Textbook of Soil Science by Kisan Forum Pvt. Ltd.

Textbook of Soil Science

R.K. Mehra Associate Professor Department of Agriculture Chemistry and Soil Science Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology Rajasthan College of Agriculture Udaipur ÂŤ

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PUBLISHED BY

Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture Indian Council of Agricultural Research Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan, Pusa, New Delhi 110 012

First First Second Third Fourth

Printed Reprint Reprint Reprint Reprint

Project Director (DKMA)

June 2004 March 2006 July 2011 February 2013 September 2014

Dr Rameshwar Singh

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Dr Aruna T Kumar Reena Kandwal

Chief Production Officer Assistant Chief Technical Officer

Dr V K Bharti Kul Bhushan Gupta

ISBN : 81-7164-012-5

Price : ? 500

Published by Dr Rameshwar Singh, Project Director, Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan-I, Pusa, New Delhi 110 012 and printed at M/s Chandu Press, D-97, Shakarpur, Delhi 110 092.

Contents Section A : Soil Genesis and Soil Survey Page Chapter 3 Soil Development The Earth 1 Earth's evolution, Earth's crust-Layer of the earth, Soil Defined, Components of soil

15 Mineral composition of igneous sedimentary and metamorphic rocks Minerals and their characteristics, Soil forming minerals, Rocks, Physical weathering, Chemical Weathering, Biological weathering, Classification of parent materials

Weathering of Rocks and Minerals Weathering a constructive and destructive process

46 Soil Formation Passive and active factors of soil formation, Parent material as a factor of soil formation, Relief or topography, Time as a factor of soil formation, Climate as a factor of soil formation, Biosphere as a factor of soil formation

56 Soil Profile Development and Processes in Pedogenesis Inherited and acquired soil characteristics, The soil profile, A pedon, Surface soil and sub soil, Master horizons: A theoretical soil profile, Soil morphology, Processes in pedogenesies, Fundamental versus specific soil forming processes, Fundamental soil forming processes and their characteristics, Specific soil forming processes and their characteristics

68 Soil Classification Early system of soil classification, Soil taxonomy, Advantages of soil taxonomy, Diagnostic horizons, Subsurface horizons, Higher and lower categories of the classification system, Higher categories of soil taxonomy: Order, Suborder and Great group, Suborder, Great group, Lower categories of soil taxonomy: Sub group, family and series, Nomenclature according to soil taxonomy, Soil mapping units, Important soil groups of India, Indian soils in US system of soil classification

96 Soil Survey Purpose of soil survey, Types of soil survey, Soil survey methods, Technologies for mapping, Uses of soil surveys

104 Land Capability Classification Basis of classification, Capability classes, sub-classes and capability units

Section B : Soil Physics 9

113 Soil Physical Properties Soil color, its significance and determination, Soil texture, Properties of soil separate, Determination of soil texture, Stake's law, Importance of soil texture, Soil structure, Mechanisms of soil structure formation, Factors affecting formation of stable aggregates, Adhesion and cohesion, Adhesion and cohesion phenomenon, Flocculation and Deflocculation, Bulk density and particle density of soils, Factors affecting bulk density, Particle density, Soil porosity, Soil consistency

139 Soil Water Structure of water, Water pressure in a capillary tube, Classification of soil water, Moisture retention in soil: Energy concept of soil water, Soil water potential, Soil moisture constants and their relationship, Measurement of soil water content, Movement of water in soils, Permeability, Infiltration

Soil Air 163 Composition of soil air and factors affecting it, Mechanism of gaseous exchange, Soil air in relation to plant growth

Soil Temperature 171 Factors influencing soil temperature, Thermal capacity (C), Thermal conductivity (K), Thermal deficiency (K / C), Soil temperature fluctuations, Effect of soil temperature on plant growth

Section C : Physical Chemistry of Soils 13

Soil Colloids 183 Properties of colloids, Characteristics of silicate clays, Physical properties of soil colloids, Clay minerals, their type and structure, Iron and aluminum oxides, Organic soil colloids, Groups responsible for ionic exchange

Ion ExchangePhenomena 202 Site of cation exchange, Cation exchange capacity, Factors affecting cation exchange capacity, Base saturation, Exchangeable cations and plant nutrition, Practical implications of cation exchange, Anion exchange

