*
Plant Genetic Resources in Indian Perspective Theory and Parctices
BP SINGH Former Head, Germplasm Exchange Division National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi
I
and
UMESH SRIVASTAVA Indian Council of Agricultural Research Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan-ll, Pusa, New Delhi (Formerly Principal Scientist, Plant Exploration and Collection Division National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi)
I
ยง
OTfpyRQT
ICAR
Published by
Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture Indian Council of Agricultural Research Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan, Pusa, New Delhi
First Printed : Reprinted :
Project Director (DKMA)
March 2004 October 2013
DR RAMESHWAR SINGH
Chief Production Officer : DR V K BHARTI Assistant Chief Technical Officer : ASHOK SHASTRI
All Rights Reserved Š2013, Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi ISBN : 978-81-7164-148-2
Price : Rs 500
Published by Dr Rameshwar Singh, Project Director, Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan, Pusa, New Delhi and Printed at M/s Chandu Press, D-97, Shakarpur, Delhi-110092
-J
Contents
v
Foreword
vii
Preface
x
Acknowledgements 1. Plant Genetic Resources- Its Scope and Management
1-53
Scope, 2
Agro-biodiversity, 3 Cultivated plants, 9 Endanagered plants and animal species, 9 Loss of Plant Genetic Resources, 10 Diversity and domestication and of crop species, 13 Agrobiodiversity of crop plants, 22 Ethnic agro-ecosystems and Germplasm diversity, 24 Folk domestication, 25 Under-utilized and Under-exploited Plants, 28 Agrobiodiversity - Concerns and Prospects, 3 1 Search for Genes is endless, 32 National PGR activities and Management, 34 Regulatory mechanism for PGR management, 35 Gaps in PGR activities and constraints, 38 National Approach, 39 Issues related to PGR management, 40 Mechanism of regulation of agrobiodiversity, 41 Intellectual Property Rights and PGR, 42 Summary, 48
2. Plant Domestication, Centre of Origin and Crop Plant Diversity Change from Nomadic life to settled agriculture, 55 Dynamics of Plant Domestication, 56 The contributions of N.I. Vavilov to plant breeding, 58 Nuclear centres and region of diversity, 64 Modification and Criticisms of Vavilov’s Gene Centre Theory, 65 Orchard Gardens as Sources of Diversity, 72 Plant diversity in Indian gene centre, 73
54-86
3. History of Plant Genetic Resources activities in India Chronology of the PGR discipline, 88 Global PGR activities, 88
87-96
•xi-
CONTENTS
National PGR activities and system, 88 Instruments of PGR management, 92 Component areas of activities on PGR, 93 4. Plant Germplasm Diversity in Indian Gene Centre Phytogeographical zones of India, 98 Agro-ecological zones of India, 98 Plant Diversity in Indian gene centre, 103 Diversity in wild relatives, 108 Diversity in Medicinal and Aromatic plants, 115 Diversity in forest trees, 116 Indigenous ornamental plants, 118
5. Wild relatives of crop plants Species Diversity, 122 Phyto-geographical analysis, 123 Ecology and Natural Distribution, 126 Collecting wild species, 128 Wild relatives and their crossability aspects,130 Utilizing wild species for crop improvement, 13 1
97-119
120-138
6. Plant Germplasm Exchange and Quarantine Regulations 139- 228 Major International Agricultural Research Centres for PGR exchange, 140 Principles of Plant Introduction, 166 Plant Introduction and Exchange in India, 168 List of some Primary Introductions, 170 List of some Secondary Introductions, 182 EXIM (Export/Import) Policy, 188 Principles and Procedures of Plant Quarantine in India, 193 Domestic Plant Quarantine, 195 Plant Introduction and Quarantine agencies in India, 199 Quarantine for germplasm at the NBPGR, 199 Prohibition of export of plants, plant portions and their derivatives and extracts, 200 Import of seeds of coarse cereals, oilseeds and pulses, 203 Plant Quarantine screening at the port of entry, 203 Post-entry quarantine and role of designated inspection agencies, 204 List of designated inspection authorities notified under the plants, fruits and seeds (Regulation of import into India) order 1989, 205 Import of Germplasm, 209 Plant Quarantine and Safe Exchange of Transgenic Planting Material, 212 Research prioritization in the emerging scenario, 2 18 Evolving National Plant Quarantine System, 218 Transgenics/GMO (Genetically Modified Plants), 223
• xii •
1
CONTENTS
229-324 7. Plant Exploration and Germplasm Collection Need for collection, 230 Planning and Logistics, 232 Reasons for collecting germplasm, 234 Before setting out: Technical planning, 237 Preparation before departure, 239 Technical aspects, 241 Guidelines for exploration activities, 248 Type of collecting missions, 249 Distribution of sampling sites within the target area, 254 Concept of coarse and fine grid, 255 Collecting tree-crop species, 255 Collecting wild species in tree species, 256 Collecting indigenous or primitive cultivars, 256 Collecting vegetatively propagated crops, 257 Theoretical Consideration, 259 Considerations in sampling of self and cross-pollinated crops, 263 Sampling of vegetatively propagated crops, 265 Molecular marker based collection strategies, 269 In-vitro method of germplasm collection, 274 Sampling procedures and strategy- Some considerations, 281 Collecting wild species, 281 Collecting for taxonomic, phylogenetic and biosystematic research, 283 Collecting for genetic diversity study and conservation, 284 Collecting for use in a breeding programme, 285 Collecting pollen, 286 Collecting tree crops germplasm, 287 Seed cleaning and treatment, 294 Herbarium specimen collection methodology, 295 National Herbarium of Crop Plants, 304 Daily routine to be followed, 305 Do’s and Don’t’s during Exploration, 306 Difficulties encountered during Exploration and Collection, 307 Report writing on germplasm explorations, 308 Careless Collecting, 311 Conclusion: The Ingredients of Success, 3 11 International Code of Conduct for Plant Germplasm Collecting and Transfer, 313
