ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY FOR SURVEYORS AND CARTOGRAPHY STUDENTS
GEOGRAPHY 1 / ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
INDICE CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction......................................................3 Part I : Physical Geography I.1. Introduction.................................................................4 I.2. Weather and climate...................................................4 I.3. Landforms of the earth’s crust...................................9 I.4. Waters........................................................................ 22 I.5. The natural regions of the world................................24
Part II : Human Geography II.1. Introduction.................................................................33 II.2. Population...................................................................33 II.3. Settlements.................................................................36 II.4. Agriculture..................................................................39 II.5. Mining and power supplies........................................43 II.6. Manufacturing industry..............................................44 II.7. Transport and communications................................45 II.8. Man-made geographical regions..............................47
References.........................................................................52
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INTRODUCTION
Why geography in your cartography course? In making maps cartographers translate geographical information into a graphical language. For a good translation on every possible scale a cartographer should have some knowledge of the nature of the geographical information; for the special characteristics of the geographical information have to be preserved in the map as much as possible. Being a cartographer you have to follow these lectures to get a basic understanding of geography. In addition to these lecture notes you may study the following book: -H. Robinson & F. S. Hudson: “Physical and human geography� - Published by MacDonald and Evans Ltd., London, 1978 (third edition). What is geography? The simplest definition of geography is: the description of the earth. But geographers not only describe the earth, but also examine the spatial distributions and interdependence of the things on earth. In short, geographers want to know the where?, why? and how? of things. Depending on the character of the phenomena of the earth studied, natural or man-made, a distinction is made between physical and human geography. Physical geography is dealt with in Part I of these lecture notes, human geography in Part II.
Antique map of the world.
GEOGRAPHY 3 / ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
I.1. INTRODUCTION Physical geography deals with the physical (natural) features of the earth. In this respect we consider the earth to have three main components: 1. The atmosphere: The layer of gases, water-vapour and dust which forms the outer envelope of the globe (‘the air’). 2. The lithosphere : The solid crust which envelope the central core of the earth. 3. The hydrosphere: The waters of the earth’s surface collectively. In the next chapters a number of concepts related to the atmosphere (chapter I.2.), the lithosphere (chapter I.3.) and the hydrosphere (chapter I.4.) will be discussed. In the last chapter of Part I (chapter I.5.) the natural regions of the world, as based on the potential natural vegetation will be discussed.
I.2.WEATHER AND CLIMATE I.2.1.Weather The weather is the total sum of the conditions of the various weather elements. The chief elements of weather are:
a.temperature b.air pressure c.wind d.precipitation
a)Temperature The temperature of a place is the amount of heat it enjoys as measured by a thermometer. The main source of heat is the sun. The temperature is expressed in:
1.degrees Fahrenheit 2.degrees Celsius or Centigrades
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY To compare these measuring units: Freezing point of water
Boiling point of water
Fahrenheit scale
32º F
212º
Celsius/Centigrade scale
0º C
100ª C
5 9
tº C tº F - 32
To change degrees Fahrenheit into degrees Celsius you may use the next formula: XºF = 5/9 (X – 32)º C To change degrees Celsius into degrees Fahrenheit you may use the next formula: YºC = (9/5Y + 32)º F Isothermal map = a thematic map that shows the distribution of the temperature by isotherms. An isotherm = a line connecting points of equal temperature.
b)Air pressure Air pressure = the weight of a column of sir from the top of the atmosphere to the earth’s surface per cm². This weight and so the air pressure, is expressed in millibars.
to areas of low pressure, just as water flows from high ground to low ground. When the ground is steep, water flows rapidly; in the same way, air, in the form of wind, blows strongly when the differences in air pressure are large. In order to describe wind it is necessary to know:
1.Its direction 2.Its force (speed) 1.The direction of wind is the compass point from which it is blowing. E.g. a north-eastern wind comes from the north-east. It can be expressed in the directions of the compass or in degrees (north being 0º) See figure 1.
The air pressure is not the same on all places of the earth. An isobar = a line connecting points of equal sir pressure.
c)Wind Air moves from areas of high pressure
GEOGRAPHY 5 / ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
Figure 1: Directions of wind. Source: www.meted.ucar.edu
PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 2. The speed with which air moves is either given as a real velocity (in m/sec of in knots) or as wind force (expressed in the Beaufort Wind Scale).
Source: www. mountwashington.org
d)Precipitation Air humidity = the amount of water vapour in the air. Air of a certain temperature and pressure can hold a certain maximum amount of water vapour. If this maximum amount is present then you can call the air saturated. Precipitation takes place when this saturation point is reached. Precipitation = the deposition of moisture on the earth’s surface. There are different types of precipitation:
-
rain snow sleet (mixture of snow and rain) hail fog and mist dew hoar - frost (frozen dew)
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Rainfall, the most common form of precipitation, is expressed in millimetres, as captured in a measuring glass that collects the water. Based on daily rainfall measurements, monthly or yearly averages of the rainfall can be calculated. However, the average rainfall figures for an area give only a very simplified impression of the rainfall. For rainfall is a climate element with a very high variability, i.e. the rainfall in a certain period in one year may greatly differ from the amount of rain in another period in the same year or the same period in the next year. Especially in arid regions this variability is very important. Thus, for practical application (in for example agriculture) figures on the rainfall variability and rainfall probability are of much more use.
For that matter, about the same may be said of temperature: yearly averages of the temperature do not say much about e.g. the chance of a killing night-frost. Moreover, the effectiveness of the rainfall is also very important in e.g. agriculture. The effectiveness of rainfall: The total rainfall minus the total possible evaporation. Evaporation: The process by which water is changed from the liquid to the gaseous form and so incorporated into the atmosphere. The loss of water takes place from a free effective for plant growth if the amount of rainfall exceeds the amount of evaporation. The rate of evaporation is mainly a function of temperature, winds and the nature of the surface.
Source: www.keep3.sjfc.edu
GEOGRAPHY 7 / ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY So there are not only considerable seasonal differences in the rate of evaporation but also spatial ones. (see fig. 2).
Fig.2: Global annual precipitation and potential evapotranspiration. Source: www.futurewater.nl
Due to the spatial differences in evaporation the effectiveness of the same amount of rainfall varies greatly between e.g. cool and hot countries. The mean annual potential evaporation rate amounts to 6250 mm. in Khartoum in the Sudan, while the mean annual rate for London is only 460 mm. An isohyetal map: a map showing the rainfall by isohyets. An isohyet: A line connecting points of equal rainfall amounts.
Source: www.rainfall.geography.hawaii.edu
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
I.2.2. Climate
Macro-climate = the general climate of a large area.
The weather over a long period of time is summed up and called climate, which may therefore, be defined as:
Micro-climate = the climate of the lower 2 metres of the atmosphere or the climate of a very small area.
