like caustic soda (0.8%) or washing soda (0.5%). The first spray of Borax should be done positively at pea stage followed by two more sprays at 15 days interval.
Clustering in Mango ('Jhumka') : A fruiting disorder, locally known as 'Jhumka', is characterised by the development of fruitlets in clusters at the tip of panicles. Such fruits cease to grow beyond pea or marble stage and drop down after a month of fruit set. Absence of sufficient population of pollinators in the orchards is the major reason. The other reasons causing the disorder are old and overcrowding of trees, indiscriminate spraying against pests and diseases, use of synthetic pyrethroids, monoculture of Dashehari and bad weather during flowering.
Control : Introduction of beehives in the orchards during flowering season for increasing the number of pollinators and restrict insecticidal sprays at full bloom to avoid killing of pollinators. Pests and diseases should be controlled in time by spraying the recommended pesticides and concentrations. Spraying of NAA (300 ppm) during October-November is recommended. The practice of monoculture of a particular variety may be avoided. Particularly in case of Dashehari, 56% of other varieties should be planted in new plantations.
Mango Harvesting In western India, mango puts forth three growth flushes, the first are in the early spring (FebruaryMarch), the second during March-April and the third in the beginning of winter (October-November). In Bihar, the first growth noticed in early spring, the second in April-May and the third in July-August. In UP, only two flushes are produced, in March-April and July-August. In Punjab, as many as five flushes are produced from April-August. April and May flushes being found most heavy. In South India, mango usually gives two growth flushes, one in February-June and the other in October-November. In mango about 8-10 months old shoots under certain conditions cease to grow at least 4 months prior to blossoming. These shoots are capable of producing flower buds. Other shoots, which appear in subsequent flushes during late monsoon, do not come to flowering. These shoots flower during the next season after accumulating sufficient metabolites necessary for fruit-bud differentiation. Thus the fruits will be ready for harvest in April-May from a plant flowered during October-November. The major harvesting seasons in different states are:
States
Month of Harvest
Maharashtra Gujarat
April-May (Ratnagiri) May-June (other areas) May-June
Tamil Nadu
April-May
Andhra Pradesh
April-May (coastal districts) May (Rayalaseema)
Karnataka
May-July
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and other parts of North India
June-August
The mango fruits should be harvested at green mature stage. In case of Alphonso mangoes the fruit is considered to be mature when the shoulder outgrow the stem and the external colour becomes light green with a yellowish red blush. The harvest maturity in Dashehari and Langra cultivars reaches 12 weeks after fruit set, while in Chausa and Mallika it takes about 15 weeks. The best way to observe maturity in mango is the colour of the pulp, which turns cream to light yellow on maturity and hardening of stone. Mangoes are generally harvested at physiologically mature stage and ripened for optimum quality. Fruits are hand picked or plucked with a harvester. During harvesting, the latex trickles down the fruit surface from the point of detachment imparting a shabby appearance to it upon storage. Therefore the fruits should be harvested with a 10-20cm stem attached to it. For efficient harvesting of mangoes a simple, low cost and portable mango harvesting device has been designed and developed at the Central Institute for subtropical horticulture, Lucknow. Mango fruits are taken into the pouch and held between the divider and knife and as the device is pulled, the blade cuts the stalk. The fruits are
then conveyed through a nylon chute to collecting boxes without bringing down the device every time. This saves time and protects fruits from mechanical damage due to impact. It also protects operator's hand from the sap, which oozes out from the point of detachment. On an average, a man can harvest about 800 to 1000 fruits per hour with the help of this device, depending on the skill of the worker, fruiting and height of the tree. It consumes 50 per cent less energy as compared to local methods. Harvested mangoes should be placed in field containers of not more than 25 kg capacity for movement to the packing shed. The fruit should be kept in the shade and handled carefully at all times after harvest.
Mango Intercultural Operations Training and Pruning : Normally, mango trees do not require frequent pruning. However, the training of the plants in the initial stages is very essential to give them proper shape. Training becomes very important especially when the branches are placed at a low level. Therefore at least 75 cm of the main stem should be kept free from branches and the first leader/main branch is allowed to grow. The main branches should be spaced in such a way that they grow in different directions and are at least 20-25 cm apart. The branches, which exhibit tendency of crossing and rubbing each other, should be removed in the pencil thickness stage. Subsequently pruning is done only to remove the diseased and dead branches.