8. Ethnobotany in relation to Plant Genetic Resources
Historical Background, 325 Chronology of developmental history of ethnobotany, 326 Tribals, 329
• xiii •
325-347
CONTENTS
Subdisciplines and interdisciplinary approaches, 329 Method for ethnobotanical studies, 330 Collecting Indigenous Knowledge (IK), 335 Use of indigenous knowledge in germplasm collecting, 335 Traditional Agriculture vis-a-vis Role in domestication and conservation of native plant genetic resources, 343 9. Germplasm Evaluation
350-408
Components of Germplasm Evaluation, 350 Methodology, 355 Traits, 357 Types of characters and measurement data, 358 Some practical considerations, 360 Regeneration of Germplasm, 362 Biochemical and molecular techniques for characterization and evaluation, 368 Information Management of Evaluation Data, 384 Concept of core collection, 385 Concept of pre-breeding and Genetic enhancement, 390 Genetic variation in crop plants and Management of Germplasm collections, 392 Genetic manipulation in plant breeding, 395 10. Documentation of PGR Information 409-427
Information System, 410 Basic Unit of Information, 412 Descriptors: Scoring, coding and recording, 412 Dealing with mixed or heterogeneous data, 413 Multimedia descriptors, 414 Internet technologies related to germplasm databases, 414 Global efforts, 416 National efforts, 422 Information for the curators, 427 11. Germplasm Conservation 428-463 Germplasm Conservation - Related issues/concems, 429 Plant Genetic Resources Conservation, 430 From Domestication to National Gene Banks, 437 PGR Conservation in Gene Banks and Indian Status, 439 National Gene Bank - Guidelines, 441 Network of active/working collections, 441 Cryo Bank (-165°C/-196°C), 442 In vitro Bank, 442 Field gene banks, 444 National Herbarium of cultivated plants, 444
• xiv •
CONTENTS
Community Gene Banks, 445 Conservation in traditional farming systems, 445 Animal Genetic Resources, 446 Fish Genetic Resources, 446 Agriculturally Important Microorganism, 447 Conservation depends on Farmers, 448 Organizations responsible for conservation in India, 448 Genebanks, 449 Strategies for conservation, 453 Technical approaches to in-vitro storage, 454 Other approaches for conservation, 455 Conservation of pollen, 457 Cryopreservation techniques, 457 Clonal repositories/field genebank, 458 On-farm conservation, 459 Home gardens, 461 Other conservation strategies, 461 464-520 12. Global Scenario and Emerging Plant Genetic Resources Issues The rise of the plant genetic resources conservation movement, 466 Support to National Programmes, 468 Restoration of Genetic Resources, 469 Training in genetic resources, 469 Use of plant genetic resources, 470 System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP), 472 System-wide Information Network for Genetic Resources (SINGER), 472 Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, 474 Emerging PGR Issues, 478 Global scenario, 479 National action plan, 483 Plant quarantine order 2003, 485 Biotechnology and Germplasm use, 488 Biosafety, 489 Public/social acceptance of transgenics, 489 Institutional mechanism/Provision for Biosafety, 489 National responsibilities assigned by the CBD, 490 Handling of biotechnology and distribution of its benefits, 490 Biosafety protocol, 491 Overall Framework required to regulate Biosafety, 494 Evaluation of transgenic plants, 495 Evaluation for biosafety, 495 Evaluation for agronomic performance, 496 Some Issues, 499 IPR in Plant Biotechnology, 502 Terminator technology and their implications, 506 •xv*
CONTENTS
Registration on Plant Germplasm : Indian Scenario, 512 Biotechnology and biosafety, 517 13. Plant Genetic Resources in Indian Perspective - An Overview 521-538 Diversity under domestication, 524 Plant Genetic Diversity in India, 525 Depletion of genetic diversity, 526 Conservation of Genetic Resources, 526 Sustainable use of genetic resources, 529 Paradigm shift, 531 Debate over plant genetic resources issues, IPRs, Farmers’ Rights etc., 531 Two pronged approach to management, 533 National priorities and concerns, 534 Some priority action points, 535
Appendix I Appendix II Appendix III Appendix IV Appendix V
Cultivated crops of India The Protection of Plant varieties and Farmers’ Rights Bill, 2001 The Biological Diversity Bill, 2000 Biological Diversity Act, 2002 International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Appendix VI : Convention of Biological Diversity Appendix VII : Glossary
539 561 600 634 653
Acronyms Index
703 709
: : : : :
•xvi
•
674 696
I
Plant Qenetic Resource; Its Scope and Management
1
T)LANT genetic resources are the key component of any agricultural production system— A indeed, of any ecosystem. Without it, no natural, evolutionary adjustment of the system (agricultural or natural) to changing environmental andbiotic conditions would be possible. Farmers would not be able to spread the risk of crop failure or experiment with and refine crop varieties to suit their tastes and changing needs. Agricultural science and forestry would not have the basic raw materials for their introduction, domestication and improvement programmes. For development to be sustainable, conservation and use of genetic diversity must be at its core. Because the world is dynamic, this need for diversity is continuous. It is also increasing, because the number of people that must be fed, kept warm, housed and cured is increasing. For thousands of years, wild habitats and farmers with their fields, orchards and home gardens have been sufficient to ensure the conservation, within the framework of change dictated by natural and artificial selection, of the vital natural resource that is the genetic diversity of plants. However, these