The average weather at a certain place (continent, country, region, town, etc.) over a certain period (by international agreement - 30 years).
The world can be divided in many climatic regions according to different classifications: e.g. the classification of KĂśppen and Thornothwaite.
Source: www. blueplanetbiomes.org
I.3 LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST Is outer part of the solid crust that envelopes the core of the earth three zones can be recognized (see fig. 3 below). 1. The bed rock: The solid, unchanged rock. 2. The soil : The completely weathered material. 3. The residuas: The transitional zone between bed rock and soil.
Source: www.elearning.stkc.go.th
9 / FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY
Source: www. britannica.com
Fig. 3: Division of the lithosphere.
PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY In these lecture notes we will only discuss the bed rock and what happens to it, in order that various landforms come into being.
The bed rock The rocks are classified: 1. According to their mode of origin. 2. According to their age.
1. The origin of rocks Rocks have been formed in three principal ways: a. By an upward movement of molten material from the earth’s interior igneous rocks. b. By the wearing down of older rocks and the redeposition of rock particles: sedimentary rocks. c. By the changing of other rocks: metamorphic rocks.
The broad geographical patterns of mineral distribution are highly associated with the rock types. The big and very important group of mineral fuels for instance - which is sedimentary in origin - is mostly found in the contact zone of sedimentary rock and metamorphic or igneous rock. Metallic minerals are originally typical for igneous and metamorphic rocks. As a result of erosion and sedimentation later on, many metallic minerals are now found in the contact zone of sedimentary rocks (especially in the very old types) with igneous and metamorphic rocks.
The age of rocks Rocks can be classified according to age in using a geological time-chart (see fig. 4). A geological time-chart should be read upwards the oldest period being at the foot.
Source: www. bmorrish.wrytestuff.com
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Fig. 4: Geological time-chart
Quaternary
0 years ago
Holocene Pleistocene
1.000.000 years ago Tertiary
Pliocene Miocene Oligocene Eocene
70.000.000 years ago Mesozoic (secondary)
Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic
250.000.000 years ago
Paleozoic (Primary)
Permian Carboniferous Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian
600.000.000 years ago Mesozoic (secondary)
Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic 2.000.000.000 -4.500.000.000 years ago
Archaean
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Pre-Cambrian
PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY What happens to the rock? All kinds of forces try to change the rock. Some of these forces act very slowly and rock changes are hardly visible within a man’s life-time. Other forces occur suddenly and quickly with often disastrous effects. All these forces can be grouped under two main headings: 1. Endogenetic forces = Forces in the earth. 2. Exogenetic forces = Forces from outside the earth. 1. Endogenetic forces a. volcanic activity b. earthquakes c. mountain building movements
a. Volcanic activity = All those processes in which molten rock material (magma) or gases rise into the earth’s crust and are poured out on its surface. So not only the well-known volcanoes are the result of volcanism, but also geysers are resulting from volcanic processes. (see fig. 5)
Fig. 5: Cross-section of a volcano. Source: www.scienceclarified.com
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Most volcanic activities are associated with certain lines of weakness in the earth’s crust. (see fig. 6 below)
Fig. 6: Earthquake zones and volcanoes: lines of weakness in the earth’s crust.
b.Earthquakes = Sudden and rapid movements of the earth’s crust. As with volcanic activities, the earthquakes too, are associated with about the same lines of weakness in the earth’s crust. (see fig. 6 above)
c.Mountain building movements
Folding Fold mountains have been formed by the folding of surface rocks.(see fig. 7below). Folding is the result of horizontal forces in the earth’s crust.
Mountain building movements are very slow and take place over many centuries. We can distinguish between: -folding -faulting
Fig.7: Fold mountains Source: www.tulane.edu
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
In the folded layers upfolds are called anticlines, down folds synclines (see fig. 8 below). Fig. 8: Anticlines and synclines.
Faulting
Vertical forces in the earth’s crust will result in uplift or subsidence of rock. In this way block mountains (horsts) and rift valleys (grabens) are formed. (see fig. 9)
Fig. 9: Faulting - the formation of horsts (above) and rift valleys (below)
Notice the difference between fold and fault: Horsts generally have more level summits than fold mountains. A block mountain in often a plateau.
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
2.Exogenetic Forces
c. Mass movement = The down-hill
The mountains, that we know today and that have been built by the mountain building movements of folding an faulting, at one time never existed and at some time in the distant future will no longer be in existence for they will have been worn away by erosion.
Usually a high content of water in the soil on the slope contributes to the mass movement. (e.g. after heavy rains).
This very slow process of land being built up and then being worn away is a continuos cycle that has been going on since the crust of the earth was first formed and will be going on for ever. This process is termed the erosion cycle. While endogenetic processes are building the land up, all exogenetic processes are aiming at bringing the earth’s surface to a common level. Some of the exogenetic processes level down, others level up. Exogenetic forces that try to lower the landscape (called denudation) are: a. Weathering b. Erosion c. Mass movement
a.Weathering = The process of
transport of weathered material under the influence of gravity.
An exogenetic process that tries to level up the earth’s surface is called sedimentation.
Sedimentation = The deposition of the transported weathered materials if the capacity of the agents of erosion to transport the materials decreases. The sedimentation is a direct result from a loss in transporting power, e.g. when river water velocity decreases if the river enters a flatter area or the sea, or when wind velocity decreases at the lee-side of a hill. The exogenetic processes (resulting from exogentic forces) that we have discussed are the main sculptors of the earth’s surface. They produce the so-called landforms, which are directly visible for the human eye. In general, three major landforms can be recognized on earth.
decomposition and disintegration of rock, breaking it up into small particles. Most of the weathering processes are the result of the influence of climatic elements on the solid bed rock.
1. Plains 2. Plateau’s 3. Hills and mountains
b.Erosion = The loose material
1. Plain
produced by weathering is collected and transported by running water, ice or wind. These so-called “agents of erosion” use the loose material as they carry it away, in scraping, scratching, grinding, battering and pulverising (i.e. in eroding) the land surface.
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is a landform whose surface is flat, nearly flat or gently rolling. The elevation is usually low. Most plains start at sea level and slope upward in an inland direction. Examples are: the Thar Indo-Gangetic Plain, Great Plain of China, Great Plains (U.S.A.).
PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 2. Plateau is a table like land surface, fairly flat or moderately rolling and bounded on at least one side by steeper slopes descending to much lower areas. On other parts the plateau may be bounded by slopes rising up to higher mountains.
3. Hills and mountains are landforms with moderate to steep slopes with an irregular surface. Valleys and ridges are typical features of hills and mountains. In mapping the landform, and this has always to be done in a generalized way, it is very important that their characteristics are preserved. Therefore, cartographers should have a basic understanding of the characteristics of landforms and that is why we will discuss the work of the main agents of erosion, which are the most important sculptors of landforms. Successively we will deal with the work of running water, the sea, ice and the wind.