Weed Control : Immediately after planting the mango, the weed problem may not exist, but it is advisable to break the crust with hand hoe each time after 10-15 irrigations. However, subsequent hoeing may be done depending on weed growth in the basin. If the intercrops are not being raised in the pre-bearing stage due to some reasons, the area between the basins should be ploughed at least three times a year, i.e., pre-monsoon, post-monsoon and in the last week of November. Interculture operations are equally important for the bearing mango orchards. First ploughing should be done before the onset of rains. This will help in checking run-off losses and facilitate maximum retention of water in the soil. Orchard may be ploughed again after the rainy season in order to suppress weed growth and to break capillaries. Third ploughing may be done in the last week of November or first week of December with a view to check the population of mealy bugs. The young mango grafts often come to flowering soon after planting or even in the nursery bed. This is detrimental to their health and vigour, particularly when such flowers are allowed to set fruits. All inflorescences that may appear during the first four years should be removed immediately after their emergence.
Intercropping : Mango orchard provides an opportunity for utilizing the land space to its maximum during initial years of establishment. Crops like green gram, black gram, vegetable crops such as cabbage, cauliflower, potato, brinjal, cucumber, pumpkin, tinda etc. and spices like chilies can successfully be grown as intercrops. The partial shade loving crops like pineapple, ginger, turmeric, etc. can be grown in fullygrown orchards. In addition to field crops, some short duration, less exhaustive and dwarf type interfillers like papaya, guava etc. can also be grown till these do not interfere with the main mango crop.
Mango Irrigation Amount and frequency of irrigation to be given depends upon the type of soil, prevailing climatic conditions, especially rainfall and its distribution and age of the trees. No irrigation is required during the monsoon months unless there are long spells of drought. During the first year when the plants are very young with shallow root system, they should be watered even at 2-3 days interval in the dry season. Trees in the age group of 2-5 years should be irrigated at 4-5 days interval. The irrigation interval could be increased to 10-15 days for 5-8 years old plants during dry season. When trees are in full bearing stage, generally 2-3 irrigations are given after the fruit set which results in increased fruitset, decreased fruit drop, and improvement in fruit size and fruit quality. Frequent irrigation 2-3 months prior to flowering season should be avoided. It is advisable to irrigate the mango plants in basins around them to economizing water use. The intercrops need to be irrigated independently as per their specific requirements.
Mango Fertilizer Requirements Manuring mango plant starts right from planting operation in the orchard. Liberal applications of welldecomposed organic manure can be given each year to create proper soil physical environment and on account of several other beneficial effects. Fertilizer Dose/Plant /Year Age of the P (g) Plant (Years) FYM (kg) N (g) K (g) 1
5
100
50
100
2
10
200
100
200
3
15
300
200
300
4
20
400
300
400
5
25
500
400
500
6
30
600
500
600
7
35
700
500
700
10th onwards
50
1000
500
1000
Entire dose of the FYM and half dose of N, P and K should be given during monsoon while the balance half is applied during the end of monsoon. Before the application of fertilizers, the weeds should be removed from basins. The mixture of recommended dose of fertilizers should be broadcast under the canopy of plant leaving about 50 cm from tree trunk in old trees. The applied fertilizer should be amalgamated well up to the depth of 15 cm. To increase fertilizer use efficiency, fertilizers should be applied in 25 cm wide and 25-30 cm deep trenches dug around the tree 2 m away from trunk. The application of micronutrients is not recommended as a routine. Need based supplementation's are essential when these become limiting factor for production. It is advisable to apply micronutrients through foliar sprays.