systems have recently come under increasing pressure from demographic, socio-economic and technological change. In some parts of the world, they have been under such pressure for hundreds of years. The results have been habitat fragmentation and even destruction, the abandonment of traditional agricultural and natural resources management practices and the replacement of farmers’ landraces by modern cultivars. Species have always become extinct and landraces gone out of fashion, of course, but the current pace is unprecedented, and variety is being replaced by uniformity, rather than more, different variety. The result is a loss of genetic material, irreversible erosion of genetic diversity. Active measures both institutional and grass roots, to ensure the conservation of plant genetic resources have thus taken on an increasing urgency of late. India has long been involved in the introduction, collection, maintenance and utilization of plant genetic resources. The last 50 years in particular have been instrumental in the development of these activities initiated by the late Dr Harbhajan Singh and Dr B.P. Pal. Dr Harbhajan Singh was possibly the most distinguished plant explorer and is credited with giving a distinct identity to the discipline of plant genetic resources in India. At present, under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), these activities are being pursued at different crop-based institutes; the crop coordinated programmes etc. The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, is the nodal organization for undertaking and coordinating all activities related to plant genetic resources. It has developed a strong Indian National Plant Genetic Resources System (IN-PGRS) and has taken several initiatives, involving different stakeholders, in the area of plant genetic resources conservation and use. In recent years, the growing awareness and concern on promotion of plant genetic resources activities in the national context makes it obligatory that we should have relevant literature on this discipline. This is particularly desired now as the subject has been incorporated into •1
•
PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES IN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
the syllabi of Post-Graduate School of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, several State Agricultural Universities and is being taught to post graduate students of traditional universities as well. These establishments are now imparting M. Sc/Ph. D degree in plant genetic resources. It is in this context that the information was consolidated on all aspects of plant genetic resources, in a way most useful to the post graduate students and teachers and those concerned and interested in learning plant genetic resources activities. Due weightage has been given to the theories/principles, methodologies, techniques and practices involved, on developing the concept and on undertaking the activities related to germplasm collection, introduction/exchange, documentation and above all, germplasm conservation in keeping with recent global developments in the emerging field of plant genetic resources. Learning the basis of science of plant genetic resources is essential for all concerned in this field, particularly those who have to shoulder the responsibility as germplasm collectors, curators, users and conservationists and policy makers. Scope This book is dealt with in 13 chapters which covers a wide range of topics. The first introductory chapter provides information on general aspects such as scope and outline of the subject including plant genetic resources management. Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 deal with history of plant genetic resources activities in India and the domestication of crop plants, the centres/regions of diversity and the richness of crop plant diversity and its distribution in the Indian subcontinent and wild relatives of crop plants. Chapters 6 to 11 are elaborated mainly on the concepts, theories/methodologies, approaches and practices, followed by the principles of plant germplasm exchange and quarantine regulations and their role as a national service; the techniques, principles and practices of germplasm collecting; ethnobotany in relation to plant genetic resources, methods and techniques of ethnobotanical studies, relevance of indigenous knowledge with practical approach; the evaluation and utilization of plant genetic resources, core concept, genetic enhancement and genetic manipulations with the emphasis on techniques and procedures, practical considerations (wherever possible practical protocols were also followed); documentation of plant genetic resources information; different approaches to plant genetic resources conservation, ex situ through medium-term and long-term storage, the genebank and its management, recent approaches, such as tissue culture and cryo-preservation androle of recent tools i.e., use of biotechnology in plant genetic resources conservation, field genebanks, community genebanks, on-farm conservation, conservation in traditional farming systems etc., in-situ conservation relating to management of biosphere reserves etc. The chapter 12 deals with global scenario and emerging trend in plant genetic resources, issues in relation to multi-level and multi¬ dimensional conflicts of ideas over the ownership, access and sustainable utilization of biodiversity, which will lead to the development of international legal mechanisms/global plant genetic resources scenario, such as Convention on Biological Diversity, International Understanding on Plant Genetic Resources (IUPGR), World Trade Organisation (WTO), Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), increased relevance of Memorandum of Understanding (MoUs) and Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs) in plant genetic resources management, biosafety protocols, evaluation of transgenic plants, Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs), Farmers’ Rights, Breeders’ Rights, terminator technology and their