Soil Reaction

220 pH and its method of expression, Factors affecting soil reaction, Method of determination of soil pH, Soil pH and nutrient availability, Soil organisms and pH, Buffering, Buffering in soils, Buffering capacity of soils and buffering curves, Factors affecting buffering capacity of soils, Importance of buffering

232 and Management of Saline Alkali Soils Origin, and Quality of Irrigation Water Characteristics of salt affected soils, Causes of formation of saline and alkali soils, Effect of salinity and alkalinity on the growth of crops, Management and reclamation of saline and alkali soils, Agronomic practices, Relative salt presence of certain plants, Harmful effects of poor quality irrigation water, Criteria of suitability of water for irrigation, Classification of irrigation water, Methods for improvement and management of poor quality irrigation water

268 Acid Soils Chief characteristics of acid soils, Active and reserve acidity of soils, Causes of soil acidity, Effect of soil acidity on plants, Liming, Efficiency of liming material, Method and time of application of liming material, Lime requirement of acid soil, Effect of liming materials on soils

282 Chemistry and Availability of Major Nutrients Nitrogen cycle, Fate of nitrogenous and phosphatic compounds, Reactions of nitrogen fertilizers, The phosphorus cycle, Phosphorus compounds in soils, pH and phosphate ions, Phosphorus fixing power of soils, The potassium cycle, Forms and availability of potassium in soil, Quality and intensity factors as related to the availability of phosphorus and potassium, Factors affecting availability of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in soil

312 Chemistry and Availability of Secondary Nutrients Importance of sulphur, The sulphur cycle, Role of sulphur compounds in soils and plants, Sulphur oxidation and reduction, Role of calcium and magnesium compounds in soil and plant, Factors affecting availability of calcium and magnesium in soil

327 Chemistry and Availability of Micronutrients Macro and micro-nutrient, Role of micro-nutrients, Chelated nutrients, Factors affecting availability of micro-nutrient cations and anions, Source and need for micro-nutrient balance, Micro-nutrient fertilizers and soil management

371 Soil Organisms Classification of soil organisms, Different group of soil organisms, Methods of studying soil organisms and their activities, Factor affecting activities of soil organisms, Microbial interaction, Soil plant interaction Rhizosphere plant pathogen phyllosphere microrrhiZa, Management of rhizosphere, Microbes and soil fertility, Photochemical reactions, Microbial population in soil

Reclamation

402 Soil Organic Matter Composition and sources, Determination of soil organic matter, Carbon cycle,

Humus biochemistry and theory of humus formation, Characterization of humus, Soil enzymes, Role of organic matter, Organic matter decomposition and nutrient mineralization, Soil organic matter of plant growth, Maintaining of soil organic matter, Factors affecting the availability of soil organic matter

Biofertilizers 428 Biofertilizers meaning, Classification of biofertilizers, Isolation identification and evaluation of organisms used as bio fertilizers, Mechanism of beneficial effects through bio-fertilizers, Factors affecting efficiency of bio-fertilizers, Commercial production of bio-fertilizers.

Soil and Environmental Pollution 456 Pollution - recognition of problem, Sources of soil pollution, Pesticides their kinds and reaction in soil, Effect of pesticides on soil organisms, Toxic compounds-hazards of chemicals, Organic chemical contamination - their prevention, Water pollution-fertilizer contamination of water, soil salinity, Atmospheric pollution, Effect of agricultural practices on environment, Environmental degradation and its management, Measures for effective control of pollution

SECTION

Soil GENESIS ANd Soil SuRVEy

1 - The Earth

Soil Development

OOIL is the upper layer of the earth in which plants grow. The soils support us

all-plants, animals and people either directly or from other life that comes from the soil. From the time man began to think, the soil has been recognized as the mother of all - plants, animals and man. Soil locks within its embrace the beginning of all life, and receives, at last, their discarded forms. It is the imperishable storehouse of eternity . The thin layer of soil covering the earth’s surface represents the difference between survival and extinction for most terrestrial life. The soils are developing as a result of chemical, biological and physical actions and reactions within the earth’s crust. Knowledge of rocks and earth’s crust is essential in understanding (i) the origin of different soils and (ii) causes of variations in properties of different soils.

