Reproductive disorders in indian livestock by Kisan Forum Pvt. Ltd.

REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS IN INDIAN LIVESTOCK

A RAMAMOHANA RAO Formerly Dean, Postgraduate Studies Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University Hyderabad

ICAR

PUBLISHED BY

DIRECTORATE OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH KRISHI ANUSANDHAN BHAVAN, PUSA NEW DELHI 110 012

FIRST PRINTED REVISED REPRINTED

Project Director (DKMA)

Incharge (English Editorial) Editorial Associate

Chief Production Officer Technical Officer (Production) Senior Artist

MARCH 1991 OCTOBER 1997 SEPTEMBER 2011

Dr T P Trivedi Dr R P Sharma Dr Sudhir Pradhan Dr V K Bharti Punit Bhasin

Suresh Dhawale

ISBN : 978-81-7164-103-1

Price: ?150

Published by Dr T.P. Trivedi, Project Director (DKMA), Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan, Pusa, New Delhi 110 012 and printed at M/s Chandu Press, D-97, Shakarpur, Delhi 110 092.

CONTENTS Preface PART I

REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS IN FEMALES

Affections of the ovary

Functional disorders of the ovary

Affections of the oviduct

Affections of the uterus

Affections of the cervix

Affections of the vagina and vulva

Repeat breeding

Gestational and parturient disorders

,56

Infectious infertility

10. Reproductive disorders in sheep and goats

11. Reproductive disorders in the swine

References

83 PART II

REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS IN MALES

Evaluation of breeding soundness in males

105

Semen sample as an indicator of disturbances of

111

the sexual function

Sex desire or libido

120

Inability to copulate (Impotentia coeundi)

123

Inability or reduced ability to fertilize (Ifnpotentia generandi)

127

References

139

PARTI Reproductive Disorders in Females

1. AFFECTIONS OF THE OVARY Livestock constitutes an integral part of agrarian economy in India not only by supplying valuable animal proteins for the everincreasing human population through milk, meat and eggs, but also by contributing vital motive power so essential for agricultural operations, besides providing organic manure to enhance soil fertility. Reproduction is an important consideration in the economics of livestock production. Successful reproduction encompasses the ability to mate, the capacity to conceive and nourish the embryo, and deliver the viable young ones at the end of normal gestation period. In the absence of regular breeding and calving at the appropriate time, livestock enterprise will not be profitable.

Reproductive disorders produce infertility or sterility in liveÂŹ stock. Infertility is a degree of reduced fertility which results in failure to produce or delay in producing the annual live calf. Sterility means absolute inability to reproduce.

Iyer (1978) reported that 18 to 40 per cent of cattle are disposed off annually in the world solely on account of infertility or sterility. However, precise information on the magnitude of economic loss due to infertility in cattle in India is not available, but there are ample reasons to believe that majority of cows and buffaloes that reach the slaughterhouses are disposed off because of infertility. The aetiological factors of infertility are hereditary or congenital, environmental or acquired, and combination of both (Lagerlof, 1954). Kodagali (1968) classified the reproductive disorders of bovines as anatomical, physiological and infectious. The total incidence of genital disorders in buffaloes was 37.5 per cent based on an abattoir study (Sharma et al, 1993).

Incidence of infertility In a quick all-India survey of bovine infertility covering 20,000 cattle and buffaloes in organized and rural sectors conducted by the Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, 3 per cent animals were diagnosed to be sterile and 8-10 per cent sub-fertile, with an overall 7.70 per cent incidence of infertility (Bhattacharya et al, 1954).

REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS IN INDIAN LIVESTOCK

Kaikini (1967) recorded an incidence of 4 per cent sterility and 7 per cent sub-fertility in cattle in erstwhile Bombay State. A team of FAO Experts examined 3,000 cows and buffaloes comprising urban and rural animals in India, and found that 61.8% cows and 31% buffaloes had subactive ovaries (Lagerlof etal, 1954).