•2•
PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES—ITS SCOPE AND MANAGEMENT
applications and registration of plant germplasm. At the end in the last Chapter 13, an overview was done on plant genetic resources activities in Indian perspective encompassing suggestive measures and priority action points. Agro-biodiversity The agricultural biodiversity, more commonly referredffo as the agro-biodiversity, has been fast emerging as a strong, evolutionary divergent line from the biodiversity, which deals with the life forms at large. It has been specifically recognized to differentiate between concern for ecosystems versus agro-ecosystem, wild forest flora and fauna versus agricultural related plants, reptiles, insects, avian and microbes; in situ conservation of wild forms versus on-farm conservation of landraces and traditional primitive cultivars or ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources, etc. Agro-biodiversity in a traditional fanning system is as follows (adopted from Altieri, 1991): • Rich in plant and animal species • A wide diversity of niches in the local environment utilized • Reuse of organic residues, consuming biomass enabled • Ecosystem functions such as pest, weed and disease management enhanced • Locally available resources consumed to an advantage • Reduction of risk and optimization of resources use • Associated with farmers time tested local knowledge about resources. It is estimated that there exists 5-30 millions species of living forms on our earth and of these, only 1.5 million have been identified which include 3,00,000 species of green plants and fungi, 8,00,000 species of insects, 40,000 species of vertebrates and 3,60,000 species of microorganisms. Recently it has been estimated that the number of insects alone may be as high 10 millions, but many believe it to be around 5 millign. The tropical forests are regarded as the riches in biodiversity. According to the opinion of the scientists, more than half of the species on the earth live in moist tropical forests, which are only 7% of the total land surface. Insects (80%) and primates (90%) make up most of the species. India is located in South Asia, between latitudes 6° and 38° N and longitudes 69° and 97°E. The Indian landmass extending over a total geographical area of about 3,029 million hectares, is bounded by Himalayas in the North, the Bay of Bengal in the East, the Arabian sea in the west, and Indian Ocean in the South. The wide variety in physical features and climatic situation has resulted in a diversity of ecological habitats. This richness is coupled with varied ecological habitats. The Indian region having vast geographical areas is quite rich in biodiversity with a sizeable percentage of endemic flora and fauna. These vary from the humid tropical Western Ghats to the hot desert of Rajasthan, from the cold desert of Ladakh and the icy mountain of Himalayas to the warm costs of peninsular India. In India, about 1,15,000 species of plants and animals have been identified and described. For example, ghe following crops arose in the country and spread throughout the world: rice, sugarcane, jhiatfie Vignas, jute, mango, citrus, banana, several species of millets, several cucurbits, fflpBB ornamental orchids, several medicinal and aromatic plants. In fact, the country has Ikpai recognized as one of the world’s top 12 megadiversity nations. This region is also a MpBUdary centre of diversity for grain amaranths, maize, red pepper, soybean, potatoes and plant. In flora, the country can boast of 45,000 species, which accounts for 15% of •3*
PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES IN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
the known world plants. Of the 15,000 species of flowering plants, 35% are endemic and located in 26 endemic centres. Among the monocotyledons, out of 588 genera occurring in the country, 22 are strictly endemic. The Northeastern region boasts of being unique treasures house of orchids in the country. The important Indian orchids are Paphiopediliumfairieanum, Cymbidium aloiflium, Aerides crispum. etc. India is very rich in faunal wealth as well and has nearly 75,000 animal species, about 80% of which are insects. In animals, the rate of endemism in reptiles is 33% and amphibians 62%. Further, there is wide diversity in domestic animals, such as buffaloes, goats, sheeps, pigs, poultry, horses, camels and yaks. Domesticated animals too have come from the same cradles of civilization as the major crops. There are no clear estimates about the marine biota though the coastline is 7,000 km long with a shelf zone of 4,52,460 km2 and extended economic zone of 20,13,410 km2. There is an abundance of seaweeds, fish crustaceans, molluscs, corals, reptiles and mammals (Kumar and Asija, 2000). Information regarding other flora and fauna are patchy. Hundreds of new species may be present in the country-awaiting discovery. The Western Ghat area in peninsular India, which extend in the southern states, is a treasure house of species diversity (about 5,000 species). It is estimated that almost one-third of the animal species found in India have taken refuge in Western Ghats of Kerala alone. The Indian Gene Centre is among the 12-megadiversity regions of the world. More than 20 crop species were domesticated here. It is known to have more than 17,500 species of higher plants, including 166 major and minor crops with 326 related wild taxa, around 1,000 wild edible plant species, 647 of fruits and 118 of seeds and nuts. In addition, nearly 9,500 plant species of ethno-botanical uses have been reported from the country, of which