EARTH’S EVOLUTION The four major layers that make up the earth - the crust, the mantle and the outer and inner core - vary considerably. Earth’s crust is about 1% of the total volume. Beneath the earth’s crust is the mantle, which accounts for 82% of the earth’s total volume and descends nearly

DEPTH (Km) (Miles).

50 30 2900 1800

TEMPERATURE

<C*

F*)

500 3000 5435: CRUST

3600 "6500“

5100 3170 6370 3960

;CDRE\_DIJTER 4000

mm CORE 4:-:-:-:-:

Fig. 1.1. A slice through the earth's center would show that it is built of four main layers.

TEXTBOOK OF SOIL SCIENCE

3000 km (over 1800 miles) to the molten outer core. The central core is a ball of energy produced by radibactive elements. The temperature at the core is 4000°C (7230°F), which diminishes gradually to about 3000°C (5430°F) at the boundary between the outer core and the mantle. Heat was generated from the radioactive decay and cloud of gas. The gas cloud formed planetesimala, small bodies that smashed together generating enormous kinetic energy and subsequently heat. Thus, the earth and other planets in the solar system were formed. EARTH’S CRUST - LAYER OF THE EARTH The earth consists of a solid part (core, mantle and the crust) and the atmosphere surrounding it. Most of the earth's crust is covered with sea. The crust, made of rocks is about 80 Km thick. Earth's crust covered with water is

ATMOSPHERE SOILCRUST

/CORE T ¥ RADIUS (In

Thousand of Miles)

CENTRE OF EARTH

Fig. 1 .2. Cross section of a slice of the earth showing soil as a thin layer between the atmosphere and the earth’s crust.

called hydrosphere. Solid crust of the earth forms lithosphere. The atmosphere is about 272 Km deep. The soil forms a very thin layer between these two (Fig. 1.2). The present form of earth has emerged after million of years in which liberation of gases from the molten masses, earthquakes, earth movements, volcanic eruptions have contributed. Though the outside of the earth is cool, the interior is still very hot. With depth, there is a tremendous increase in temperature. Because of the pressure from above, the interior of the earth remains in a solid state. The surface of the earth’s crust is covered with mountains, depressions (covered with water) and atmosphere. Spheres of the Earth The earth consists of three spheres - the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the lithosphere.

SOIL GENESIS AND SOIL SURVEY

Atmosphere: All round our earth, there is a cover of air known as atmosphere. It extends to a height of 1600 Km from the earth’s surface, but has been under extensive studies only up to 300 Km . The atmosphere contributes 0.03% by weight of the earth. It is made up mainly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). Argon, carbon dioxide, helium, ozone, neon, krypton are other gases which constitute only 1% of the total air quantity . Besides these gases, air contains water vapor and dust particles. At the sea level the atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1033.41gms/ cm2 Hydrosphere : The water cover found round the earth forms hydrosphere. About 71% of the earth’s surface is covered with water. The hydrosphere makes up only 6.91% of the earth mass, but by volume it is 15 times that of the visible land. Seawater contains highest amount of soluble salts. Average density of seawater is 1.026 due to mineral matter dissolved in it. The average content of mineral matter in the seawater is 3.5%. Lithosphere: The solid crust of rocks on which we live is lithosphere. It accounts for 93.06% of the earth’s mass. Visible land is more concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere. Average chemical composition of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the lithosphere are as presented in Table 1.1 One hundred eight elements are known to occur in nature. But only few of these occur in abundance in earth’s crust. Oxygen and silicon exist to the extent of approximately 74%, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium Table 1.1. Average chemical composition of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the lithosphere.