Mango Pests Hopper (Idioscopus clypealis, Idioscopus nitidulus and Amritodus atkinson) : Of all the mango pests, hoppers are considered as the most serious and widespread pest throughout the country. Large number of nymphs and adult insects puncture and suck the sap of tender parts, thereby reducing the vigour of the plants. Heavy puncturing and continuous draining of the sap causes curling and drying of the infested tissue. They also damage the crop by secreting a sweet sticky substance which facilitate the development of the fungus Maliola managiferae, commonly known as sooty mould affecting adversely the photosynthetic activities of the leaves. Hopper population shoots up in February-April and June-August. Control : Three sprays of 0.15% Carbaryl or 0.04% Monocrotophos or 0.05% Phosphamidon or 0.05% Methyl Parathion are effective in controlling the hoppers. First spray should be given at the early stage of panicle formation. The second spray at full-length stage of panicles but before full bloom and the third spray after the fruits set at pea size stage are recommended. Biological control agents such as the predators Mallada boninensis and Chrysopa lacciperda, the egg parasite Polynema sp. and a preparation of the fungus Beauveria bassiana are important and useful in controlling this pest.
Mealy Bugs (Drosicha mangiferae) : Nymphs and adults suck the plant sap and reduce the vigour of the plant. Excessive and continuous draining of plant sap causes wilting and finally drying of infested tissue. They also secrete honey dew, a sticky substance, which facilitate the development of the fungus Maliola mangiferae (sooty mould). The female adult crawls down the tree in the month of April-May and enter in the cracks in the soil for laying eggs. Just after hatching, the minute newly hatched pink to brown coloured nymphs crawl up the tree. After climbing up the tree, they start sucking the sap of tender plant parts. They are considered more important because they infest the crop during the flowering season. Control : Flooding of orchards with water in the month of October kills the eggs. Ploughing the orchards in the month of November exposes the eggs to suns heat. Polythene bands of 400 gauge and 25 cm width fastened around the tree trunk have been found effective barrier to stop the ascent of nymphs to the trees. The band should be fastened well in advance before the hatching of eggs, i.e., during November- December. Application of 250 g per tree of Methyl Parathion 2% dust in soil around the trunk kills the newly hatched nymphs. Spraying of 0.05% Monocrotophos or 0.2% Carbaryl or 0.05% Methyl Parathion is useful in controlling young nymphs of the mealy bug. The entomogenous fungus Beauveria bassiana is found to be an effective bioagent in controlling the nymphs of this pest.
Inflorescence Midge (Erosomyia indica) : The midge infests and damages the crop in three different stages. The first attack is at the floral bud burst stage. The eggs are laid on newly emerging inflorescence; the larvae tunnel the axis and thus destroy the inflorescence completely. The mature larvae make small exit holes in the axis of the inflorescence and slip down into the soil for pupation. When the tender fruits are attacked they slowly turn yellow and finally drop. The third attack is on tender new leaves encircling the inflorescence. The most damaging one is the first attack in which the entire inflorescence is destroyed even before flowering and fruiting. The inflorescence shows stunted growth and its axis bends at the entrance point of the larvae. Control : As the larvae pupate in the soil, ploughing of the orchard expose pupating larvae to sun helps in killing them. Soil application of Heptachlor or Methyl Parathion @ 25 to 30 kg/ha kills pupating larvae in the soil. Spraying of 0.05% Fenetrothion or 0.045% Dimethoate at the bud burst stage of the inflorescence is effective.
Fruitfly (Daccus dorsalis;, D. zonatus and D. correctus) : The oriental fruitfly is one of the most serious pests of mango in the country, which has created problem in the export of fresh fruits. The female punctures the outer wall of the mature fruits with the help of its pointed ovipositor and insert eggs in small clusters inside the mesocarp of mature fruits. After hatching, the larva feeds on the pulp of fruit which appears normal from outside, but drops down finally. The mature maggots fall down into the soil for pupation. The emergence of fruitfly starts from April onwards and the maximum population is recorded during MayJuly, which coincides with fruit maturity. The population declines slowly from August to September after that it is non-existent up to March. Control : Bait sprays of Carbaryl (0.2%)+protein hydrolysate (0.1%) or molasses starting at first week of April and repeated once after 21 days or hanging traps containing 100 ml water emulsion of Methyl Euginol (0.1%) + Malathion (0.1%) during fruiting is effective. As per the experiments conducted in IIHR, 0 Bangalore against fruit fly, hot water treatment at 48 C for one hour gave total control in Alphonso and Totapuri.