around 7,500 are the ethno-medicinal importance and 3,900 are multipurpose edible species. More than 75% of Indian diversity (in the number of species in genera such as Dendrobium, Bulbophyllum, Liparis, Coelogyne, Paphiopedilum, Vitis, Citrus, Musa, Rhododendron, Hedychium, Elaeocarpus, and Elaeagnus) occurs in this region. Over 30 species of legumes and 45 of grasses mainly occur in the temperate belt of the North East Himalayan region. The legume flora is represented by species of Astragalus, Caragana, Medicago, Melilotus, Parochetus, Trifolium, Trigonella and Vicia. Among grasses, a large diversity is noticed in general such Bromus, Calamogrostis, Dactylis, Festuca, Glyceria, Lolium, Muehlenbergia, Phleum, Poa, Stipa and Trisetum. Local inhabitants gather a wide range of plants from wild habitats, which provide edible tubers, green leafy vegetables, edible fruits and nuts etc. The more promising of these have been domesticated and/or protected under homestead management.
Variation is the law of nature. It occurs everywhere and every moment. The variations take place at micro levels at short space and small time period, but these becomes apparent only over a large space and big a time gaps. The variations may be linear or cyclic. The variety and variability of organisms and ecosystems is referred to as biological diversity or biodiversity. Similarly, the biological variations initiate at the micro level (bio-molecular level or genes) and become apparent at species and ecosystem level. The biological variations in nature over time and space form the basis of evolutionary processes. Thus, biodiversity is the degree of variety in nature and not nature itself similarly, the biological diversity is not the same as biological resources although mutually, they form parts of each other. The •4*
PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES—ITS SCOPE AND MANAGEMENT
conservation of biological diversity is distinct but related to biological resources. It is difficult to discretely the value of biodiversity as a distinct characteristic of biological resources (IUCN, 1991).
Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part. Biodiversity provides the basis biotic resources that sustains the human race. This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. Biodiversity is the most significant national asset and constitutes enduring resources for supporting the continued existence of human societies. Biodiversity is the most significant national asset and constitutes enduring resources for supporting the continued existence of human societies. Biodiversity is not merely a natural resource; it is an embodiment of cultural diversity and the diverse knowledge traditions of different communities across the world. It includes diversity of forms, right from the molecular unit to the individual organism and then on to the population, community, ecosystems and biosphere levels. The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) constituted by the General Assembly of the United Nations published its reports in 1987 which provides a major boost and endorsement to the need for conserving the world’s rich biodiversity, particularly that of the tropical areas. Despite conflicting views among nations, a broad consensus was reached after bitter negotiations, and 170 countries signed the Biodiversity Convention, which is now ratified by 104 countries (42 Articles were adopted). One of the prerequisite tasks as expressed by Article 7 of the Convention is the identification and monitoring the components of biological diversity. Article 12 calls for Research and Training and suggest programmes for identification, conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. The term biodiversity includes three different aspects, which are closely related to each other. Following are the types of biodiversity: Genetic, species and ecosystem diversity: Genetic diversity refers to the variations of genes within the species. This constitutes distinct population of the same species or genetic variations within population or varieties within a species. Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. Such diversity could be measured based on species in a region. In an ecosystem, there may exist different landforms, each of which supports different and specific vegetation. Ecosystem diversity is difficult to measure since the boundaries of the communities, which constitute the various sub-ecosystems, are elusive. Ecosystem diversity could best be understood if one studies the communities in various ecological niches within the given ecosystem; each community is associated with definite species complexes. These complexes are related composition and structure of biodiversity. Ecosystem diversity in India: These ecosystems harbour and sustain the immense Biodiversity. India is one of the 12-megabiodiversity centres in the world. This attributed to 4c immense variety in physiography and climatic situations resulting in diversity of •Bmiogical habitats ranging from tropical subtropical, temperate alpine to desert. | Mj Desert Forests Grasslands > Wetlands
--
*
P•
Mangrove? •5*
PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES IN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