Lithosphere (earth’s crust) (93.06%)

Average of all sphere

O 46.46 H

0.14

49.02 C

0.18

2.07

Si 27.61

0.12

26.67 Cl

0.19

1.14

8.07 Mn

0.09

7.50

0.11

0.04

0.14

5.06 C

0.09

4.71

0.06

1.33

0.05

Ca 3.65

0.06

3.39 Ba

0.04

Mg 2.07 Cl

0.05

1.93 Mn 0.09

0.27

Na 2.75 Ba

0.04

2.63 Sr

0.02

0.008

2.58

0.03

2.40 N

0.03

0.008

0.62 Sr

0.02

0.87

0.03

0.00018

Rest

0.50

0.58 Rest 0.50

Atmosphere (0.3)

Hydrosphere

75.77

HjO 96.24

22.69

H20

0.17

CO,

Other

(6.91%)

0.04

* F. W. Clarke, Data of Geochemistry, US Geological Survey Bulletin 770, 5“ edn. (1924).

TEXTBOOK OF SOIL SCIENCE

make up nearly 24% and all others only nearly 1% of the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crust. Oxygen, carbon and nitrogen exist in a free state in nature. Most of the other elements are found in combination as minerals in rocks. The combination of these minerals forms silicates, oxides, carbonates, phosphates, and sulphates, which occur in the lithosphere. These elements when combine under suitable conditions give rise to a variety of minerals. Rocks when exposed to weathering agencies evolved into soils. Origin of Soil

For many millions of years, the earth had no soil but only air, water, and rocks. Many geological processes were at work before the plants came. Mountains were thrust up and worn down by weathering and erosion. Changes from hot to cold and the formation of ice broke the rocks into small bits. Some parts dissolved and were carried deep into the rocks or to the ocean. Great streams and oceans washed the rock fragments, sorted them, and laid them down again. These were in turn pressed into mountains, and the process was repeated. Earthquakes, tidal waves, volcanic eruptions of ash and lava added complications. The masses of ice plucked rocks from the hills they passed over, ground them into fine clay, sand and pebbles. Part of this mixture was left on the land from the melting ice, as glacial till. Glacial streams, sorted and left along their borders as terraces. Some of the fines were left as silts and clays in old glacial lakes. Even now the work of smaller glaciers can be seen in the high mountains or wherever there is much snow and cold. Once the rocks were broken into fine particles, during periods of great dryness, the wind picked them up and carried them out over other land. From the deserts the fine material blew far away. The sand was deposited in dunes near the margins. The same kind of blowing on a reduced scale can be seen during extreme drought and where there is no protective cover of vegetation. Most of the soils, from relatively fresh volcanic ash are quite fertile. ATong with these processes of physical weathering go the slower chemical changes in the rock material. These chemical changes are slowest where it is cold and dry and fastest where it is hot and humid. In the tropics there are soil materials with chemical composition very different from those of the mother rock. Their iron and aluminium tend to accumulate and the other common mineral elements, even silicon, nearly disappear with time. These rock-destroying and earth-forming processes go on continually. It takes a long time to produce an inch of soil that supports plants. Under favourable environmental and geological conditions the soil can evolve from the bedrock in 1000-1500 years. Soil is one of our most vital natural resources as it provides sustenance for plants, insect and animals. In recent years, there has been an increased awareness of the multiple role, th6 soil has in the quality of life. Soils are not only the resource on which we grow our food, but are also the media in which we dispose of our wastes, develop recreational lands, support our environment and build our structure. Engineers, geologists and many others have interpreted the importance of Soil science information to natural resource management and environmental quality. The soil

SOIL GENESIS AND SOIL SURVEY

scientists endeavour to improve our understanding of the earth’s complex soil system in order to preserve and effectively utilize our soil resources. Dr L.P. Wilding former President of the Soil Science Society of America stated that “Soil Science is at a critical stage” (Geotimes, February 1995). He emphasized the need to expand education for soil science students into areas such as waste recycling, soil and water quality, global climate change, soil stability, economic viability, and food security and safety. The time has come for developing programs that cross disciplinary boundaries, encompass ecological principles, quantify soil diversity and quality and enhance environmental protection. The international Congress of soil science in 1 994, identified the following soil science agenda for the 21st century. Broaden soil science constituencies beyond traditional agricultural partners. Expand the focus of soil science to include food security, food safety ecosystem management, and sustainability of the biosphere, environmental protection, and the urban environment. Enhance the fundamental knowledge of soil systems by a more holistic, inter disciplinary approach that is dynamic and process oriented e.g. soils as the C02 sink in global climate change. Identify early warning systems of soil degradation so prevention may be substituted for remediation. Establish soil quality as a key indicator of environmental health linking food, land and people. Develop joint proposals, continuing education programs, and research methodologies among soil scientists from developed and developing countries. Make potential soil-science clientele aware of the products and expertise of the discipline.