The work of running water
Running water is able to transport loose material. The higher the velocity of the water, the more the load that can be transported, up to big boulders. The velocity of the water chiefly depends upon the gradient of the slope from which the water is flowing. Strong erosions potentials may, therefore, be expected first of all on steep slopes. The erosive forces of the water are cause of the developing of river-valleys. In fact, the erosive forces of the running water can act in a horizontal (widening of the valley) and a vertical (deepening of the valley) way. Vertical erosion is especially marked at the upper courses of a river, horizontal erosion at the middle and lower courses. Therefore, rivers usually have narrow V-shaped valleys in their upper courses. But as the volume of water carried by the river increases in the power courses it begins to widen its valley by sideways erosion. The development of a broad flood plain is the direct result of this sidewise cutting. Besides, the river often develops loops or meanders in its lower and middle courses. (see fig. 10)
Fig. 10: Widening of a valley. Source: www.sleepingdogstudios.com
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY A meandering river undercuts the bank on the outside of the loop (erosion) and deposits material (sedimentation) on the inside of the bend where the current is slack. (see fig. 11) Fig. 11: A meandering river and its cross-section.
Source: www.greenfieldgeography.wikispaces.com
Gradually the meander becomes more curved until only a narrow neck of land separates one loop from the next. When the river is in flood this narrow neck of land may be cut through so that the river straightens its course and the meander is abandoned. The old meander is left as a lake, called an oxbow-lake. (see fig. 12) Fig. 12: the formation of meanders and an oxbow-lake.
Source: www.scalloway.org.uk GEOGRAPHY 17/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
In times of flood the river channel is unable to hold all the water. It spills over the banks and - because of a sudden loss of river velocity – deposits some of the transported material on the banks, thus increasing their height. The raised banks are called natural levees. (see fig. 13 below) Fig. 13: Natural levees.
Source: www. web.mst.edu
Due to losses in the transporting power of the river (e.g. at times of low water), it also deposits material in its own bed to form sand banks. In places the river thus becomes braided. A braided river = A river whose course consists of a network of interconnected shallow channels with banks of sand and gravel and boulders in between. (see fig. 14) Fig. 14: Braided river
Source: www. braidedriver.net
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY When a river enters standing water (the sea or a lake), river velocity suddenly decreases and therefore material dropped by a river, it gradually accumulates, so that the land is built out into the sea forming a delta.
3. A cuspate-delta, which is pointed like a tooth (e.g. the Ebro-delta)
Deltas have various shapes, depending on local conditions. We can distinguished the following delta types. (see fig. 15 below) 1. Abird’s foot-delta (e.g. the Mississippi-delta)
4. An estuarine-delta (e.g. the Rhine-delta)
2. An arcuate or fan-shaped delta (e.g. the Nile-delta)
The work of the sea Like rivers the sea also has erosive forces and also deposits the transported loose materials at some places. In this way the action of the sea (by the forces of waves, tides and currents) is continually altering the shape of the coastline. There are several types of coast (see fig. 16)
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
1. Estuarine coastal
4. Dalmatians coastal
2. Ria coastal
5. Lagoon coastal
3. Fiord coastal
6. Depositional coastal
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The work of the wind The work of the wind is most effective in arid regions especially where there is little vegetation to protect the soil. The loose material produced by the (heavy) weathering is easily picked up by the wind and transported through the air or over the ground surface. This process is called deflation.
1. Barchans = Crescent-shaped dunes occuring at places where the wind blows from only one direction. (see fig. 17)
Fig. 17: A barchan. Types of Dunes
When wind velocity decreases the transported material is deposited. Then the sand is blown into dunes. There are two main types of sand-dune:
1. Barchans 2. Seifs
2. Seifs = Long parallel dune of sand at places where strong winds blow from two directions.
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Unless they can fixed by vegetation, all dunes constantly move forward, blown by the wind.
PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The work of ice As snow on the top of high mountains or in Polar regions accumulates, the lower layers are compressed into ice. This ice slides very slowly downhill, usually following existing river valleys. These rivers of ice are called glaciers. The work of ice, like that of running water, the sea or the wind, comprises both erosion and sedimentation. In slowly moving down, the ice picks up loose rock material and steepens the sides and flattens the bottom of the original valley. So the glaciers have widened and deepened the valley sides and bottom, giving them a U-shape (or trough-shape).
In running downslope rivers get united with other rivers, thus forming a system of streams which occupies a basin, called a catchment area. (see fig. 18 ) Fig. 18: Catchment area.
The material carried by the ice is dropped at the end of the glacier. It forms a mound called a terminal moraine.
I.4. WATERS I.4.1.Rivers In the foregoing chapter we have already learned a lot about rivers and the way they work. In this section we will discuss some more features of these rivers. A river may be defined as: a natural stream of water flowing over the land surface from its source in a spring, a marsh, at rain water, until it reaches its mouth, which opens into a sea, ocean, lake or other body of water.
Catchment-areas are separated from each other by a watershed (or water-divide): elevated land which lies between the head-streams of the river-systems, Drainage patterns The term drainage pattern refers to the whole river system, i.e. the headstream with its tributaries.
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Some typical drainage patterns are:
a. Dendritic pattern b. Trellis pattern c. Radial pattern d. Parallel pattern
c. A radial pattern is a pattern developed by streams which radiate from a central point.
a. A dendritic pattern is a tree-like pattern that is most common for river systems. (see fig. 19)
Fig. 21: A radial drainage pattern
Fig. 19: A dendritic drainage pattern.
b. A trellis pattern is a rectilinear pattern in which streams tend to join one another at right-angles. (see fig. 20 below)
d. A parallel pattern is usually found where there are pronounced slope or geological controls which lead to regular spacing of parallel or near stremas. (see fig. 22)
Fig. 20: A trellis drainage pattern
Fig. 22: A parallel drainage pattern
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1.4.2. Lakes
I.4.3. Oceans
We can distinguished between:
Nearly three-quarters of the earth’s surface is covered by oceans and seas. The largest ocean is the Pacific.
a. Natural lakes: formed in a variety of ways. b. Artificial lakes: valleys dammed up by man to make reservoirs for drinking water, irrigation or hydro-electricity.
The ocean floor has a relief that is comparable to the mountains, plains and plateaus of the landsurface.