Desert ecosystem: According to the world biogeography classification, India represents 2 major realm and 3 basic biomes including 12 bio-geographical regions. However the Wildlife Institute of India has suggested that India be divided into following 10 biogeographical regions, namely 1. Trans Himalayas 2. Himalayas 3. Indian deserts 4. Semi-arid 5. Western Ghats 6. Deccan Peninsula 7. Eastern Himalayan 8. Gangetic Plains 9. North Eastern India 10. Islands and Coasts Desert ecosystem is characterized by low precipitation, arid lands, which are largely barren except far sparse or seasonal vegetation cover. Species in this habitat are adapted to an extremely harsh, water-scarce environment. Covering 2% of the landmass, deserts in India are classified into three distinct types: 1. The sandy Thar desert of western Rajasthan and adjoining areas of other states. 2. The salt desert of Kuchchha in Gujarat. 3. The high altitude cold desert of Jammu and Kashmir, Leh Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh. The sandy Thar desert in India (Plate 1, Fig. 1, 2) covers about 2,78,330 km2 of which 1,96,150 km2, is in Rajasthan, 62,180 km2 in Gujarat and 20,000 km2 in Punjab and Haryana. The sparse vegetation is mainly composed of Prosopis cineraria (Plate 1, Fig. 3), (Tecomella undulata) (Plate 1, Fig. 4), Capparis decidua, Ziziphus nummularia, Acacia nilotica, tumba (Plate 2, Fig 5), and aloe (Plate 2, Fig. 6), Calotropis procera and Prosopis julijlora. The salt desert of Rann of Kachchh is spread over 9,000 km2. It is characterized by a typical salt marsh, saltbush plants community of halophytes. Extending over the North Himalayan ranges, the cold desert is characterized by extremely low temperature going down - 45°C and low rainfall ranging from 500-800 mm annually. The vegetation is sparse alpine steppe and mostly herbaceous and shrubby. Some common species are Salix daphoides, Myricaria elegans, Cicer microphyllum and Potentilla bifurea etc. Forest ecosystem: According to the Forest Survey of India Assessment (1991), the forest cover (Plate 2, Fig. 7) of the country is about at 6,39,600 km2. This represents 19.46% of India’s total geographical area. India is endowed within diverse forest types ranging from the tropical wet evergreen forests in northeast to the tropical thorn forests in the central and western India. The forest of the country provides several essential services to the mankind. Forests are the source of a number of food items, fuel-wood, fodder and timber. Other economic uses indeed providing raw material for forest based industries. Some of the minor forest produce including gum, resin, honey, etc. forests perform important ecological functions such a maintaining delicate ecological and hydro-biological balances, conserving soil, controlling floods, drought and pollution. Forests provide habitats for innumerable plants, animals and microorganisms. Forests are the source of recreation and religious inspirations. •6*
PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES—ITS SCOPE AND MANAGEMENT
Grasslands ecosystem: Grasslands, which are also called as steppes, prairies, pampas and savannas in various parts of the world, are vegetation types with predominance of grass and grass like species. In India, the total area under grasslands is about 3.9% or 12 million hectares. Grasslands in the country exhibit diversity ranging from semi-arid pastures in Daccan peninsula, Humid semi waterlogged grassland of Tarai belt, rolling shola grassland on the hill tops of Western Ghats and the high altitude alpine pasture of Himalayas. Five distinct types of grasslands have been recognized in India. • Sehima-Dichanthium type • Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type • Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata type • Themeda-Arundinella type • Temperate alpine type The significance of about 10,000 odd known grass species in the world is enormous in leading vegetation cover to about 17% of the earth land surface, besides providing a number of cereals and fodder to mankind. About 15% of world grasses are represented in India (Vats et al. 1999). The significance of tropical grasslands has been well realized for their highest productive capacity. Grassland ecosystems are also expected to ply crucial role in the global biosphere responses to climatic changes and in augmenting vegetation in forests lacing plunder. The WWF’s Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization report on dwindling .biodiversity of grasslands is a timely reminder on the extent and ferocity of environmental deterioration that has degraded nearly half of the earth’s vegetative surface (Daily, 1995; Vats et al. 1999). It is estimated that the Indian grasslands harbor about 1,265 species belonging to 245 genera. Wetlands ecosystem: Wetlands are transitional zones that occupy intermediate position between dry land and open water. These ecosystems are dominated by the influence of water. They encompass diverse and heterogeneous habitats (Plate 2, Fig. 8) ranging from rivers, floods plains and rained lakes to swamps, estuaries and salt marshy areas. India by virtue of its extensive stretch and varied terrain and climate, supports a rich diversity of inland and coastal wetland habitats. It is estimated that it has about 4.1 million ha. Mangroves ecosystem: Mangroves constitute important economic resources providing fodder, fuel, wood, tannin, edible fishes, honey, wax, various chemicals and medicines. Mangroves play important role in stabilizing shorelines and protecting them from cyclones. Mangrove also harbors a variety of plants and animals. Mangroves are salt-tolerant ecosystems in tropical a sub-tropical regions. These ecosystems are largely characterized by assemblage of unrelated tree genera that share the common ability to grow in saline and dual zones. India has some of the best mangrove swamps in the world, located in the alluvial deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rivers and on the Andaman and Nicobar groups of Islands. The total area covered by mangroves in India is about 6,700 km2, amounting to the 7% of the world mangrove. The largest stretch of mangroves in the country lies in the Sunderbans in West Bengal covering an area of about 4,200 km2. The predominant mangrove species are Avicennia officinalis. Exoecaria agallocha, Heritiera fomes, Bruguiera parviflora, Ceriops decandra, Rhizophora mucronata and Xylocarpus gyanatum.