—

— — — — — —

Soil Development Soils are composed of the unconsolidated organic and mineral materials on the earth’s surface in which physical, chemical and biological differentiation into horizontal layers has taken place. Soil development includes (i) the breakdown of rocks to soil (ii) the changes in the soil profile brought about by natural processes of leaching, translocation of colloids, accumulation of organic materials and weathering. In other words, the changes that produce A and B-horizons are referred to as soil development. The decomposition of plant and animal residues represent a very essential series of reactions in soil development. The initial decomposition reactions are rapid, and they give inorganic salts, carbon dioxide and a highly carbonaceous residue, which is resistant to further decomposition. The rates of production and the rates of decomposition of these organic materials vary greatly with the environment under which a soil develops. Thus minute quantities of organic materials are deposited as in mineral soils. Also, conditions may be suitable for the production of larger quantities of organic materials but unfavorable for their decomposition. Under such condition soils consist of highly resistant organic materials. The translocation or movement of the products of weathering and of organic decomposition is one of the most important phases of

TEXTBOOK OF SOIL SCIENCE

soil development. Soil is thus a dynamic system. Soil body becomes the habitat of plants, animals and micro-organisms. Dead tissues of these materials form organic materials. Thus a combination of mineral particles and organic materials form soil body. Living organisms in soil contribute to biological activity and support plant life by providing anchorage to roots, water and nutrient to support plant life. SOIL DEFINED The word soil comes from the Latin word solum, which means floor. ‘A soil’ means one individual soil body as ‘A plant’ means one individual plant. ‘A soil’ is a natural body - a piece of landscape - with depth, shape and area. ‘The soil’ is a collective term for all the soils of the world just as “the vegetation” is a collective term for all the plants. ‘A soil’ is a subdivision of ‘the soil’ having specific characteristics. The soil properties may differ with slope or type of parent material. It is necessary to distinguish between soil and land. Land is a general term, which includes soil, organisms and minerals on it. Land with its vast resources of water, mineral and soil, is the foundation on which nations and civilizations are based. Land is a broader term, which includes the soil and also the physical attributes such as plant cover, water supply and location with respect to cities and means of transportation etc. For example forest land and grassland may include a variety of soils. The term soil is restricted to a collection of natural bodies with depth as well as breadth (three-dimensional). Soil is only a part of the land. A definition of soil, which very nearly meets its requirements, may be cited as under. Soil is a natural body, dynamic and ever changing, formed by natural forces acting on natural materials. It is usually, differentiated into horizons of mineral and organic constituents of variable depth which differ from the parent material below in morphology, physical properties and constitutions, chemical properties and composition, and biological characteristics. According to the Glossary of Soil Science Terms (Soil Science Society of America 1970). i) ‘Soil is the unconsolidated mineral material on the immediate surface of the earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants’. ii) ‘Soil is the unconsolidated mineral matter on the surface of the earth that has been subjected to and influenced by genetic and environmental factors of parent material, climate (including moisture and temperature effects), macro and micro-organisms and topography, all acting over a period of time and producing a product, that is soil, that differs from the material from which it is derived in many physical, chemical, biological and morphological properties and characteristics’. A few of the other definitions given by scientists are: “Soil is a natural body developed by natural forces acting on natural materials. It is usually differentiated into horizons from mineral and organic constituents of variable depth which differ from the parent material below in morphology, physical properties and constituents, chemical properties and composition and biological characteristics.” Joffe and Marbut

SOIL GENESIS AND SOIL SURVEY

“Soil is the more or less loose and crumbly part of the outer earth crust in which by means of their roots, plants may or do find foothold and nourishment as well as all other conditions essential to their growth.” Hilgard Soil may be defined as “A dynamic natural body on the surface of the earth in which plants grow composed of mineral and organic materials and living forms.” Buckman and Brady

