Textbook of Field Crops ProductionCommercial Crops Volume II
Technical Editor
Dr Rajendra Prasad
ICAR
Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture Indian Council of Agricultural Research Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan I, Pusa, New Delhi 110 012
FIRST EDITION REVISED EDITION
Project Director Incharge, English Editorial Unit Editor Chief Production Officer Technical Officer Cover Design
2002 JULY 2013
Dr Rameshwar Singh Dr R P Sharma Shashi A Verma Dr V K Bharti Kulbhushan Gupta
Narendra Bahadur
All rights reserved Š 2013, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
ISBN : 978-81-7164-146-8
Price : ? 600.00
Disclaimer The textbook contains information from very authentic and highly reliable sources. Reasonable attempts have been made to publish reliable data and information. Extensive efforts have also been made to validate the methods describedin this textbook. Ho wever, neither the scientists invotvednorICAR can assume responsbility for the validity of all the materials or for the consequences arising as the result of their use.
Published by Dr Rameshwar Singh, Project Director, Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan I, Pusa, New Delhi 110 012, lasertypeset at M/s Print-OWorld, 2579, Mandir Lane, Shadipur, New Delhi 110 008, and printed at M/s Chandu Press, D-97, Shakarpur, Delhi 110 092
Contents Foreword
Preface to the Revised Edition Preface to the First Edition Contributors 1. Soybean
iii v vii xi
1
2. Groundnut
40
3. Rapeseed-mustard
80
4. Sunflower
119
5. Safflower
168
6. Sesame
200
7. Castor
233
8. Niger
262
9. Linseed
280
10. Cotton
305
11. Jute
345
12. Allied fibre crops
377
13. Mesta
399
14. Sugarcane
411
15. Potato
469
16. Tobacco
528
Appendices (I, II, III)
596
Subject index
601
Content
611
of VolumeI
1 Soybean A.K. Vyas and A.5. Chandel Soybean, Glycine max (Linn.) Merrill belongs to the order Fabales, family
Fabaceae (Leguminosae), subfamily Faboideae (Papilionoideae). In India, it is known by several names as bhat, bhatman, bhatmas, kulthi, ramkulthi, bhut, kalitur, teliakulth and gerakalay. It is an important crop worldwide, because it has a wide range of geographical adaptation, unique chemical composition, good nutritional value, functional health benefits and variety of end-uses (food, feed and non-edible). It is extremely resilient and performs even under severe water stress conditions. Soybean has capacity to give profitable returns even under minimum agricultural inputs and management practices. It fits well in cropping systems/rotations including inter-/mixed- cropping systems. It improves soil fertility by fixing atmospheric N2 to the extent of 50-300 kg/ha, depending on the agro-climatic conditions, variety, strains, etc. (Keyser and Fudi, 1992) and adds about 1.0-1.5 tonnes of leaf litter per season/ha. It generates employment through trading, processing, exports and industrial uses and value- addition. It has revolutionized socio-economic status of soybean growers tremendously. Soybean is the world’s first ranking crop as a source of vegetable oil and in India too. It will continue to play a key role in fighting edible oil deficit in the country (Damodaran and Hegde, 2010). Soybean is well known for its nutritional and health benefits. It contains about 40% good quality protein, 20% oil having about 85% unsaturated fatty acids including 55% polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), 25-30% carbohydrates and almost no starch (useful to diabetic patients), 4-5% minerals, anti-oxidants, viz. ascorbic acid (910 mg/100 g sprouted soybean) and beta-carotene (0.2 mg/100 g sprouted soybean), and about 0.3% isoflavones (daidzein and genestein). That’s why, it is also known as a ‘Wonder Crop’, ‘Miracle Crop’ and ‘Golden Bean’. It is generally conceded that the soybean is native to eastern Asia. Nagata (1960) suggested soybean origin in China, probably in north central region. His conclusion was based on the fact that the distribution of Glycine ussuriensis {Glycine soja Sieb & Zucc.), which is considered to be the progenitor of Glycine max, the cultivated form, was found in that region. Hymowitz (1970) indicated that G. ussuriensis grew wild in Korea, Taiwan, Japan, throughout Yangtze Valley, the northern provinces of China and adjacent area of Russia. The genetic evidences indicate that G. max and G. ussuriensis are the same species.