•7
•
PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES IN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
Species diversity Biogeographically, India is situated at the tri-junction of three realms namely Afro-tropical, Indo Malaya and Paleoarctic realms, and therefore has characteristic element forms in each of them. This assemblage of three distinct realms makes the country rich and unique in biological diversity. Based on the available data, India ranks tenth in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity and ranks tenth in the number of mammalian species and eleventh in the number of the endemic species of higher vertebrates in the world. At present, 1.75 million species have been recorded so far in the world (Global Biodiversity Assessment, 1995). India’s contribution to this record stands at 7%. Surveys conducted so far have inventoried over 49,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals. As until now, only 70% of the area have been surveyed, it is estimated that the flora and fauna already identified are only a part of what actually occur in India. The list is being constantly added to especially in the case of lower plants and invertebrate animals. As noted earlier 49,000 species of flowering and non-flowering plants representing about 12% of the recorded world’s flora, have already been identified. Significant diversity has been recorded in pteridophytes with 102 species and Orchidaceae with 1082 species. A total of 81,251 animal species have been recorded in India which represents 6.67% of the faunal species recorded in the world; of these vast majority are insects with over 60,000 species. The vertebrate fauna is also diverse and varied. SPECIES DIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM STABILITY
Diversity of genes within species increases its ability to adapt to adverse environmental conditions. When these varieties or populations of the species are destroyed, the genetic diversity within the species is diminished. In many cases, habitat destruction has narrowed the genetic variability of species lowering the ability to adapt to change environmental conditions. The greater the variability of the species, the more is the ecosystem stability. It has been considered to be related to the cycling and recycling of nutrients, which in turn, increases the efficiency of the resources use in the ecosystem.The survival and well-being of the present day human population that depends on several substances obtained from plants and animals. The biodiversity in wild and domestic form is the source for most of humanity’s food, medicine, clothing, housing, cultural diversity, intellectual and spiritual inspiration. It is believed that one-forth of the known global diversity is in serious risk of extinction and calls for an integrated approach for conserving global biological diversity. Establishment of corridors with different nature for the possible migration of the species in response to climate change, etc. is the immediate steps to be taken for conserving the very precious biological diversity. Global network for genebanks, microbiological resources centres, and marine parks are also important. At the same time, conservation must be coupled with socio-economic development especially in countries where population pressure threatens the national biotic resources.
Endemic species: Endemism of Indian biodiversity is significant. About 4,900 species of flowering plants are 33% of the recorded flora are endemic to the country. These are distributed over 141 genera belonging to 7 families. These are concentrated in the floristically rich areas of Northeast India, the Western Ghats, North West Himalayas and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Western Ghat and the Eastern Himalayas are reported to have
•8•
PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES—ITS SCOPE AND MANAGEMENT
1,600 and 3,500 endemic species of flowering plants, respectively. These constitute two of 18 hot spots identified in the world. It is estimated that 62% of the known amphibian species are endemic to India of which a majority occurs in Western Ghats. Endemic species are the plants or animals, which are limited in their distribution i.e., they are restricted to a small area and are not found elsewhere in the world. It may be due to: • Poor adaptability of a species in a wide range of ecological niches • Presence of some geographical barrier, e.g. Sea, Mountains etc. • Failure of dispersal of reproductive organs (Propagules, seeds, runners etc.) • The species might have been comparatively young and not have enough time to spread. Some examples of endemics include Metasequoia living gymnosperm endemic in China, Sequoia (red wood tree) endemic in coastal valleys of California, USA, Primula, Inula recemosa and Potentilla in high altitudes of Himalayas, Ginkgo biloba endemic in Japan and China.