Scale Insects : (Pulvinanapolygonata, Aspidiotus destructor, Ceroplastis sp. and Rastococcus sp) : The nymphs and adult scales suck the sap of the leaves and other tender parts and reduce the vigour of the plants. They also secrete honeydew, which helps in the development of sooty mould on leaves and other tender parts of the tree. In case of severe scale infestation, growth and fruit bearing capacity of the tree is affected adversely. Control : Pruning of the heavily infested plant parts and their immediate destruction followed by two sprays of Monocrotophos (0.04%) or Dimethoate (0.06%) at an interval of 20 days is very effective in controlling the scale population.
Shoot Borer (Chlumetia transversa) : This pest is found all over the country. Larvae of this moth bore into the young shoot resulting in dropping of leaves and wilting of shoots. Larvae also bore into the inflorescence stalk. Female moths lay egg on tender leaves. After hatching, young larvae enter the midrib of leaves and then enter into young shoots through the growing points by tunneling downwards. Control : The attacked shoots may be clipped off and destroyed. Spraying of Carbaryl (0.2%) or Quinalphos (0.5%) or Monocrotophos (0.04%) at fortnightly intervals from the commencement of new flush gives effective control of the pest. A total of 2 to 3 sprays may be given depending on the intensity of infestation.
Bark Eating Caterpillar (Indarbella quadrinotata) : The old, shady and neglected orchards are more prone to attack by this pest. Larvae of this moth feed on the bark and weaken the tree. A single female lays about 300-400 eggs in batches on the bark. The caterpillar spins brown silken web on the tree, which consists of their excreta and wood particles. Larvae also make shelter tunnels inside the stem in which they rest. Larvae generally feed from April to December. Control : Removal of the webs from tree trunks and injecting emulsion of Monocrotophos (0.05%) or DDVP (0.05%) in each hole and plugging them with mud can control the pest.
Stem Borer (Batocera rufomaculata) : The grub of this beetle causes damage as it feeds inside the stems, boring upward resulting in drying of branches and in severe cases attacked stem is killed. Eggs are laid either in the slits of tree trunk or in the cavities in main branches and stems covered with a viscous fluid. Pupation takes place within the stem. Beetle emerges in July-August Control : Cleaning the tunnel with a hard wire, pouring kerosene oil, creosote, petrol, crude oil or formalin and subsequently closing entrance of the tunnel with mud or plugging it with cotton wool soaked in any of the above substances kills the grub.
Shoot Gall Psylla (Apsylla cistellata) : It is a very serious pest of mango in many parts of India, particularly in Tarai region of U.P., north Bihar and West Bengal. This pest creates green conical galls in leaf axis. The activity of the pest starts from August. The galls dry out after emergence of adults in March. The adult females lay eggs in the midribs as well as in lateral axis of new leaves. Nymphs emerge from eggs during August-September and crawl to the adjacent buds to suck cell sap. As a result of feeding, the buds develop into hard conical green galls. The galls are usually seen during September-October. Consequently, there is no fruit set. Control : The galls with nymphs inside should be collected and destroyed to prevent carryover of the pest. The pest can effectively be controlled by spraying of Monocrotophos (0.05%), Parathion (0.04%), Metasystox (0.1%) or Quinalphos (0.05%) at 2 week intervals starting from the middle of August. Repeated use of same chemical for every spray should be avoided.
Leaf Webber (Ortbaga euadrusalis) : The infestation starts from the month of April and continues up to December. Eggs are laid singly or in clusters within silken webbings on leaves. Upon hatching, the caterpillars feed on leaf surface by scrapping. Later, they make web on tender shoots and leaves together and feed within. Old orchards with lesser space between tree canopy have more infestation than open orchards. Control : Pruning of infested shoots and their burning in the month of April to July is found effective. Raking of the soil around the base of the trees in January, after the last generation has pupated, helps in checking the pest population. Three sprays starting from the last week of July at 15 days interval with Carbaryl (0.2%) or Monocrotophos (0.05%) or Quinalphos (0.05%) effectively controls the pest.