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Textbook of Field Crops Production — Commercial Crops
Hymowitz concluded that eastern half of north China is the area where soybean was first domesticated about 11th century BC. Chang (1989) suggested that lower and middle Yellow River Valley is the main area of origin of soybean. As regards distribution and dissemination of soybean from its place of origin, Nagata (1960) indicated that the cultivated form of soybean was introduced into Korea from China and then disseminated to Japan sometime around 200 BC. A second route of dissemination might have been from central China to south Japan during 6th and 8th century. This shows that soybean has traditionally been a crop of the East. With its introduction into the USA in the 18th century, and its systematic breeding in that country in 1940s and 1950s, soybean was transformed from an inefficient fodder type crop to a highly productive erect plant type, and the USA became the largest producer of soybean in the world ever since (Hymowitz and Harlan, 1983). In ancient times, black soybean was known to have been cultivated in the Himalayan foothills and in the Manipur Naga hills. Its cultivation, however, remained confined to small pockets in parts of hill areas of Uttarakhand, Punjab, and Himachal Pradesh. It seems that in India soybean was introduced from China through Himalayan route or through Myanmar. At Pusa (Bihar), soybean experiments were conducted during 1917-24 and at Kanpur in 1934. From Kanpur by selection and hybridization three varieties of soybean, viz. T 33 (1955), T 49 (1955), T 1 or T 79 (1956) were released for grain, and variety T 2 was released for green fodder. In 1963-64, Mr Edvin Bay (Extension Advisor to the Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar) introduced some soybean varieties for experiments at Pantnagar and Jabalpur; there climate was found suitable. Efforts were made to establish commercial production feasibility and economic viability of soybean cultivation in the country. During this period, the country was facing acute shortage of edible oil, and non-conventional sources of oil were being searched out. Soybean with 18-20% oil content got recognition as an oilseed crop. Owing to its potential in overcoming oil and protein shortages in India, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) launched an inter-disciplinary, multilocation All India Coordinated Research Project on Soybean (AICRPS) in 1967 and subsequently established the National Research Centre for Soybean at Indore (Madhya Pradesh) in 1987, which is presently known as the Directorate of Soybean Research.
AREA AND PRODUCTION
Soybean is the most important oilseed crop of the world in terms of acreage and production. It has registered a significant growth in area and production in the last two decades. In 2009-10, the area, production and productivity of soybean in the world was 102 million ha, 261 million tonnes and 2.55 tonnes/ha, respectively. Globally, percentage contribution of soybean in oilseed acreage and production is about 48.2 and 60.0, respectively. Major soybean-cultivating countries are the USA, Brazil, Argentina, China, India and Paraguay (Table 1.1). India ranks fourth in acreage and fifth in production in the world. Soybean
Soybean
3
Table 1.1 Area, production and yield of soybean in major soybean-growing countries of the world (2009-10)
Country
Production (million tonnes)
Area (million ha)
Yield (tonnes/ha) 2.96 2.94 2.93 1.63 1.01 2.69 2.55
USA
30.91 91.42 23.50 69.00 18.60 54.50 9.19 14.98 9.60 9.70 2.68 7.20 102.17 260.85 Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service-www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/psdget report
Brazil Argentina China India Paraguay World
productivity in India is very low compared to rest of the major producers. In India, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan are the major soybean-producing states, contributing about 95% of the total area and production of soybean in the country (Table 1.2). Madhya Pradesh has 54% of the country’s area and contributes 59% to the total production of soybean in the country and deserves to be called ‘Soya State’. Soybean has revolutionized socio-economic condition of soybean farmers of Madhya Pradesh. Table 1.2 Statewise area, production and productivity of soybean in India (2008-09)
State
Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Rajasthan Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Others India
Percentage Production Percentage Productivity Area (million ha) share of (million tonnes) share of (tonnes/ha) area production 5.12 3.06 0.83 0.14 0.13 0.22 9.51
53.88 32.21 8.72 1.49 1.41 2.30 100.0
5.85 2.76 0.81
0.19 0.09 0.21 9.91
59.06 27.83 8.13 1.96 0.92 2.10 100.00
1.14 0.90 0.97 1.37 0.68 0.95 1.04
Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, DAC, MoA, New Delhi
The commercial cultivation of soybean in India started in late sixties, and thereafter, it made phenomenal growth. The percentage share of soybean in total oilseeds production increased from 0.14 in 1970 to 40.31 in 2009-10. TAXONOMY AND CLASSIFICATION Taxonomy The genus Glycine Willd is divided into two sub-genera Glycine and Soja. The sub-genus Glycine includes 16 wild perennial species. The sub-genus Soja includes two species, viz. the cultivated type G. max (Linn.) Merrill, and its annual wild counterpart, G. soja Sieb and Zucc. All the 18 species are listed in Table 1.3 (Hymowitz et al., 1998).
