Orbit issue 85 (March 2010) by kiwi36

ORBIT

Editorial

ISSN 0953 1599 THE JOURNAL OF THE ASTRO SPACE STAMP SOCIETY Issue No 85 March 2010 Patron:

Cosmonaut Georgi Grechko, Hero of the Soviet Union

COMMITTEE Chair :

Margaret Morris, 55 Canniesburn Drive, Bearsden, Glasgow GS1 1RX (E-mail: MMorris671@aol.com)

Hon. Secretary: Brian J.Lockyer, 21, Exford Close,Weston-Super-Mare, Somerset BS23 4RE (E-mail : brian.lockyer@tesco.net)

Compiler of Checklist / Hon Treasurer / Postal Packet Organiser Harvey Duncan,16, Begg Avenue, Falkirk, Scotland FK1 5DL (E-mail: duncan1975@btinternet.com)

Orbit : Editor

Jeff Dugdale, Glebe Cottage, Speymouth, Mosstodloch, Moray. Scotland IV32 7LE (E-mail: jefforbited@aol.com)

Webmaster

Derek Clarke, 36 Cherryfield Road, Walkington, Dublin 12 (E-mail: dclarke@utvinternet.com)

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David Saunders, 42 Burnet Road, Bradwell, Great Yarmouth. NR31 8SL.

Overseas Representatives:

Australia: Charles Bromser, 37 Bridport Street, Melbourne 3205. Germany:Jurgen P. Esders, An der Apostelkirche 10, 10783 Berlin Eire:Derek Clarke, 36 Cherryfield Rd, Walkinstown. Dublin 12. France: Jean-Louis Lafon, 23 Rue de Mercantour, 78310 Maurepas Netherlands: Bart Beimers, NJ Haismasrt 7, 9061 BV Gierkerk Russia: Mikhail Vorobyov, 31-12 Krupskaya Str, Kostroma United States: Dr Ben Ramkissoon, 3011 White Oak Lane, Oak Brook, Il 60521 USA

Life Members: UK - Harvey Duncan, George Spiteri, Ian Ridpath, Margaret Morris, Michael Packham, Dr W.R. Withey, Paul Uppington, Jillian Wood. Derek Clarke (Eire,) Charles Bromser (Australia.) Tom Baughn (U.S.A.,) Ross Smith (Australia,) Vincent Leung Wing Sing (Hong Kong.) Mohammed K.Safdar (Saudi Arabia)

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ORBIT

Part Two

In his new multi part series John Beenen examines the star at the centre of our solar system. reality the SolRad, but then also the date is wrong).

RESULTS OF SOLAR INVESTIGATION BY SPACECRAFTS AND PROBES. Even before the Pioneers the Americans were already busy with the launching of satellites for so-called solar investigation. Called â&#x20AC;&#x153;SolRad GRABâ&#x20AC;? satellites were launched within the program ELINT (Electronic Intelligence). Only in 1986 did it become clear that these were espionage satellites and the solar investigation was just a cover. Later the project was rebaptized into GREB (Galactic Radiation Experimental Background).

From the outset of space investigations by spacecraft and probes one of the goals was scientific research especially of the Sun.

PIONEER 5-9 (Sharjah, 1964, Pioneer 5, WB3)

The satellites were not launched separately but were a piggy bag on other satellites : accordingly the first satellites were very small. The SolRad-1 (19 kg) was launched on 22 June 1960 in an orbit of 596-935 km. It delivered data about the radiation of sunlight and carried out measurement at the upper layers of our atmosphere. It was this satellite which first detected that interference in radio signals on earth was caused by eruptions of gamma radiation from the sun.

March 11th, 1960 the Americans launched a satellite of 43 kg into Space for measureme nts of interplanetary magnetic fields. The four Pioneers launched in the years 1965 to 1968 were meant for measurement of the solar wind, the magnetic field of the sun and cosmic radiation. Together they formed a kind of network for the measurement of the structure of the solar system and sunstorms.

SolRad-3 was launched together with the Injun-1 but the two could not be separated. Finally, between 1960 and 1976 12 SolRad satellites entered Space, but a couple of them failed to deploy.