Stone Weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae) : It is a common pest of mango in southern India. Varieties with high TSS and sugar such as Alphonso, Bangalora, Neelum, etc. are more prone to attack by this pest. Female lay eggs under the rind of ripening fruits. Newly emerged grubs bore through the pulp, feed on seed coat and later cause damage to cotyledons. Pupation takes place inside the seed. Pulp is discoloured around the affected portion. Control : The pest population can be kept under check by destroying the affected fruits and exposing the hibernating weevils by digging the soil. Spraying the trees with Fenthion (0.01%) is found effective. In Alphonso and Banganapalli, a single spray of Monocrotophos 36 EC 1.5ml/litre of water at marble stage gave 100% and 97.5% control of stone weevil respectively. In Totapuri, Carbaryl 50 % WDP @ 4 g/ litre of water is effective in controlling stone weevil.
Mango Post Harvest Technology Grading : If the fruits are graded according to their size, weight, colour and maturity, both the producer and consumer are benefited. It has been observed that bigger size fruits take 2-4 days more time in ripening than smaller ones. Hence, packaging of smaller fruits with larger ones should be avoided to achieve uniform ripening. Immature, overripe, damaged and diseased fruits should be discarded. For exports, the stem of the fruits is cut approximately at a length of 1 cm from the fruit with the help of sharp scissors. Then the fruits are kept up side down for two hours so that the latex flows out from the fruit completely. For this operation special knitted pallets should be prepared to keep the fruit up side down. Utmost care should be taken while cutting the stem of the fruit so that latex drop does not fall on the fruit. The export quality mangoes are categorised into three grades according to the fruit weight viz., Category-I (200-250 g), Category-II (251-300 g) and Category-III (300-350 g). Mangoes do not normally need any post-harvest treatment for local marketing. It is a general practice to harvest fruits early in the season (premature stage) to capture early market. These fruits do not ripe uniformly without any ripening aid. Such fruits could be ripened uniformly by dipping in 750 ppm Etherel (1.8 ml/litre) in hot water at 52¹2°C for 5 minutes within 4-8 days under ambient conditions. Mature fruits can similarly be ripened with lower doses of Etherel for uniform colour. Fruits for urban supermarkets may need to be washed if they are heavily contaminated with latex or dust. On a commercial scale, mangoes for export are sometimes dipped in hot water containing fungicide for the control of this disease. The treatment is not appropriate for small-scale operations. The post harvest losses in mangoes have been estimated in the range of 25-40% from harvesting to consumption stage. If proper methods of harvesting, transportation and storage are adopted, such losses could be minimized
Packaging : Usually, fruits are placed in layers one above the other, with a straw padding in-between. Temperatures between 19-21°C during ripening improve the quality of fruits. Wooden boxes are commonly used for packaging and transportation of mango fruits. Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow has designed and developed CFB Boxes of 5 kg and 10 kg capacity for packing and shipping of mango fruits successfully as an alternative to traditional nailed wooden boxes. The use of CFB boxes for packaging for the domestic market is also the need of the hour due to scarcity of the wood and environmental concerns of the country. For export purposes, CFB boxes are already in extensive use. Paper scraps, newspapers, etc., are commonly used as cushioning material for the packaging of fruits which prevent them from getting bruised and spoiled during storage and transportation. Polythene (LDPE) lining has also been found beneficial as it maintains humidity, which results in lesser shrinkage during storage. Wrapping of fruits individually (Unipack) with newspaper or tissue paper and packing in honeycomb nets helps in getting optimum ripening with reduced spoilage.
Storage : Storage is essential for extending the consumption period of fruits, regulating their supply to the market and also for transportation to long distances. The mature green fruits can be kept at room temperature for about-4-10 days depending upon the variety. For exports, the harvested fruits are pre-cooled to 10-12째C and then stored at an appropriate temperature. The fruits of Dashehari, Mallika and Amrapali should be stored at 12째C, Langra at 14째C and Chausa at 8째C with 85-90% relative humidity. The fruits could be stored for 3-4 weeks in good condition at low temperature. Controlled atmosphere (CO2 3-4 % and O2 4-5%) storage of Alphonso mango, under a continuous flow system held at 13-150C indicated that Alphonso could be kept for 30 days with a post storage ripening period of 4 to 5 days.
Transport : For local market the harvested fruits are packed in wooden boxes/CFB and transported by trucks.