I.5. THE NATURAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD The geographical factors that we have discussed so far (for example, climate, bed rock, waters, landforms, etc.) all have mutual relation-ships, i.e. they interact and influence each other, they are interdependent. All together the discussed physical conditions of the earth constitute the physical environment. The physical conditions of the earth also have a deciding influence upon the kind of vegetation that will cover the land surface and upon the distribution of animal life. Vegetation and animal life are interdependent too, and together, in forming the so-called bio-geographical environment, they will influence the physical environment. The mutual interactive between organisms and environment can be seen as a functioning spatial organisation and is called an eco-system. (see fig. 23)
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Fig. 23: Schematic representation of the eco-system.
As we will see in the second part of these lecture notes, man also plays a very important part in this ecological system. But in this first part we will leave man’s influence as much as possible out of consideration, and then we may say that we are talking about a natural ecological system. We can think of the world as one big ecological system, but as circumstances differ at various places in the world, we can divide it into a number of smaller natural ecosystems, or natural regions. As natural vegetation and climate give a very good indication of the ecological circumstances at different places, they are often used as the main factors for the division of the world in natural regions.
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In this chapter we will briefly discuss a broad division of the world in natural regions. Of course one should note, that the natural vegetation is not the same as the actual vegetation that covers the lands at many places. Much of the actual vegetation is planted by man, i.e. it is cultivated vegetation instead of natural vegetation.
The broadest division of the world in natural regions comprises of:
A. Forest B. Grassland C. Desert D. Mountain vegetation
PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Within these four groups a more detailed division is possible. (see fig. 24) Fig. 24: Natural regions.
A. Forest regions
C. Desert regions
1. Equatorial and tropical rain-forests 2. Tropical monsoon forests 3. Tropical thorn forests 4. Mediterranean evergreen tress and shrubs 5. Eastern warm temperate forests 6. Cool temperate deciduous forests 7. Cold temperature coniferous forests
11. Hot deserts 12. Temperate deserts 13. Ice deserts
D. Mountain regions 14. Mountain vegetation
B. Grassland regions 8. Tropical grassland or savanna 9.Temperate grasslands 10. Arctic grassland or tundra
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY A. Forest regions 1. Equatorial and tropical rainforests
2. Tropical monsoon forests (see fig. 26) The less wet tropical monsoon lands (where there is a dry season) support forests which are a little less luxuriant and more open than the rain-forests. Trees are mainly deciduous. Bamboo often forms a dense undergrowth in these forests. The tropical monsoon lands of South Asia are very densely populated and are largely cleared of their natural native forests. The other tropical monsoon region, northern Australia, is very sparsely populated.
The equatorial and tropical rain-forests are in regions with a very hot and humid climate. The natural vegetation is a dense, very luxuriant forest. Within this forest a great variety of trees grows (for example hardwoods). Also innumerable varieties of living creatures inhabits these forests. Human life is often backward, especially at places where the original natural vegetation still remaint (for example, in the Amazon Basin, where the rainforests are called Selvas). But some areas, for example, equatorial Java, can be very densely populated. In these areas most of the natural vegetation has disappeared. Fig. 26: Tropical monsoon forests.
Fig. 27: Tropical thorn forests.
3.Tropical thorn forests (see fig. 27) In certain dry tropical areas the natural vegetation consists of scrubby thorn forests. Examples of these regions are parts of the East African Plateau, the southern part of the Indian Deccan, etc. The landscape is normally very drab and usually only sparsely populated.
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
4. Mediterranean evergreen trees and shrubs (see fig. 28)
5. Eastern warm temperate forests (see fig. 29)
Except for the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea, other mediterranean lands are: parts of California, central Chile, and south-west and part of south-east Australia. The mediterranean climate is hot in summer and warm in winter, with most rain falling in the winter.
Due to the specific climatic properties of some eastern margins of the earth’s land masses - warm and with heavier rainfall than on the corresponding western margins - a relatively rich forest vegetation has developed there.
The characteristics vegetation of the mediterranean lands is open woodland, the trees and shrubs being mainly evergreen but with various natural devices to live through the long summer droughts. Typical types of mediterranean vegetation are the maquis and the garigue. Agriculture and especially horticulture, play a prominent part in the occupation of the moderately mediterranean lands.
Examples are: Florida, part of China and the Parana Basin in South America. Much of the original natural vegetation has been cleared and agriculture now determines the actual vegetation. Fig. 29: Eastern warm temperate forests.
Fig. 28: Mediterranean evergreen trees and shrubs.
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
6. Cool temperate deciduous forests (see fig. 30)
7. Cold temperate coniferous forests (see fig. 31)
In a.o. Western and Central Europe, the north-eastern part of the USA and east-Asia, the original deciduous forests have almost completely been cleared for agriculture and settlement. A very intensive use is made of the ground, to accommodate for a dense population.
Evergreen forests extend in a great belt across the northern hemisphere through Alaska, Canada, Europe and Asia. There natural regions are usually called the taĂga. There is only a very small variety of trees and these forests are very important suppliers of timber. Usually the taĂga is very sparsely populated.
Fig. 30: Cool temperate deciduous forests.
Fig. 31: Cold temperature coniferous forests.
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY B. Grassland regions
8. Tropical grassland or savanna (see fig. 32)
9. Temperate grasslands (see fig. 33)
The most extensive areas of savanna are located in Africa, South America and Australia. In the savanna regions there is a marked difference between a dry and a wet season. Usually the land is undulating and the natural covering of tall, coarse grass is sometimes broken by scattered clumps of low, drought-resistant trees.
In the northern hemisphere the temperate grasslands are located meanly in the central areas of the continents. In North America they are called the Prairies and in Eurasia the Steppes. In the southern hemisphere these grasslands are more in the east of the land masses; in South America they are called the Pampas.
Some cultivation of the land and cattleranching is practised. The dry season produces many problems. Fig. 32: Tropical grassland and savanna.
All these regions are natural grasslands because the rainfall is generally insufficient for tree growth. Nowadays these areas have become the world’s chief grain-producing lands. Stock raising is also of considerable importance and at many places the natural grasses were ploughed in for the ground to be resown with especially selected grasses.
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PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Fig. 33: Temperate grasslands.
Fig. 34: Arctic grasslands or tundra.
Source:www.news.mongabay.com
10. Arctic grasslands or tundra (see fig. 34) The greatest part of the tundra region lies along the norther, arctic margins of Alaska, Canada, Greenland and Eurasia. Winters are long and bitterly cold and permafrost is normal (Permafrost is a condition of perennially frozen ground). Only the top few centimetres of soil ever thaw out. The typical vegetation of the tundra of mosses, low berry-bearing bushes and some shrubs. In the tundra there are only a few permanent settlements and it can be said that the tundra in all is commercially undeveloped.
GEOGRAPHY 31/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
PART I - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
C. Desert regions
12. Temperate deserts
11. Hot deserts
Major areas of temperate desert are: Patagonia in South America, the Western Plateaus of the USA and the Gobi in Aisa. Vegetation is richer than in the hot deserts, but the temperate deserts also have a very low population.