Most Pioneers were very well designed and continued working for over 30 years. Pioneer 6 was contacted in December 2000, thus, becoming the oldest still working satellite in space : see table below

SolRad (GRAB, GREB) (Belgium, SolRad, maxicard with WB28, Yv1665, Telecommunication in space, opposite). One source (Hillger/Toth) shows that the Hungary 1965 stamp, WB 124 (YvPA273) is not the Transit, as in the text of the Weebau catalogue, nor the San Marco-1 as on the stamp, but in

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Contact was lost on August 6th, 1963 and the satellite burned up in the atmosphere on October 8th, 1981.

Some SolRads are also known under different names such as: Explorer 30 (SolRad-8), 37 (SolRad-9) and 44 (SolRad-10). SolRad 6B (9 March 1965) also appears under the names: Ferret-12 and Ops-4988.

After this first satellite eight subsequential OSOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s were launched, of which only the third one failed : see table below

Injun (North-Korea, Injun-1, 1976, Yv1392S, WB 56)

The first two studied the radiation of the sun in different wave lengths. The other six were pointed to UV and cosmic radiation and the radiation levels of the van Allen girds. They also made neutron measurements and investigated roentgen radiation in the Milky Way and beyond. As the satellites did their work for over a period of 15 years they were able to investigate the solar cycle quite intensively. They took the first photographs of the corona in visible light and made the first roentgen observations of a solar flare in its earliest state of development.

(Injun-6 is depicted on a stamp of TAAF (Yv50, WB 45. This should not be the AdĂŠlie as given in the Yvert catalogue, nor the FR-1/ Signe-3 as in the Weebau catalogue). Three Injun satellites and three Explorer satellites (25, 40, 52) investigated the earth magnetosphere. They also were first military satellites but also carried out some solar investigation such as the decay of radioactive radiation.

Also the six OGO (Orbiting Geophysical Observatory) satellites launched between 1964 and 1968 did observations of the sun and especially the solar wind.

Explorer

Injun-1 was launched together with the SolRad-3 on 29 June 1961 and weighed only 25 kg. Its orbit was 869 -992 km. A second launch failed and the third one with a satellite of 52 kg took place on December 13, 1962. Injun-6 or Explorer 52 or Hawkeye was launched on June 3, 1974 and measured particles and magnetic fields on the earth magnetosphere in the polar regions.

OSO (Orbiting Observatory)

Also some other Explorer-named satellites carried out solar investigations in one or another form such as: Explorer 21, 26, 33, 34, 35, 39, 43, 47, 51 en 57 : see table opposite top

Apollo 11 (S.Tome e Principe, solar wind experiment, 1980, Yv596, WB 12); (Penrhyn, setting up of solar wind experiment, 1989, Yv355, WB 8)

Sun

(Sharjah, 1964, OSO, WB 7) On March 7, 1962 OSO-1 was brought into a nearly circle-shaped orbit at an altitude of 575 km. For those days the satellite weighing 200 kg was reasonably heavy. Its first goals were measurements of electromagnetic radiation, UV-radiation and radiation in the gamma-regions. Further the measurement of dust particles was foreseen.

On June 20 1969 Apollo 11 landed on the Moon. Within the framework of the so-called EASEPpackage (Early Apollo Surface Experiment Package) some time was reserved for scientific experiments.

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Part of these packages were two experiments with respect to low and medium energy solar wind (Solar Wind Composition). The experiment was comprised of a long-sized stroke of aluminium foil of 4000 cm 2 which was irradiated for 77 minutes. The result was brought back to Earth. In subsequent Apollo flights the experiment was repeated and showed useful results with regard to the composition of the solar wind. The experiment is depicted on several stamps such as the two shown here and:: Rwanda (WB 122), Paraguay (WB 985), Manama (WB 130 10 Dh), Dominica (WB 2), etc etc.

programme between France and the SovietUnion for the study of the magnetosphere in the upper regions, aurora effects and gamma radiation. The first satellite of a series of three was launched on December 27, 1971, the second just two years later at December 26, 1973 both satellites with a Kosmos-3 rocket from the Soviet base at Plesetsk. The positive result of these launchings led to the launch of the third satellite Arcad-3/Auréole-3 on September 21, 1981. This spacecraft measured the influence of magnetic storms on the solar wind, the energetic proportion between the ionosphere and the magnetosphere and the cause and the source of particles causing the aurora phenomena.