Cool Chain : Cool chain is essential during the transport of export quality commodity all the way from the farm to the customer. This helps in maintaining the temperature inside the box at the same low level as in the cold storage. The various stages of the cool chain are : 1. Coldstore at the farm. 2. Refrigerated truck from farm to the airport 3. Coldstore at the airport. 4. Building up of the pallet in a coldstore at the airport. 5. Loading the aircrafts directly from the coldstore in a short time. 6. Cargo aircraft maintains coldstore temperature in hold. 7. Off loading direct into a coldstore in the receiving country. Refrigerated truck to the customers.
Mango Planting Prior to planting, field should be deeply ploughed, harrowed and levelled. The planting distance varies according to variety, the fertility level of the soil and general growth conditions in the area. Where the growth is excessive, the distance should be 12 x 12m, but in the dry zones where the growth is less, it can be regulated to about 10 x 10m. For high density planting, the distance can be 5 x 3 or 5 x 2.5 or 3 x 2.5 or 2.5 x 2.5m. In locations where the soil is loamy and deep, pits of 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5m be dug at desired distances. However, in shallow and hill soils, the pits should be of 1 x 1 x1 m size. The pits should be filled with the original soil mixed with 50 kg well rotten FYM. In the top two-third portion, the proportion of the manure and soil may be kept as 1:3. If the soil is having infestation of white ants, 200-250 g of Aldrex or BHC 5 per cent dust may also be mixed. The pits should invariably be filled before the rainy season, so that there is maximum settling down before the advent of heavy rainfall. The best time for planting all over India is during the monsoon season when the humidity level is high. In the area of heavy rainfall, the best time of planting mango is the end of the rainy season. In tracts where the rainfall is less, the planting can be done in the early part of the monsoon season for better establishment. The planting should be done in the evening. If the sky is overcast, planting can be done during daytime also. The plant with earth ball intact should be taken out of the polythene bag or pot. The plant can then be placed in the centre of the pit by excavating as much soil as necessary to accommodate the earth ball or root ball. The moist soil of the pit is then pressed all around the root ball to complete the planting process. A small basin is then made and the plant is properly watered. The planting should not be done so deep as to bury the graft-union in the soil or so high as to expose the upper roots. It is always better to adjust it at the same height/depth at which it was in the pot/polythene bag.
Mango Propagation Mango can be raised from seed or propagated vegetatively. Several methods of vegetative propagation have been tried with varying degrees of success. Propagation from seed, though easy and cheap, is unable to perpetuate characters of the parent tree because most commercial varieties in India are cross-pollinated and monoembryonic. Plants also take more time to bear fruit. However, it is essential to raise seedlings to be used as rootstocks.
Stone Grafting : Stone/epicotyl grafting is a simple, cheap and quick method of mango propagation with a success rate of 75-80%. For this purpose, stones should be sown in June-July on raised beds of size 1x3 m. the beds should e prepared by mixing soil and FYM in the proportion of 2:1. After germination, seedlings with tender stems having coppery leaves are lifted with stones still attached. The roots and stones are dipped in O.1 per cent Carbendazirn solution for 5 minutes after washing the soil. The seedling stems are headed back leaving 6-8 cm long stem. A 4-6 cm longitudinal cut is made running down through the middle of the stem. A wedge shaped cut starting on both sides is made on the lower part of scion stick. The scion stick should be 4-5 months old and 10-15 cm long containing plumpy terminal buds. The scion stick is then inserted in the cleft of the seedlings and tied with polythene strips. The grafts are then planted in polyethylene bags containing potting mixture. The bags are then kept in the shade protecting from heavy rain. The scion stars sprouting 15-20 days after grafting. Care should be taken to remove the sprouts on the rootstocks below the graft union during this period. July is the most suitable month for stone grafting.
Soft-Wood Grafting : This method of grafting is done when the rootstock is overgrown and thus not suitable for stone grafting. Normally in this method, seedlings of 8-10 months old are selected. The grafting is done on newly emerged flush. The scion wood to be used is defoliated 10 days prior to the grafting and has same thickness as that of terminal shoot. The method of grafting is similar to stone grafting. July and August are the best months for soft-wood grafting.