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Textbook of Field Crops Production — Commercial Crops
Table 1.3 Species of the genus Glycine Willd Species
Sub-genus Glycine G. albicans Tind. & Craven G. arenaria Tind. G. argyrea Tind. G. canescens F. J. Herm. G. clandestina Wendl. G. curvata Tind. G. cyrtoloba Tind. G. falcata Benth. G. histicaulis Tind. & Craven G. lactovirens Tind. & Craven G. latifolia (Benth.) Newell & Hymowitz G. latrobeana (Meissn.) Benth. G. microphylla (Benth.) Tind. G. pindanica Tind. & Craven G. tabacina (Labiil.) (Benth.)
G. tomentella Hayata
Three letter code
2n
ALB
40
H
Australia
ARE ARG CAN CLA CUR CYR FAL HIR HIR LAC
40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 80 40
HH
HA
Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia
I,I,
Australia
LAT
40
BA
Australia
LTR
40
A3A3
Australia
MIC
40
BB
Australia
PIN
40
H2H2
Australia
TAB
40 80
Complex”
B2B2
38 40
EE DD
78
Complex*
80
Complex*
Australia Australia, West Central and South Pacific Islands Australia Australia, Papua New Guinea Australia, Papua New Guinea Australia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan
TOM
Sub-genus Soja (Moench) F. J. Herm. G. soja Sieb. and Zucc. SOJ 40 G. max. (Linn.) Merrill MAX 40
Genome* symbol
A2AZ
AA
AA CC FF
GG GG
Distribution
China, Russia, Taiwan Cultigen (soybean)
x, Genomically similar species carry the same letter symbol; ”, allopolyploids (A and B genome) and segmental allopolyploids (B genome); v, allopolyploids (D and E, A and E, or any other unknown combination); u, allopolyploids (A and D genomes, or any other unknown combination) Source: Hymowitz et al., 1998
Soybean
5
Glycine soja: This species sometimes designated as Gformosana is distributed throughout China, the adjacent areas of the erstwhile USSR, Korea, Japan and Taiwan. It grows in fields, hedge rows, along the roadsides and riverbanks. The plant is an annual procumbent or slender, twiner, having pinnately trifoliate leaves and often tawny, strigose or hirsute pubescence. Leaflets may be narrowly lanceolate, obviate, or oblong - elliptic. The purple or white flowers are inserted on short, slender racemes. The pods are short with a strigose to hirsute pubescence and oval-oblong seeds. Evidences accumulated from cytogenetic and morphological studies karyotype, seed protein and restriction endonucleoase fragment analysis of mitochondrial studies support hypothesis that G. soja is the wild ancestor of soybean (Hymowitz and Singh, 1987). The 100-seed weight of this accession has been found 0.3 g as compared to 10-12 g in the case of normal cultivated soybean. The pods are prone to shattering and seeds normally fall on the ground and germinate in the next rainy season.
Glycine max: It is an annual exhibiting an erect growth habit. It is partly branched and has pinnately trifoliate leaves. Leaflets are broadly ovate, oval to elliptic - lanceolate. The purple or white flowers are borne on short axillary raceme or reduced peduncle. Pods are either straight or slightly curved, usually hirsute. The one to three seeds per pod are usually ovoid to sub-spherical. The seed coats range in colour from light yellow, olive green and brown to reddish black. Seed weight varies from 10 to 20 g/100 seeds.