In general, the hot desert regions of the world are located astride the two tropics on the western sides of the continental land masses. The most prominent example of a hot desert is the Sahara. There are three main types of hot deserts: a. Ssand dune deserts (e.g. the Sahara) b. Rocky and stony deserts c. Deserts which consist of vast streches of hard flat ground
13. Ice deserts (see fig. 37) We can find no vegetation at all in the ice deserts of Greenland and Antarctica. Of course, human life is impossible in these ice deserts.
There are very few deserts which are completely barren, for most adapted to the arid conditions. Deserts are very sparsely populated apart from oases and irrigated valleys. Source: www.blindloop.com
D. Mountain regions 14.Mountain vegetation mainly consists of forest, Alpine flora an ice.
Source: www.ehow.com MARTIN MUﾃ前Z BAEZA SUSANA BASTIAS SARANITI
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PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
II.1. INTRODUCCION The natural regions discussed in the last chapter of Part I provide the natural environment in which mankind unfolds its activities. Mankind and natural environment have many mutual relationships, i.e. there is a two-way relationship between man and his environment each may affect or modify the other. In fact, man is also part of the world ecological system. The natural environment has a considerable influence upon man. Natural (physical) factors, such as relief, vegetation and climate, limit man’s activities to some extent: agriculture is not possible every-where, problem in power supply, etc. But it is also true to say that man is able considerable to modify his natural environment to suit his particular needs. We have already mentioned the clearing of natural vegetation to make way for agriculture and settlements. Also some parts of the world have been transformed form desert into fertile agricultural land by means of irrigation. Although the limitations of the natural environment always will persist, it can now even be said, that man controls nature in many respects. In the second part of these lecture notes we shall discuss man’s interference into the natural environment. In fact, the latter is the subject of human geography: human geographers study the earth as the world of man. They want to know the where? why? and
GEOGRAPHY 33/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
how? of man-made things on earth. As with physical geographical factors, in mapping the spatial relationships and distribution of human geographical phenomena cartographers ought to know something about the character of these phenomena. First, we will have a look at the population (chapter II.2.). After that we will discuss man’s settlements (chapter II.3.), agriculture (chapter II.4.), mining and power supplies (chapter II.5.), manufacturing industry (chapter II.6.), transport and communications (chapter II.7.), and finally the man-made geographical regions (chapter II.8.).
II.2. POPULATION Total population of the earth is approximately 4.500.000.000 and this number of people is still rapidly increasing. The distribution of the world’s population
Nearly three-quarters of the earth’s surface is covered by oceans and seas. So the world population has to live on the one quarter of the earth composed of land and its adjacent water fringes. But the population is also not evely distributed over this land surface: there are big differences in the density of the population. Population density: The number of inhabitants per unit area. (e.g. per square kilometre) In fact, 90% of the world population is living on only 10% of the landsurface. The other. The other 90% of the land supports only 10% of the population. Population is concentrated in 4 major regions of the world. (see also fig. 39)
PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 1. Eastern Asia (e.g. China and Japan) In total this region contains 25% of the world population. 2.South Asia (e.g. India, Bangladesh and Java) India contains the Ganges Valley, the most intensely congested long valley in the world. South Asia also contains 25% of the world population. 3.Western and Central Europe One sixth of the world population is located in this region. Nevertheless, its share in the world’s population is diminishing as the other parts of the world grow faster. 4.Eastern Anglo-American (the eastern part of the U.S.A. and Canada) This region contains about 5% of the world’s population.
Fig. 39: Density of population in the world. Source: www. sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu
Thus, over 50% of the earth’s people are jammed into the comparatively small space of Eastern and Southern Asia. In total, nearly three-quarters of the world’s population are living in the developing countries. Slightly more that 20% is to be found in the industrial west (Eastern Anglo-America and Europe). Outside the 4 major regions mentioned above, there are some smaller clusters of fairly dense population e.g. the Nile Valley in Egypt, in Nigeria, in south-east Brazil and around Buenos Aires. (see fig. 39) The very sparsely populated parts of the world include the ice deserts and tundra lands of the Arctic and Antarctic, the high mountain regions (Himalayas, Rocky Mountain, Andes), the taíga lands, the hot deserts (Sahara, Australian deserts) and the uninhabited rain-forest (e.g. the Amazon Basin). (see fig. 39) MARTIN MUÑOZ BAEZA SUSANA BASTIAS SARANITI
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PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Outside the 4 major regions mentioned above, there are some smaller clusters of fairly dense population e.g. the Nile Valley in Egypt, in Nigeria, in south-east Brazil and around Buenos Aires. (see fig. 39) The very sparsely populated parts of the world include the ice deserts and tundra lands of the Arctic and Antarctic, the high mountain regions (Himalayas, Rocky Mountain, Andes), the taĂga lands, the hot deserts (Sahara, Australian deserts) and the uninhabited rain-forest (e.g. the Amazon Basin). (see fig. 39) - Some geographical terms concerning population: Population pyramid: The graphical representation of the distribution of the population of a certain place at a given time by the age and sex of its components. (see fig. 40 below)
Fig. 40: Population pyramid Source: www. ofm.wa.gov
The (horizontal) abscissa of the population pyramid indicate the number of people and the (vertical) ordinate the ages. Therefore, to each age group of each sex (male to the left, female to the right) there corresponds a rectangle which is as long as the numbers of the group are large. The general shape of the pyramid is a triangle. This is simply because of the mortality factor (death rate), which progressively reduces the numbers of the generations as they get older, or, in other words, as they move towards the upper reaches of the pyramid. GEOGRAPHY 33/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Crude marriage rate: The relationship of the marriage of one year to the average population of that year (for a country, town, etc.) Crude birth rate: The relationship of the births of one year to the average population of that year (for a country, town, etc.) Crude death rare (morality): The relationship of the deaths of one year to the average population of that year (for a country, town, etc.) Infant mortality rate: The relationship of the annual number of deaths of children under one to the number of newly-born of the same year. For instance and for example, the average population of England and Wales in 1987 (population around the middle of the year) has been estimated at 48 390 800 and during that year there were:
386 .052 832 .164 542 .516 15 266
- - - -
Marriage Births Deaths Deaths of children under the of one
The result of this is a crude marriage rate of: 386 052 48 390 800
=
8.0 per 1000 inhabitants.
or of 16,0 per 1000 if one considers the persons married instead of the marriages (the figure is twice the preceding one). It also gives a crude birth rate of:
832 164 48 390 800
=
17.2 per 1000 inhabitants.
The crude death rate:
542 516 48 390 800
=
11.2 per 1000 inhabitants.
And finally, it gives and infant mortality rate of:
15 266 832 164
=
18.3 per 1000 newly-born.