Congenital or anatomical disorders These disorders are congenital or hereditary in origin and render the animal sterile. Though rare, it is necessary to identify them at a very early stage and cull animals. The parents should also be removed from breeding to prevent further spread of undesirable genes. Absence of one or both ovaries (gonads) due to inherited autosomal dominant gene is known as ovarian aplasia. The gonadless每 heifers appear normal until breeding age, but fail to show oestrus and normal udder development. The genital tracts also will be juvenile and underdeveloped. Such animals are sterile and should be culled. The incidence of gonadal dysgenesis due to XY karyotype in a heifer was reported by Sharma et al. (1980). Ovarian hypoplasia Ovarian hypoplasia is the congenital arrest in the development of the ovaries caused by recessive autosomal gene with incomplete penetrance. The affected ovary may be partially or totally hypoplas卢 tic and depending upon the degree of the hypoplasia and whether unilateral or bilateral, infertility or sterility may result. The animal remains anoestrus with very small ovaries felt as thin cord-like structures on the cranial border of the ovarian ligament, and appears like a steer. The secondary sexual characters are absent due to lack of oestrogens. Real hypoplasia (lack of germ cells), however, is rare. In unilateral hypoplasia, the tubular portion of the genital tract remains very small and infantile, and oestrus does not

occur. The incidence of ovarian hypoplasia was documented among Indian cattle breeds. Kodagali (1968) recorded a case of bilateral ovarian hypoplasia in a white Gir heifer aged about 8 years. Narasimha Rao and Murthy (1972) recorded ovarian hypoplasia in 0.29 per cent of infertile cows in Andhra Pradesh. From an abattoir study, Nair and Raja (1974) reported 0.08 per cent incidence of this condition in cows in Kerala. Bonia (1981) observed 4.3 per cent of unilateral and bilateral hypoplasia each in cows in Assam. Hussain and Muniraju (1984) recorded hypoplasia of genital system in 9.7 per cent of infertile cows. Narasimha Rao and Kotayya (1976) found an incidence of 1.28 per centwhile Narasimha Rao (1982) registered 1.50 per cent among crossbred cows in Andhra Pradesh.

AFFECTIONS OF THE OVARY

The incidence among Indian buffaloes was less them 1 per cent (Damodaran, 1956; Malik etal, 1960; Khan, 1970; Kaikini, 1974; Potekar et al, 1982; Narasimha Rao and Sreemannarayana, 1982) but Kodagali and Kerur (1968) reported an incidence of 1.46 per cent in Jaffarabadi buffaloes.

Animals with bilateral total hypoplastic ovaries are sold as sterile but the danger of breeding the unilateral or partially affected cattle should be seriously considered and their slaughter may be advised. Freemartinism A freemartin is an infertile female with a modified genital tract, bom co-twin or in greater multiples with a bull calf with which it has exchanged whole blood. The frequency with which this condition appears is directly dependent upon prevalence of heterosexual twinning in the population. Studies showed that 92 per cent of cattle female co-sibs are sterile freemartins while the other 8 per cent are normal and fertile. In freemartins, the ovaries usually fail to develop, and remain small and rudimentary. The genital tract especially the portion arising from the paramesonephric duct, is markedly arrested in development. The vagina is underdeveloped and is less than 10 cm in length at the age of a few weeks but vulva may be fairly normal with a prominent clitoris and large tuft of vulval hair. Depending on the degree of exposure to androgens, the genital organs may be modified towards maleness and virilisation. Freemartinism can be readily diagnosed from the breeding history and clinical examination of genitalia. A test tube of 1.5 cm diameter tests the development of vagina. In a freemartin the test tube can be inserted only a few centimetres deep into the vagina due to its under-development. Bhagat (1966) recorded a case of freemartin in a 6-year-old heifer. Narasimha Rao and Murthy (1971a) recorded 1 (0. 10 per cent) freemartin among 1,058 infertile buffaloes examined in Andhra Pradesh. Sethumadhavan et al. (1978) reported freemartinism in a heterosexual bovine triplet. Narasimha Rao and Suiyanarayana Murthy (1980a) reported 2 cases of heterosexual twinning, both of which were freemartin, in about 20,000 calvings in buffaloes (Andhra Pradesh). The condition in these 2 cases resembled those described in cattle except for the absence of clitorial enlargement and characteristic vulval configuration.