Classification Depending on the form, size, shape, colour of pods and maturity duration, soybean has been classified as follows. Manchurian classification: This classification is based on the colour of the seed-coat and embryo. (a) Yellow group: (i) yellow seeds with light hilum, (it) yellow seeds with golden hilum and (Hi) yellow seeds with brown hilum. (b) Black group: (z) Large black seeds, (zz) flat black seeds and (z'zz) small black seeds. (c) Green group: (z) Epidermis is green but embryo is yellow, (z'z) epidermis as well as embryo is green. Martin ’$ classification: This classification is based on the shape of soybean seed. (a) Soya eliptica - Seed is egg type (b) Soy spherica - Seed is round (c) Soya compress - Pressed seed Hertz classification: This classification is based on the shape of pods. (a) Soya platycarpa (flat seed) (b) Soya tumida (thick seed) U.S. classification: This classification is based on the maturity period. If different varieties are planted at the recommended places and time they will mature as follows.
Textbook of Field Crops Production — Commercial Crops
6
Variety
Hilum colour
00
117
Portage Flambeau
Yellow Black
0
126
Merit Grant Traverse
Buff Black Yellow
126
Chippewa Hark
Black Yellow
II
130
Harosoy 63 Amsoy
Yellow Yellow
III
131
Wayne Adelphia
Black Buff
IV
136
Clark 63 Kent Delmar
Black Black Yellow
Group
Maturity period (days)
V
139
Hill York
Brown Buff
VI
148
Hood Lee Pickett Davis
Black Black Buff
Buff
VII
156
Bragg Semmes
Black Black
VIII
158
Hardee Hampton
Buff Buff
VARIETIES Zone- wise recommended varieties in India are given in Table 1.4. Table 1.4 Zone-wise recommended varieties of soybean Zone
Varieties recommended
Northern Hills Zone
VLS 63, VLS 59.VLS 47.VLS 21, Palam Soya, Harit Soya, Bragg PS 1347, PS 1241, PS 1225, PS 1092, PS 1042, PS 1024, PS 1029, PK 472, PK 416, SLS 688, SLS 525, Pusa 9814, Pusa 9712, Bragg JS 93-05, JS 335, JS 95-60, JS 90-41, Ahilya 4 (NRC 37), Ahilya 3 (NRC 7), Indira Soya 9, MAUS 81, MAUS 61-2, MAUS 47, Bragg Pratap Soya 2, TAMS 98-21, TAMS 38, Phule Kalyani, MAUS 61, MAUS 32, MAUS 2, MACS 450, MACS 124, LSb-1, PS 1029, Bragg Pratap Soya 2, Pratap Soya 1, JS 97-52, JS 80-21, MAUS 71, Indira Soya 9, Bragg
Northern Plains Zone
Central Zone
Southern Zone
North-Eastern Zone
Source: Agarwal et a!., 2010
Soybean
7
THE PLANT
The cultivated soybean is an erect, bushy annual plant of great morphological diversity. The plant varies from 0.3 to 2.0 m in height and may be sparsely or densely branched, depending on cultivation, management and growing conditions. The mature soybean plant has 18-24 nodes. The lower-most node is the point of attachment of cotyledons, the next node gives rise to opposite unifoliate leaves and all subsequent nodes produce single trifoliate leaves alternately arranged on the stem. Leaves, stem, and pods in most varieties are covered with numerous fine tan coloured hairs, although glabrous types are known. Floral primordia are initiated within 3 weeks and flowering begins 6-8 weeks after emergence. Pods are visible in-one-and half weeks after the onset of flowering. Flowering continues for 3-4 weeks; many stages of pod and seed development occur on the plant until near physiological maturity. The flowers are papilionaceous, in short axillary or terminal raceme, bearing 30 to 35 flowers/cluster. The mature pod contains 1-4 seeds. Root Soybean was first characterized as having a tap root with many branches which penetrated to a depth of 150 cm with its major part occurring in the upper 60 cm. Field-grown soybeans lack distinct tap root; with major part of the root system consisting of lateral roots arising from the upper 10-15 cm section of the primary root (Mitchell and Russell, 1971). The lateral roots extend outwards from the plant nearby horizontally for 40-50 cm and grow downward to a depth as great as 180 cm. The root depth increases faster than shoot height during vegetative developÂŹ ment. The root depth is almost twice the shoot height until reproductive growth begins (Mayaki et al., 1976). Though root depth may exceed plant height throughout the growing season, dry weight of shoot exceeds root throughout the season. Nodulation: The root nodules are conspicuous spherical swellings of root cortex inhabited by Bradyrhizobium japonicum, a gram negative, rod-shaped soil bacteria, capable of penetrating root and establishing N2-fixing symbiotic relationship. There may be very large number of nodules on a mature plant distributed to almost a metre below the surface. The nodule initiation takes place after root hairs are formed. Roots secrete substances which promote rapid growth of soil microbes including Rhizobium. Highly flagellated cells of rhizobia enter root cells by inducing an increase in pectic enzyme which softens cell wall by partial dissolution. N2-fixation begins with appearance of leghaemoglobin and cessation of bacterial division. Fixation continues until 6th to 7th week of nodule age when nodule senescence begins. Stem The mature stem is largely pithy tissue (large parenchyma cells) and is sometimes quite woody in the lower section. The plastochrome, the time interval between initiation of leaves, in soybean is about two days.