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PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Though somewhat summary, all the foregoing rates yield significant information on the situation and trend of the phenomena in question. The same is true for data about migration:
Migration: Moving of people from one country or region to settle in another. Considering migration, we can distinguish between: 1. Internal migration: Migration within the borders of a single country (e.g. rural-urban migration). 2. International migration: Migration across the borders of a country. For a particular country, region or place or place we can make a distinction between: 1. emigration: The out-going movement of people from that place, country or region to settle in another. 2. immigration: The in-coming movement of people from another country, place or region. Migration and the number of births and deaths are responsible for changes in the total population of any country or other area of the earth’s surface. Population changes have a natural change component and a migration change component. Births and deaths together make up the natural change component. The natural change component of a population: The difference between the number of births and the number of deaths in a certain period.
GEOGRAPHY 35/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
When no migration has taken place, the total population of a country will increase if births are more numerous than deaths in any period. If deaths are more numerous than births, there will be a population decrease. An important unit of measurement is the rate of natural growth of a country or other spatial entity. The rate of natural increase (or decrease) of a population in a certain period = the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate. Thus, in our example the rate of natural increase was: 17.2 – 11.2. = 6.0 per 1000 inhabitants or 0.6% (in 1967) However, population change is also affected by the migration change component. The migration change component of a population = the differences between the number of emigrants and the number of immigrants in a certain period. When at a time the number of births exactly equals the number of deaths in a country, there will be a population increase, when immigrants are more numerous than emigrants. When no migration has taken place, the total population of a country will increase if births are more numerous than deaths in any period. If deaths are more numerous than births, there will be a population decrease. An important unit of measurement is the rate of natural growth of a country or other spatial entity. The rate of natural increase (or decrease) of a population in a certain period = the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate.
PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY The rate of natural increase (or decrease) of a population in a certain period = the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate. Thus, in our example the rate of natural increase was: 17.2 – 11.2. = 6.0 per 1000 inhabitants or 0.6% (in 1967) However, population change is also affected by the migration change component. The migration change component of a population = the differences between the number of emigrants and the number of immigrants in a certain period. When at a time the number of births exactly equals the number of deaths in a country, there will be a population increase, when immigrants are more numerous than emigrants. If emigrants are more numerous than immigrants, there will be a population decrease. Thus, the net changes in population totals represent the interactive effect of four elements: - Births and immigrants tend to push the total up. - Deaths and emigrants tend to bring the total down.
Although migration may be the most important component in small areas (for instance in a city), it is less significant on national and higher levels. Therefore, the natural change component in population growth is often considered the most important.
II.3. SETTLEMENTS A settlement: A group of buildings inhabited by an organized group of people making a living out of their surrouding environment. Settlements vary in size, complexity, and stage of development. There are always reasons why a group of people choses to live in a certain place. Further, there are always reasons why one settlement grows from an isolated farmstead to a sizeable village, eventually becoming a town or even a city. Types of settlement (see fig. 41) We can make a distinction between:
A. Rural settlements B. Urban settlements
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PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Fig. 42: Types of settlement.
A
Source: www.south-africa-tours-and-travel.com
B
Source: www.codinghorror.com
A. Rural settlements Rural settlements may be: Dispersed : One family or a few family residences, scattered about in isolated places, separated from one another by open country. Nucleated : Grouping of several family residences with collective amenities to serve the community (like shops, schools, markets, places of worship, a transport network, etc.).
GEOGRAPHY 37/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Linear : Linear shape of settlement along a road, canal, etc. (e.g. a “street village”). Three main types of rural settlement can be distinguished: 1. The isolated dwellings The isolated dwellings are often farmhouses.
2. The hamlet The hamlet is smaller than the village and the buildings composing it are more scattered.
3. The village Typically, the village has certain social features, e.g. a school or a church.
B. Urban settlements Four main types of urban settlements can be distinguished:
4. The small town The small town has often been developed because of a function as a marketing centre.
5. The city A city is a large town that is often a product of industrialism and modern commerce. Usually it has many function.
6. Ribbon development This is the linear enlargement of a city along a major road.
7. The conurbation when towns and cities grow together, sometimes swallowing smaller villages and hamlets, a continuously build-up urban area develops, the so-called conurbation. An example is “Megalopolis” in the north-eastern part of the U.S.A. (see fig. 42 below)
Fig. 42: Megalopolis. Source: www. en.wikipedia.org
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PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Many big cities in the world, especially in the developing countries, are very fast-growing nowadays. To a large extent this is due to an important rural-urban migration: caused by population pressure on the land or by the loss of jobs in agriculture through mechanization, many people find themselves attracted to the bid city, where they suppose to find better jobs and a higher standard of living. But poverty-stricken rural populations in many instances arrived in cities hat were not prepared to receive such a great and rapid influx of people. As a consequence, in those cities many people are unemployed and the housing problems are enormous. Characteristic are the shanty-towns – a form of uncontrolled settlement, on the outskirts of many big cities in the developing countries.
II.4. AGRICULTURE II.4.1.Introduction: Economic activities In most statistics the following division of human economic occupation is employed: 1. Primary production 2. Secondary production 3. Tertiary production
1. Primary production Activities involved in extracting products from nature and in collaboration with nature. Examples are: agriculture (see chapter II.4.2.) mining (see chapter II.5.), forestry (see chapter II.4.3.) and fishing (see chapter II.4.4.)
2. Secondary production Activities in which man increases the utility or value of nature’s products by changing its form. Examples are: the miller change grains of wheat into flour, the steelmaker iron ore into pig iron and steel.
3. Tertiary production Activities in which man renders services that are of value to his fellow men. Examples: transporters, repair men, teachers, musicians, doctors, lawyers, government employees, bankers, etc.
Transport and communications are discussed in chapter II.7. In developing countries the primary occupations are prevalent. In developed countries the secondary and tertiary occupations prevail. So we may say, that in the course of the process of development the importance of primary activities, as compared with the other two types of human economic occupation, decreases. In this chapter we will discuss the primary production, and especially agriculture.
GEOGRAPHY 39/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY II.4.2. Agriculture
II.4.2.1. Livestock farming
At present, about a quarter of the earth’s land surface is in agricultural use. But here are many different types of agricultural uses.
When the emphasis is on livestock farming we can distinguish between: 1.Livestock ranching 2.Dairy farming
Agriculture may first be divided into: 1. Livestock farming 2. Crop farming
1. In livestock ranching domesticated animals are supported largely by natural forage and raised primarily for the sale of meat, wool and hides.
1.Livestock farming may be based on: a. natural pastures - Improved - Unimproved b. fodder provided from field crops
2. Crop farming Crops themselves may be loosely subdivided into: a. Field crops that are replaced annually or at least over short periods. b. Perennial shrub or tree crops that are more permanent (i.e. no forestry, for in forestry, trees are grown for their timber rather than for their fruit or leaves).