Hermaphroditism A hermaphrodite animal has congenital anatomical variation that confuses the diagnosis of sex. True hermaphroditism is a bisexual manifestation in which both ovarian and testicular tissues are present. The occurrence of true hermaphroditism is extremely

REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS IN INDIAN LIVESTOCK

rare in Indian cattle and buffaloes. Kaura (1935) described a bovine hermaphrodite. In pseudohermaphrodites, gonads of one sex only are evident with external genitalia and secondary sexual characterÂŹ istics resembling those of opposite sex. A male pseudohermaphrodite (genetic male with feminisation of external genitalia) was reported by Rama Rao and Rajya (1976), Narsimha Rao et al. (1976) also reported 4 clinical cases of male pseudohermaphroditism in buffaloes (Andhra Pradesh).

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Fig. 1. Male pseudohermaphroditismâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Testis present in place of ovary and underdeveloped genitalia in a buffalo.

AFFECTIONS OF THE OVARY

White heifer disease This inherited, congenital segmental aplasia of the tubular genitalia (paramesonephric duct), receives its name from the relatively high frequency in White Shorthorn heifers. However, it may occur in any breed of cattle. The aplasia can occur anywhere along the duct system but is most common in the cervical area. The remaining part of the uterine horn often gets filled up with secre¬ tions. White heifer disease was also reported in a Rathi heifer (Kohli, :

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Fig. 2. White heifer disease in buffalo vagina.

REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS IN INDIAN LIVESTOCK

1967), buffalo specimens (Rama Rao and Rajya, 1976) and crossÂŹ bred Jersey heifer (Mazumdar and Dey, 1985). Imperforate hymen Imperforate hymen is not associated with any abnormalities in the genitalia. Due to imperforate hymen, secretions from uterus and cervix are retained leading to distention of the anterior part of the vagina. The condition may be relieved by surgical procedure, but prognosis is not favourable and the animal may not be fit for breeding due to cicatrix formation and vaginal stenosis. Kodagali (1968) observed imperforate hymen in 12 out of 107 genitalia of buffalo heifers. Gupta and Sharma (1973) reported a case of comÂŹ plete imperforated hymen and 2 cases of persistent hymen in Murrah heifers. Kaikini (1974, 1978) recorded imperforate hymen with resultant muco-metra in 4 (0.35 per cent) out of 1 , 132 genitalia of Berari (Nagpuri) buffaloes.

A case of persistent hymen in a Murrah Buffalo heifer wab reported by Phogat et al. (1993). Complete and thick septum was observed cranial to the urinary meatus in a 5-year-old Murrah buffalo heifer with a history of repeat breeding. Rectal examination revealed a soft fluctuating bulge of the anterior part of the vagina. When hymenal wall was punctured, about 4 litres of mucus of normal estrual consistency escaped. Parovarian cysts Parovarian cysts are occasionally found in the broad ligaments of cows and buffaloes around the ovary and fallopian tubes but are less important in the context of infertility. Ramamohana Rao et al. (1965) noticed parovarian cysts in less than 1 per cent of genitalia of cows in Andhra Pradesh, Nair and Raja (1974) found in 0.32 per cent of 1,250 genitalia of cows in Kerala; and Naidu and Rao (1981) 0.13 per cent of infertile crossbred cattle of Chittoor District in Andhra Pradesh.

In buffaloes, the reported incidence rates were 3 per cent (Bhattacharya et al., 1954), 0.66 per cent (Ramamohana Rao et al., 1965), 0.43 per cent (Saxena, 1966), 0.73 per cent (Kodagali and Kerur, 1968), 1.47 per cent (Khan, 1970), 13.0 percent (Dwivedi and Singh, 1971b), 3.40 per cent (Kaikini, 1974), 1.04 per cent (Rama Rao, 1974), 6.08 per cent (Rangaswamiah, 1981) and 0.94 per cent (Potekar et al., 1982). These cysts may vary in size from 1 to 5 cm in diameter and are usually round or oval in shape. These cysts are vestiges of the Wolffian or Mullerian duct system and there is no definite role of these cysts in infertility. They are often mistaken for a cystic ovary on rectal palpation when located very close to the ovary.