Leaf Both upper and lower epidermal layers are covered with a thin cutin layer.
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Textbook of Field Crops Production — Commercial Crops
Stomata are present on both the surfaces; these are about three times as many on lower the epidermis as on the upper epidermis. There are 4 types of soybean
leaves. Cotyledons or seed leaves: These are semicircular with stomata on both upper and lower surface. They turn yellow and drop from the plant during early vegetative growth. Primary or unifoliate leaves: Primary or unfoliate leaves are opposite at the node immediately above the cotyledonary node. They have 1-2 cm long petioles and a pair of stipules at the point of petiole attachment to stem. Trifoliate leaves: All other leaves produced on the main stem and on the branches are trifoliate and are alternately arranged. Leaflets of trifoliate vary 4-20 cm in length and 3-10 cm in width. Prophylls: These are very small, simple leaves, which occur in pairs at the base of each lateral branch and the lower part of pedicel of each flower.
-
Flower Flower initiation is controlled by photoperiod, temperature and genotype. Soybean stem growth and flowering habit are of two types: indeterminate and determinate. In case of indeterminate, apical meristem continues vegetative activity during most of the growing season. The inflorescences are axillary racemes and pods are produced rather uniformly (comparable number at the nodes) on the stem. The determinate type is characterized by vegetative development, which ceases when apical meristem becomes an inflorescence, both axillary and terminal racemes exist, and pods are borne rather uniformly along the stem except for cluster of pods at the terminal racemes. The flowering period and the time of overlap of vegetative and reproductive growth is greater for indeterminate than determinate type. In one study (Egli and Leggett, 1973), the determinate lines had grown to 84% of their maximum height with the onset of flowering compared to only 67% of indeterminate lines. Of the total above-ground dry weight (excluding seed), the indeterminate had produced 58% when flowering began and 87% when pod development began, whereas determinate type produced 78 and 92% of its above-ground non-seed dry weight with the onset of flowering and pod development, respectively. Genes DTl and DT2 are responsible for determinate and indeterminate growth habit, respectively.
Seed Soybean seed is generally oval-shaped. The average seed weight is 120180 mg of which seed coat constitutes 10%. Cotyledons are generally yellow. Seed-coat colours are yellow, black, green, and several shades of brown. The mottling of seed-coat is predominantly due to extension of hilum colour (details are given under classification).