In practice, crop and livestock farming are often practised side bay side. In this mixed farming the emphasis is on production of both animals and crops. In mixed farming crops play a triple role: a. animal feed b. cash sale c. use in the farm family Pigs, cattle, sheep and poultry are mostly raised in mixed farming: The emphasis can also be on either livestock farming or on crop farming.
Concerning livestock ranching we can make distinction between: a.Nomadic pastoralism b.Fixed pastoralism a. Nomadic pastoralism, as practised at the margins of the hot and temperate deserts and in the tundra-regions, implies the periodic migration of people with their sheep, goats, camels and reindeer in search of pasture. Portable dwellings are carried with them. b. In fixed pastoralism the animals are restricted to (sometimes very large) parcels of land by fencing in. The herdsmen who own or lease parcels of land also have a settled home. Most livestock ranching of this kind occurs in the Prairies of North America, the Steppes of Eurasia and the Pampas and tropical grasslands of South America. 2.In dairy farming domesticated animals are supported mainly by improved grasslands and by some cultivated crops (oats, hay, corn) to feed the animals during the winter when pastures are dormant. Animals are raised especially for milk (and other dairy-) production.
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PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY The largest dairy farming ares are: a. Western Europe b. Eastern part of the U.S.A. and Canada c. Southeast Australia and New Zealand
II.4.2.2. Crop farming The emphasis can also be on crop farming. In crop farming attention can be given to a variety of crops but also monocultural farming is possible (i.e. one-crop farming).
b. In shifting cultivation farmers abandon both fields and dwellings every 3-4 years and move to fresh fields which are cleared from the natural vegetation (e.g. tropical rainforest) by slashing and burning of trees, etc. Each language has its own term for the cleared plot, e.g. swidden (english), ladang (Indonesian), milpa (Central American), chitemene (Central Africa). Shifting cultivation is found mainly among less advanced people in tropical lands. Some 250 million people still live chiefly be this form of land use.
A so-called plantation is the most important unit of monocultural farming.
The distribution of crop farming in the world (see fig. 43)
Plantation: A monocultural farm on large plots of ground, operated by large companies with the help of numerous farm-labourers.
The distribution of crop farming is affected by many factors, of which the factors of the natural environment (like soil, water, temperature, slope, etc.) play a prominent part.
Grain farming is the most highly specialized of all agricultural endeavours. The most widely cultivated grains for human food are wheat, rice and maize (i.e. corn), with rye, barley, milled an oats as second.
In section I.2.1. we have already stated that the effectiveness of the rainfall is very important in agriculture (i.e. the total amount of rainfall minus the total possible evaporation).
As with livestock ranching, crop farming can be “nomadic” or “fixed”. In fact, we can distinguish between:
a. sedentary farming b. shifting cultivation
a. In sedentary farming the farmers live in the same house and look after the same plot of land year after year.
GEOGRAPHY 41/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
If the water-availability is too little for plant growth, rainfall may be supplemented by irrigation water. Irrigation offers an attractive though limited and costly way of providing new agricultural land or of raising the yields. At present, more than 10% of all the cropland in the world is irrigated land (like e.g. parts of India, Chine, Egypt, the U.S.A. and Russia). As we have already stated, fishing and forestry also belong to the primary production class.
PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
Fig. 43: The main areas of crop farming in the world.
II.4.3.Forestry
Source: www. khorreports-palmoil.blogspot.com
Most of the world’s timber is still obtained from “natural” forests. There are two main production areas: 1. The tropical rainforests, with a great variety of trees producing hardwoods, as e.g. mahogany and teak (expensive exploration). 2. Temperate forests, with fewer tree-species and producing softwoods.
II.4.4.Fishing Fishing: To harvest off water creatures, whether fish, molluscs or mammals, whether inland fishing of ocean fishing. The most important fishing grounds are the temperate seas of the northern hemisphere, particularly off the western coasts of Europe, the western seaboards of North America (see fig. 44 below).
Fig. 44: Chief commercial fishing grounds. Source: www. grida.no
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PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
II.5.MINING AND POWER SUPPLIES Although mining is also a from of primary production it is quite different form such occupations as agriculture, fishing and forestry in that the mined minerals are non-replaceable resources. Whereas from fields, forests and the sea one can continue indefinitely, with proper organization, to obtain crops, timber and fish, once a mineral has been extracted from the earth it has disappeared for good. Farming and mining contrast again in their distribution as activities, since crops and livestock are distributed over large continuous patches of the earth’s surface, while minerals are extracted in small localities, more points on the map. Minerals may be classified broadly into two main types according to use: 1. Minerals used as materials for construction and manufacturing (so-called raw materials). 2. Minerals used as sources of fuel and power (energy).
II.5.1. Raw materials The raw materials can be divided into: a. non-metallic raw materials (e.g. limestone, phospate rock). b.metallic raw materials (e.g. iron ore, silver, copper, bauxite).
II.5.2. Power supplies For manufacturing industry and transport man needs energy. Some minerals can be a source of energy. a. coal b. petroleum c. natural gas d. minerals used to generate nuclear energy (uranium, plutonium, thorium). Other sources of energy, not based on minerals and therefore, renewable, include:
e. fuel wood f. water power (hydro-electricity or “white coal”) g. solar radiation h. geothermal energy i. wind j. tidal energy In a sense animals, as beasts of burden still in use in many parts of the world, can also be considered a source of energy. The particular methods of power generation which are of over-riding economic significance are coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydro-electricity (water-power). GEOGRAPHY 43/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
Source: www.mapsofworld.com
II.6. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY Scarcely any product of primary production is usable when it comes from forests, mines, fields or water. Logs must be converted into wood pulp, ores must be smelted, wheat must be milled, hides must be tanned, etc. This conversion into a more useful form is called manufacturing. There is not an even distribution of manufacturing in the world today. Large scale concentrations of modern manufacturing have developed and now flourish in a limited area which comprises less than 10% of the earth’s land surface. Manufacturing has been concentrated in certain areas where conditions have been favourable and in turn those areas have become centres of political and economic power. Of greatest importance are western Europe, north-east America an Japan, followed by western Russia, east-central Europe and California. (see fig. 45 below)
Fig. 45: Distribution of CO2 emissions from industrial processes. Source: United Nations
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PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Manufacture generally takes place in two stages: 1. The preparation of the materials: basic manufacturing industry. 2. The making of the finished articles: general manufacturing industry.
1. The basic manufacturing industry is concerned with such things as iron and steel, cement, construction materials, heavy chemicals and metal refining. The average size of an iron and steel plant is very large. 2. The general manufacturing industry is concerned with shipbuilding, chemicals, textiles, light industries, etc. Particularly the textile industry is very widespread nowadays.