2. FUNCTIONAL DISORDERS OF THE OVARY Anoestruxn Anoestrum means the absence of oestrus. Anoestrum in cattle and buffaloes is the principal symptom of many conditions that affect the oestrus cycle. Itmust be understood that even apregnant animal becomes anoestrus. But anoestrum as a fertility problem may be true when there is no periodic manifestation of oestrus with absence of follicular or luteal structures (inactive ovaries) or apparent which is associated with acorpus luteum (persistent CL, cystic CL), unobserved or missed heat, suboestrum or weak or silent heat. Apparent anoestrum due to persistent CL is mostly associated with uterine pathology such as pyometra, foetal resorption, and macerated and mummified foetus. A certain proportion of cases may represent retained CL due to early embryonic death.

True anoestrum True anoestrum is by far the most prevalent form of infertility encountered in cows and buffaloes under rural conditions in our country. It has been and continues to be the most frustrating and challenging problem which is not amenable easily for treatment, causing severe economic losses. The anoestrum may manifest in heifers aged between 3 and 7 years of age, heifers and cows after insemination without conception, and cows following calving (postÂŹ partum anoestrum).

In heifers, true anoestrum may result from conditions such as free-martinism, white heifer disease, bilateral hypoplasia of the ovaries and other types of congenital abnormalities besides infantile genitalia and hypo-functioning of normally developed ovaries. Poor growth or lack of body condition which is a sequel or negligent calfhood management is mainly responsible for this; under-feeding, faulty feeding, parasitism, climatic factors etc., are the major

contributing factors. Post-service anoestrum is very high in buffaloes in summer and in cows during winter. Temperature, humidity and photoperiod (Rao and Rao, 1968) are the important factors affecting ovarian functions in buffaloes. Post-partum anoestrum results from several physiological and environmental stresses operating singly or in combination affecting

REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS IN iNDIAN LIVESTOCK

ovarian function after calving. High milk production (lactational anoestrum), suckling, loss of body weight during the first 3 months after calving and heat stress are some factors that delay much of post-partum ovarian cyclicity. Deshmukh and Kaikini (1991) reported better reproductive performance regarding post-partum fertile heat in Jersey x Sahiwal 75 per cent cross-bred cows vis-a-vis J x S halfbreds and J x S 62.5 per cent cross-breds. The incidence of true anoestrum among cattle and buffaloes varied very widely depending upon the level of feeding and manage¬ ment. Bhattachaiya et al. (19 54) reported 7.72 per cent incidence in bovines in a countiy-wide survey. Somewhat higher incidence was reported by other workers (Kodagali, 1968; Narasimha Rao and Murthy, 1972; Kaikini, 1977; Pandey etal, 1981).

Rao and Kotayya (1976) reported 34.62 per cent incidence of quiescent ovaries among crossbred cows. Naidu and Rao (1981) observed true anoestrus in 13.13 per cent of crossbred cattle (Andhra Pradesh) . Luktuke etal. (1973) reported 14.69 per centtrue anoestrus in non-descript buffaloes of Uttar Pradesh. The incidence was reported to be higher in other states (Purbey and Agarwal, 1982 ; Roy Choudhuiy and Baneijee, 1985). Kaikini (1984) recorded gonadal activity of Berari (Nagpuri) buffaloes, season-wise as follows: summer 2 5. 79 per cent; monsoon per cent 32.44 per cent and winter 9.28 per cent. This explodes the myth that buffalo ovaries are inactive during summer. Proper managemental practices with a regular heat detection programme and gynaeco health control programme are indicated for overcoming the problem of summer sterility in buffaloes. Cessation of ovulation could be regarded as a strategy for survival on the part of a cow or a buffalo to delay conception during periods of environmental or physiological stress. In terms of the desired reproductive performance there may, therefore, be a conflict between the objectives of the farmer and the normal physiology of the animal. It is therefore, necessary to understand the physiologi¬ cal and endocrinological mechanisms involved in normal ovarian activity so that suitable pharmacological treatment could be given to correct this form of infertility.

The oestrous cycle, follicular development, ovulation, luteinization and steroidogenesis occur as a result of cyclical changes in the ovaries, which are in turn controlled by a complex endocrinological mechanism involving the interaction of hormones from the hypo¬ thalamus, pituitary, ovary and uterus. Pulsatile neuronal activity,

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