Inarching : The method of inarching or approach grafting is quite cumbersome and time consuming, but it is still the leading method for commercial propagation of mango plants. The method consists of uniting the selected shoot (scion) of a desired parent tree (mother plant) with the potted or transplanted seedling (rootstock) by approach grafting. For this purpose, about one-year-old seedlings are most suitable when they attain a height of about 30-45 cm and thickness ranging from 0.75 to 1.5 cm. These seedlings are either grown in pots or under the mother plant from which the grafts are to be prepared. Generally, one-year-old twigs of the scion tree about 60 cm in length and nearly of the same thickness as that of the stock is chosen for grafting. Young and non-bearing trees should not be selected as mother plants.
A thin slice of bark and wood, about 5 cm in length, 7.5 mm width and 2 mm deep, is removed by means of a sharp grafting knife from the stem of the stock as well as from the scion branch. The cuts thus made should be absolutely flat, clean, boat shaped, even and smooth. The ends of these cuts should be round and not angular. The cut surfaces of both, i.e., stock and scion are made to coincide facing each other so that there remains no hollow space between the two. Polythene/alkathene strips of about 1.5 cm in width are tied around the union. After about one month of operation, the scion below the graft union and stock above the graft union should be given light "V" shape cuts at weekly interval in such a way that the grafts can finally be detached while giving the fourth cut. In the last stage, the top of the stock above graft union should also be removed completely. Inarching should be done during the active growth period. The end of the monsoon in heavy rainfall areas and early monsoons in the light rainfall areas is the best period for inarching.
Veneer Grafting : This method of propagation possesses promise for mass scale commercial propagation. The method is simple and can be adopted with success. The rootstocks as mentioned for inarching are suitable for this method also. For conducting this grafting operation, a downward and inward 30-40 mm long cut is made in the smooth area of the stock at a height of about 20 cm. At the base of cut, a small shorter cut is given to intersect the first so as to remove the piece of wood and bark. The scion stick is given a long slanting cut on one side and a small short cut on the other so as to match the cuts of the stock. The scion is inserted in the stock so that the cambium layers comes on the longer side. The graft union is then tied with polythene strip as recommended for inarching. After the scion remains green for more than 10 days, the rootstock should be clipped in stages. The scion wood to be used for veneer grafting requires proper preparation. The desired shoots should be defoliated at least one week prior to grafting so that the dormant buds in the axil of leaves become swollen.
Mango Soil & Climate Mango is very well adapted to tropical and subtropical climates. It thrives well in almost all the regions 0 0 of the country from sea level to an altitude of 600 m. The ideal temperature range for mango is 24 -30 C during the growing season, along with high humidity. A rainfall range of 890-1,015 mm in a year is considered as ideal for growing mangoes. However, mango can be grown in regions of both heavy (2540 mm) or scanty (254 mm) rainfall. Dry weather before blossoming is conducive to profuse flowering. Rain during flowering is detrimental to the crop as it interferes with pollination. Fog, cloudy weather at the time of flowering from November to February results in poor setting of fruits and favours pest and disease incidence. Mango grows well on wide variety of soils, such as lateritic, alluvial, sandy loam and sandy. The loamy, alluvial, well-drained, aerated and deep soils (2-2.5 m) rich in organic matter with a pH range of 5.5-7.5 are ideal for mango cultivation. The water table should be around 3 m and soils with high water table are unsuitable for mango.
Mango Varieties Alphonso (Happus) State : Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. Fruit medium in size, ovate oblique in shape, orange yellow in colour; juice is moderate-abundant; excellent keeping quality, good for pulping and canning; mainly exported as fresh fruit to other countries; Flesh develops spongy tissue.
Bangalora (Totapuri) State : Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Fruits medium-large, oblong shaped with pointed base with golden yellow colour; good keeping quality; used for processing; heavy and regular bearing variety; susceptible to bacterial spot.
Banganapalli (Baneshan, Safeda) State : Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Variety suited for dry areas; fruit large sized, obliquely oval in shape, golden yellow in colour; good keeping quality; good for canning; biennial in habit
Bombai (Malda) State : Bihar, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. Variety is alternate bearer; fruit medium, ovate and yellow in colour; keeping quality medium.
Bombay Green State : Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate oblong with spinach green colour; keeping quality is medium; early season variety; biennial in habit Highly susceptible to both vegetative and floral malformation.