SOILS Soybean can be cultivated successfully on a variety of soils (Vertisols, Alfisols, Entisols), but a well-drained, sandy-loam soil to clay with medium
Soybean
9
water-holding capacity, reasonable depth, comparatively rich in organic carbon and leveled fields with near neutral pH (6.5 to 7.5) is ideal for harnessing maximum soybean yield. Soil with excessive salts/sodium and poorly drained conditions are not suitable for soybean cultivation. CLIMATE Temperature The optimum temperature for rapid germination of soybean is 30°C, whereas the minimum is 5°C and the maximum is 40°C. Temperature of 18°C or less does not permit pod set. Seed size is maximum when plants are grown at 27°C and number of pods/plant is the highest at 30°C. The temperature below 24°C delays flowering by 2 or 3 days for each decrement of 0.5°C. Flower induction is greatly inhibited at 10°C or below. A heat stress of 40-46°C results in pod abscission. Warmer temperature of 26-30°C hastens diversion of N and C from vegetative tissues and promotes earlier development of pods as sink. Lawn and Hume (1985) observed that warmer temperature generally favoured higher pod set. Rainfall Soybean requires 450 to 900 mm rainfall for better yield and seed quality, depending on the growth conditions. On an average, 550-600 mm annual rainfall is considered sufficient to produce a good soybean crop. Because of its long root system, soybean can tolerate dry conditions prior to flowering but adequate moisture becomes essential once the buds are formed until the pods have filled. Soybeans are susceptible to drought during the flowering and podformation stages. They can also do well in warm, dry areas under irrigation. Excessive rainfall prior to and during flowering can result in luxuriant growth and increased lodging. Waterlogged conditions have a negative effect on the
crop yield. For germination, soybean seed must be able to achieve moisture content of 50%. This moisture content can be attained in 5 days from a soil with a moisture tension of not less than -6.6 bar. Smaller soybean seeds may germinate better in drier soils than larger seeds. The capacity of soybean seed to emerge through crust (a major problem in Vertisols, where mostly soybean is grown in India) improves when adequate moisture is present in the seed. The daily water-use varies with the stage of growth and weather conditions. The typical peak wateruse rate is about 8- mm per day, which normally occurs near the beginning of the pod-fill stage. Water use is slow at the germination and seedling stages, peaks at or near full bloom/late flowering stage, and then declines with maturity. Net irrigation requirements for soybeans may range from around 125 to 350 mm depending on the climatic conditions. The most beneficial timing for a limited amount of irrigation is during late flowering stage. One irrigation during the late flowering stage gives great yield advantage. Water stress at the end of flowering and pod-initiation stage is most critical because it leads to flower and pod abortion. If full irrigation is possible, it should be scheduled at 50 to 60% available soil-water depletion.
Textbook of Field Crops Production — Commercial Crops
10
LAND PREPARATION AND SOWING Land preparation One deep ploughing in summer, followed by 2-3 cross harrowings or cultivation for breaking soil clods makes ideal seed bed of good tilth for soybean. A gentle gradient should be provided to ensure good drainage. Unleveled soil with clods results in either too shallow or deep placement of seed, which eventually leads to poor plant establishment and poor yield. Since a large area in soybean is under Vertisols and associated soils that are comparatively difficult to cultivate, soybean production can be raised and cost involved may be curtailed by reduced tillage. For better seedling establishment, there should be sufficient moisture in the field. If there is less moisture, then pre-sowing irrigation should be given. Sowing
Time of sowing: The photoperiodic response dictates time of planting for maximum yield of soybean. Early planting gives too much canopy, whereas late planting results in too little canopy; both result in reduced seed yield. Soybean planting dates depend on the variety and agro-climatic conditions. In India, soybean is mostly a rainy-season crop, sown in the last week of June to first week of July and harvested in October. Under irrigated conditions, a spring crop of soybean may be taken in north-eastern states. Sowing of spring soybean is done between 15th February and 15th March. Chandel (1989) from Pantnagar reported 15.3 and 45.7% reduction in seed yield of soybean when planting was done in the second fortnight of July and in the first week of August respectively, compared with the last week of June. There is reduction in pod-setting leading to seed yield reduction due to nonoptimal planting dates (Board, 1985). Recommended time of sowing of soybean for different zones of India is given in Table 1.5. Depth of sowing: Soybean cultivars differ in their emergence capability but a seed depth of 3-5 cm is optimum. Shallower depth is appropriate to crustprone areas, while deeper seeding is required in sandy soil. Seed rate: Seed rate depends on the seed index, germination percentage and date of planting. Generally, 75-80 kg seed/ha is recommended in kharifand 100 kg/ha is for spring. Based on the size of the seed, following seed rate should be used so as to have optimum plant population and judicious use of seeds.
Small seeded (Seed Index < 10 g): 60-65 kg/ha Medium seeded (Seed Index 10-12 g): 70-75 kg/ha Large seeded (Seed Index >12 g): 80-85 kg/ha Spacing: Optimum inter-row (row-to-row) spacing for kharif crop of soybean is 45 cm with an intra-row spacing of 4-5 cm (plant-to-plant), and for spring crop inter-row spacing should be kept at 30 cm. In Northern regions, where the plants attain excessive vegetative growth, a 60- cm inter-row spacing is recommended.
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