I
Cultivated plants The agro-biodiversity is a strong, evolutionary divergent line from the biodiversity, which deals with the life forms at large. India is an acknowledged centre of crop diversity. It is considered to the homeland of 166 important cultivated plants species and 326 species of their wild relatives. India is considered to be the centre of origin of rice, pigeonpea, mango, turmeric, ginger, pepper, banana, bittergourd, okra, coconut, cardamom, jackffuit, sugarcane, bamboo, taro, indigo, sunhemp, amaranths, gooseberries, etc. (Also see chapter 2, 4 and 5). The gene bank of National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources has a collection of over 2.44 lakh varieties (Also see chapter 11).
Endangered plants and animal species About 427 endangered plants species have been enlisted by the Botanical Survey of India in its publications on the floristic synthesis enumerated for Red Data book. This contributes to about 20% of India’s total floristic wealth of higher plants. Examples of endangered species occurring in the Northeastern region including the Eastern Himalayas are as under: (i) The array of biological resources including their genetic resources are renewable in nature or in similar ex-situ conservation with their proper management can support human needs indefinitely. Thus, is appropriate to treat these as the fundamental sources for sustainable development. Their perpetuation in the existing forms and to the extent feasible on existing basis is therefore, essential to suitable explore factors from such a big reservoir for tomorrow’s need. (ii) The availability evidences, however, indicate that human activities are eroding the prevalent biological resources and greatly reducing the biodiversity of the planet. Estimating the precise rate of loss, or even the current status of the species, is stupendous task because no monitoring system, whatsoever, systematic, is likely to match the huge diversity in its existing form. Thus, much of the basic information remains lacking, especially on the species rich tropics wild flora and a large fraction of its wild fauna are threatened with, many of the verge of extinction. This may not
•9•
PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES IN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
be surprising, with many on the verge of extinction. This may not be surprising, while considering the fact that in the past few decades, India has lost at least 50% of its forest, polluted over 70% of its water bodies, built or cultivated on much of its grasslands, and degraded many coastal areas. Further, to bio-prospecting this habitat, ill effects of destruction, hunting, over exploration and a host of other activities have together taken a heavy toll. The endemic species present to date, as enlisted in the box below, need a systematic management attention. Loss of plant genetic resources
The world’s biological diversity is a vast and often undervalued resource. The earth’s biodiversity—its ecosystems, species and genes are the product of over 3000 million years of evolution. They supply all our food, much of our raw materials and energy and many of our medicines. Intact ecosystems also play a central role in the functioning of the biosphere. Plants are fundamental in stabilizing climate, protecting watersheds and soil and maintaining the chemical balance of the earth. When key species are lost, vital ecological services are disrupted. Ten thousand years ago Neolithic farmers in the Middle east and elsewhere developed some of our most important crops and livestock from their wild relatives. They soon recognized that certain species were more suitable than others for their needs were and that within populations, some plants and animals had characteristics more suited to their specific requirements. They selected, bred and used these individuals in preference to others, practices that continue to this day. Through selection and breeding, human societies have developed thousands of elite varieties of crops and livestock, each adapted to a specific environment and evolving in harmony with the diverse systems of land andnatural resources management of which they are integral parts. These varieties not only adapted to different conditions, but also are genetically variable. These varieties can survive even in bad years and in adverse climatic conditions, water scarcity, low fertility, problem soil and aquatic systems, pests and diseases. The maintenance of these resources have until recently been ensured by traditional system of agriculture and land use. It also depends on introgression with wild and weedy relatives growing near by, in both natural vegetation and disturbed habitats. The development of modern varieties, breeds/strains have also created a number of problems. Modem varieties sometimes are ill suited to the needs of small producers, who grow on marginal lands with low management inputs. The so-called high yielding varieties are highresponse varieties, since their performance hinges on substantial external inputs (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides), which are often deleterious to the environment. Without such inputs, their high potential is not realized. These High yielding varieties are more vulnerable to the challenges of pests and diseases. Genetically uniform fields encourage the rapid spread of pests and pathogens. Plant breeders are, therefore, dependent upon the availability of the pool of diverse genetic material represented by local landraces and related wild germplasm to cope with future problems as modern varieties may have restricted genepool for further crop improvement. This genetic pool cannot be valued on monetary basis. This is perhaps understandable. Since biodiversity is complex and information on its component parts and their interactions is incomplete, it is extremely difficult to determine accurately the economic and ecological value of the full range of such resources. Wild relatives of some of the crops •10*
Fi r s tf e wpa ge soft hi sbooka r epubl i s he d onki s a n. c ombyi t spubl i s he r . I fyouwi s ht opur c ha s eaha r dc opy oft hi sbook,pl e a s ec ont a c tt hepubl i s he r .
Publ i sher
Dr .Ra me s hwa rSi ngh Di r e c t or a t eofKnowl e dgeMgt .i nAgr i . I ndi a nCounc i lofAgr i c ul t ur eRe s e a r c h Kr i s hi Anus a ndha nBha va n-1, Pus a-Ne wDe l hi1 10012. Pr i c e-Rs .500/ -