Dashehari State : Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. Best varieties of the country; fruit size is small-medium, shape is elongated with yellow fruit colour, flesh is fibreless; good keeping quality; mainly used for table purpose; susceptible to mango malformation. Dashehari-51- regular bearing and yielding clone of Dashehari.
Fernandin State: Goa. Fruit size medium-large, fruit shape oval to obliquely oval and fruit colour is yellow with a blush of red on shoulders; medium keeping quality; mostly used for table purpose.
Himsagar State: West Bengal and Bihar. Fruit is medium sized ovate fruit with yellow colour; good keeping quality; early season variety and mostly used for table purpose.
Kesar State: Gujarat. Fruit medium oblong with a red blush on the shoulders; good keeping quality; ideal for pulping and juice concentrates; early season variety.
Kishen Bhog State : West Bengal and Bihar. Fruit medium oval oblique with yellow colour; keeping quality is good; bearing heavy.
Langra State : Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Punjab. Trees vigorous and spreading; fruit medium, ovate in shape with lettuce green colour; poor keeping quality; skin is very thin and pulp is very sweet; alternate bearing variety mostly used for table purpose.
Mankur State : Goa and Maharashtra. The variety develops black spots on the skin in rainy season. Fruit is medium ovate and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good but keeping quality is poor.
Mulgoa State : Tamil Nadu, Karnataka. Fruit is large roundish-oblique in shape and yellow in colour; high fruit quality and good keeping quality.
Neelum State : Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Orissa. Fruit is medium ovate-oblique in shape and saffron yellow in colour; good keeping quality; high yielding and regular bearing; ideal variety for transporting to distant places. This variety is mostly used for table purpose.
Samarbehisht Chausa State : Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. Fruit large, ovate to oval oblique in shape and light yellow in colour, flesh fibrous; medium keeping quality; extremely sweet in taste; alternate bearing variety; shows apical dominance. It is mostly grown for table and processing purpose.
Suvernarekha State : Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. Fruit medium ovate oblong fruit, green in colour with prominent red blush on the shoulders; good keeping quality; bearing is heavy.
Vanraj State : Gujarat. Fruit medium, ovate oblong in shape with a blush of jasper red on the shoulders; good keeping quality.
Hybrid Varieties Malika (Neelum X Dashehari) Realising Institute : Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi. Fruit large, oblong elliptical yellow in colour; fruit and keeping quality is good and is mostly used for table purpose
Amrapali (Dashehari X Neelum) Realising Institute : Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi. Dwarf, regular bearing and late maturing variety; suitable for high density planting; flesh is fibreless; average yield 16 tonnes/hectare.
Ratna (Neelum X Alphonso) Realising Institute : Konkan Krishi Vidyapith, Maharashtra. Tree moderately vigorous, precocious, fruits are medium sized, attractive in colour and free from spongy tissue
Sindhu (Ratna back-crossed with Alphonso) Realising Institute : Konkan Krishi Vidyapith, Maharashtra. Regular bearer, fruits medium sized, fibreless, free from spongy tissue with high pulp to stone ratio and very thin and small stone.
Arka Aruna (Banganapalli X Alphonso) Realising Institute : Indian Institute of Horticulture Research (IIHR), Bangalore. Plants are dwarf regular bearing; Fruits oblong; skin is thin, rough and dull yellow in colour with slight red blush; pulp is soft, pale yellow in colour; free from spongy tissue and fibre, stone is small 35g, TSS 200 Brix; average fruit weight is 500g. The keeping quality is moderate and is mostly used for table purpose.
Arka Neelkiran (Alphoso x Neelum) Realising Institute : Indian Institute of Horticulture Research (IIHR), Bangalore. Tree is semi-vigorous in nature; fruit is elliptical, medium size golden yellow in colour, average weight 270-280g; free from fibre and spongy tissue; keeping quality is good.
Exotic varieties Pakistan Table Purpose Fazli, Suvarnarekha, Gulab Khas, Langra, Alphonso. Brazil Table & Processing purpose Embrapa Roxa 141, Embrapa Alfa 142. USA Table & Processing purpose Haden, Irwin, Tommy Atkins, Keitt. West Indies Table purpose Julie Peter.