II.7. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICARTIONS Communications and routeways are the means whereby people move from place to place and also the means by which goods of various kinds, e.g. foodstuffs, raw materials and manufactures, are transported from producers to consumers, from sellers to buyers. We can make a distinction between: 1. Water transport 2. Land transport 3. Air transport
II.7.1.Water transport Water transport is the cheapest but the slowest form of bulk transport (i.e. the transport of goods which are of low value in proportion to their weight). Of course, water transport is also confined to more limited areas. Two types of water transport may be distinguished:
a. Inland water transport b. Ocean transport a.Inland water transport Many rivers provide natural routeways, although many rivers have their limitations for transport too (e.g. high or low water, a current that is too strong, winding courses, and so on). That is why many rivers are canalized and/or improved by dams and locks which help to maintain a uniform depth of water. Also many new canals have been constructed (e.g. Suez and Panama-canals).
b.Ocean transport Transport by sea is the principal method of exchanging goods between geographically separated regions. As a result of the needs of world trade and communications, a great web of sea routes now connects practically every part of the world. (see fig. 46 below) GEOGRAPHY 45/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
Fig. 46: The world’s major sea routes and ports. Source: www. transportcity.wordpress.com
II.7.2. Land transport The two most important forms of land transport are: 1. Roads 2. Railways Other forms of land transport are: 3. Pipelines: widely used in the industrial west to transport oil and gas. 4. Electricity transmission lines: linking the producing and the consuming regions.
II.7.2.1. Road transport The chief importance for road transport is still for the movement of lighter goods over relatively short distances. The concept of what constitutes a road varies widely: from mule track to modern highway. We can use numerous criteria to reveal differences among roads: a. width in metres or feet b. number of lanes c. types of surface d. sharpness of curves e. steepness of slopes f. toll roads or free roads g. traffic: number of vehicles per day MARTIN MUĂ‘OZ BAEZA SUSANA BASTIAS SARANITI
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PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY II.7.2.2. Railway transport It is usual for heavy and long-distance goods to be taken by rail, since railways have the best facilities for bulk handling. Railways (e.g. the trans-continental lines) have, in many instances, decided the pattern of population and land use distribution. In mountainous areas there are many difficulties in constructing roads and railways. Embankments and cuttings, viaducts and tunnels are required to keep the track nearly level. Where the gradient exceeds 1:50, zig-zags are constructed for railways (automobiles can manage a gradient up to1:3). In highland areas communication generally also make use of passes and gaps. We could refine the picture of world railway lines if we could introduce into our maps such matters as: a. Number of track (four-track, double-single track) b. Gauge of track (2 ½’ – 6’) c. Weight of rail (heavier rail can support heavier car load) d. Type of traffic control (automatic control system) e. Type of motor power (electric, coal/wood fired) These data would give a better impression of the capacity for traffic, but they are difficult to obtain.
II.7.3. Air transport Air transport is mainly concerned with the moving of passengers, and it is only competitive for freight if the latter is light and expensive enough to be able to stand the high tariffs. Airports need very much space an therefore helicopters are used more an more on short distance and internal air flights.
II.8. MAN-MADE GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS In last chapter of the first part of these lecture notes, the natural regions of the world were discussed. We will finish the second part with the discussion of man-made regions. Man-made geographical regions are mental constructions invented to arrange earth features into some abstract order. Examples are the Sahel, the American Manufacturing Belt, the Cotton Belt, etc. as with natural regions, man-made geographical regions do not have well-defined boundaries. That is in contrast to specific individual localities that are identifies by its given name, e.g. cities (Rangoon, Nairobi, Moscow) states (Texas, Alaska), provinces (Overijssel, Gelderland) or countries (The Netherlands, U.S.A, Kenya). All these localities are instituted by official action and have well-defined boundaries.
GEOGRAPHY 47/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
That is in contrast to specific individual localities that are identifies by its given name, e.g. cities (Rangoon, Nairobi, Moscow) states (Texas, Alaska), provinces (Overijssel, Gelderland) or countries (The Netherlands, U.S.A, Kenya). All these localities are instituted by official action and have well-defined boundaries. Thus, we can define a man-made geographical region as follow: A part of the earth that is similar in terms of the specific criteria chosen to delimit it from others regions, but has no well-defined boundaries. Concerning man-made geographical regions, we can distinguished: 1. Formal regions 2. Nodal regions or functional regions
II.8.1.Formal regions The formal regions is defined by the likeness or even homogeneity of features of forms as explained above. Formal regions are uniform throughout. Examples are a textile manufacturing region and the Cotton Belt.
II.8.2.Nodal or functional regions Nodal regions or functional regions are organized with respect to some focus to which they are linked by lines of circulation. They are considered as a spatial entity functioning around a central city through a network of circulation. (see fig. 47) The limits of such a supporting and tributary area, or hinterland can be determined by the extent and intensity of spatial interaction, such as the in-and-out-flow of goods, travel, long distance calls, newspaper circulation, wholesale deliveries, etc. A nodal regions is a portion of the earth’s surface that is homogeneous in relationship to a central point or node. Other examples of nodal regions are: - Urban milk shed, i.e. the area from which a city draws its daily milk. - Employment or labour field, i.e. the area to which the residents of a settlement commute to work. - Trade area, i.e. the region from which a business establishment’s customers come and from which it gets money for its goods and services. (see fig. 47 above).
Fig. 47: Nodal regions
Source: www. revistainvi.uchile.cl
MARTIN MUÑOZ BAEZA SUSANA BASTIAS SARANITI
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PART II - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
REFERENCES These lecture notes are based on the previous lecture notes by Prof. F. J. Ormeling & Drs. E. S. Bos “Geographical Elements (for cartography courses)”, and on the following books:
- Cole, J. P.
“Geography of world affairs” 4th ed.Harmondsworth, 1972.
- Haggett, P.
“Geography: a modern synthesis” New York, 1972.
- Jackson, N. & Ph. Penn
“A groundwork of physical geography”2nd ed., London, 1972.
- Monkhouse, F. J. -
“Principles of physical geography” 7thd., London, 1971.
Parker, G.
“The geography of economics. A world survey”
2nd ed., London, 1972.
- Pressat, R.
“Population” Pelican Books, Harmond sworth, 1970.
- Robinson, H. & F. S. Hudson
- Zonneveld, I. S.
“Physical and human geography” 3 rd ed., London, 1978.
“Land evaluation and land(scapescience” ITC Textbook, 1972.
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GEOGRAPHY 49/ ELEMENTARY FOR TOPOGRAPHERS STUDENTS
MARTIN MUﾃ前Z BAEZA SUSANA BASTIAS SARANITI
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