“Soil is the uppermost weathered layer of the soil earth’s crust; it consists of rocks that have been reduced to small fragments and have been more or less changed chemically together with the remains of plants and animals that live on it and in it.” Raman The most recent definition of soil by Velayutham and Bhattacharya (2000) that seems most appropriate is as follows: Soil is a dynamic natural body developed as a result of pedogenic processes through weathering of rocks, consisting of mineral and organic constituents, possessing definite chemical, physical, mineralogical and biological properties, having a variable depth over the surface of the earth, and providing a medium for plant growth. Jenny pointed out that “all soils are anisotropic” that is the sequence of all soil properties differs profoundly along a line extending from the surface of the soil towards the center of the earth from that along lines parallel to the surface. This is justified in definitions given by different scientists. This anisotropy is basically the result of weathering of hard rocks and of reorganization, translocation and concentration of the mobile constituents due to the effects of the environment.

Characteristics of Soil Soil is a natural body, i.e. it is a natural medium for plant growth and cannot be synthesized artificially. Differentiated into horizons, the presence of different layers due to movement, translocation and accumulation of materials and Morphological, chemical and biological differences due to varying parent material and climatic conditions.

• • •

Functions of Soil Soil is an interface between the earth’s crust and the atmosphere. Thus it is involved in recycling of resources such as energy, water, gases and nutrient

•

• •

elements. Soil supplies mechanical support, water and nutrients to the growing plant and oxygen to the plant roots. The soil also stores the sun heat, and supplies it to the growing plant. Soil surface is used for production of agricultural crops. The soil is the habitat of a very large number of organisms of both plant and animal origin. Its nonagricultural uses include the construction of buildings, recreation and waste disposal.

TEXTBOOK OF SOIL SCIENCE

New Approach Towards Soil So far the knowledge of the chemical, physical and biological behavior of the soil was obtained mainly for obtaining higher yields. It is now realized that many problems must be studied without reference to yields. The increased use of fertilizers and pesticides has resulted in a steady rise of the chemical residues in soils. Recently, soil scientists have begun to realize the need for a compromise between maximum crop production and the conservation of a valuable natural resource and environment. The trend now is towards preserving the soils natural state by causing minimum disturbance when crops are grown which may be achieved by natural farming. Thus, great emphasis is being placed on the utilization of soils recognizing it as a natural resource. The fundamental knowledge of the soil as regard its origin and development, its nature and composition, its role in nutrition of animals and plants is very essential for better understanding. Mineral and Organic Soil A soil with no specific mention is understood to be a mineral soil. Inorganic constituents dominate in mineral soils. The majority of soils in India are mineral soils. In contrast to the mineral soil, organic soils develop from an accumulation of plant residues preserved by stagnant waters. Soils having more than 20%of organic constituents are arbitrarily called as organic soils. The agriculturist is primarily interested in organic soils, and the engineer in inorganic soils. The bulk of the soil material is mineral in character and has been derived from solid geological deposits. Organic soils are of two types i.e. peat and muck soils. These soils are classified on the basis of their organic matter content and stage of decomposition of the plant residues. Soils containing 20 to 50% of fairly well decomposed organic matter are called muck soils. These soils are only slightly decayed. Soils with more than 50% organic matter and markedly decomposed so that original plant materials cannot be identified are called peat soils. Organic soils must contain 33.3% organic matter in case such soils are not saturated with water. The study of soil can be considered from the point of view of two aspects that is edaphology and pedology. Edaphology (derived from the Greek word edaphos, which means soil or ground and logos, which means knowledge) is the study of soil from the standpoint of higher plants including human use of land. Pedology (derived from the Greek word pedon, which means soil or earth) is the study of the origin, classification and description of the soil. Pedology does not focus on the soils immediate practical use. Thus, both the aspects are important for an understanding of soil development.

COMPONENTS OF SOIL The soil consists of four major components: mineral matter, organic matter soil air and soil water. By volume, the air-dry soil contains about 45% mineral matter, 5% organic matter and 25% each of water and air. (Fig. 1 .3). The arrangement of solid particles and pore space is called the soil matrix. The matrix is a three-phase system of solid (mineral matter and organic matter) liquid (water) and gas (air). The proportion of air and water are subject to rapid

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