Vertikal Starting from November 28, 1970 (Vertikal-1) until October 20, 1983 (Vertikal-11) 11 Vertikal satellites were launched in the framework of the Soviet Interkosmos program. On all these satellites programmes were inserted from different Soviet satellite countries. The satellites did not reach an orbit but aimed for a certain altitude (500 or 1500 km) and then dropped back. At an altitude of about 100 km a capsule was separated and a parachute deployed at 6 km after which the capsule with instrument could be recovered safely. Part of the measurements made by the instruments were gamma radiation spectra, ion and electron concentrations, short-wave radiation of the sun and micrometeorites. The apparatus further measured parameters of the atmosphere and the ionosphere.

Prognoz (Soviet Union, Prognoz, 1978, Yv bloc 128, WB 371)

ARCAD/Auréole

Satellites of the Prognoz-type were first launched on April 14, 1972 (Prognoz-1). They were meant for investigations of the magnetosphere and the influence from the solar wind on it. At least, that was the official scientific goal. But it can be taken for granted that, besides the scientific instruments, such satellites also carried a serious military remit.

(TAAF, Arcad-3, 1981, YvPA69, WB58; CCCP, Arcad-1, 1976, Yv4201, WB 341) The Arcad/Auréole/ Oreol project was a co - ope ra t i ve

Between 1972 and 1986 12 satellites of this type were launched, the last two as a part of the Interball/ 5

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Magion project. The first ten Prognoz satellites were cylinders in a diameter of about 2 meters and weighed 850-900 kg.

satellites were launched by Japan thereafter such as: Hakucho/Corsa-B (1979, 1st gamma satellite), Hinotori/ Astro-A (1981, see elsewhere), Tenma/Astro-B, (1983, 2nd gamma satellite), Ginga/Astro-C (1987, 3rd gamma satellite), Akebono/Exos-D (1989, physical properties of magnetosphere and aurora), Yohkoh/Solar-A (1991, see elsewhere), Geotail (1992, magnetic tail of Earth), ASCA/Astro-D (1993, gamma radiation, HALCA (1997, radio astronomy) and Nozomi (1998, Mars Explorer), Astro-E (2000, failed), Hayabusa/Muses-C (2003, new technologies), Reimei/Index (2005, satellite technology), Suzaku/Astro-EII (2005, severall sources of gamma radiation), Hinode 2006, see elsewhere), Akari/Astro-F (2006, galaxies), Kaguya/Selene (2007, moon investigation), Planet-C (2010, Venus), Astro-G (2012, radio astronomy), BepiColombo/MMO (2013, Mercurius), Astro-H (2013, supernovaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, black holes, high energy radiation).

Together with the Prognoz-2 the French-Soviet Union co -operation Satellite Signe I (Solar International Gamma -Ray and Neutron Experiments) was launched. Thereafter Signe II MP was launched together with Prognoz-6 which detected three large gamma bursts. With the instruments on board of Venera-11 and 12 Prognoz-7 formed part of the Signe 2 project for threedimensional measurement of gamma bursts. During the period of September 1978 until June 1979 thirty such bursts were registered. Data from Prognoz-9 were processed together with those of ISEE-3 and PVO (Pioneer Venus Orbiter, launched on May 20, 1978). On August 1st, 1983 Prognoz-9 detected an extreme gamma burst.

IMP-8

Shinsei (MS-F2)

(Gambia 10100 GAM 1/6 MS: Also shown Helios, Solar Max, Soho, OSO, rocket Eclipse, I.M.P.) The next spacecraft carrying out specific experiments after the effects of the sun on earth was the American IMP-8 (Interplanetary

From the base Kagoshima Space Center Japan launched its first satellite for investigation of the sun, Shinsei (New Star) in an orbit of 870-1870 km on September 28, 1971. The satellite, weighing 66 kg, investigated parameters of the ionosphere and radio radiation from the sun causing occasional interruptions of radio transmissions. Some instruments ceased shortly after launch but others worked properly until June 1973. More scientific 6

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Monitoring Platform), also called Explorer 50 and launched on October 26,1973.

Helios 1 en 2

The first goal of the mission was to collect data about the magnetosphere surrounding Earth, but also to measure particles with high energy and plasma originating from the sun. The satellite was partly paused on October 28, 2001 but renewed its mission until 2005 as support of the Voyager and Ulysses missions. Especially in combination with the Voyager missions IMP -8 delivered much information about our knowledge of the solar wind.

Helios -1 (December 10, 1974) and Helios-2 (Januari 15, 1976) were developed by Germany in cooperation with NASA. They should not be confused with the European military observation satellites of the same name launched in the nineties. The Helios satellites carried out investigations of the solar wind and different kinds of radiations.

The first IMP had been launched on November 27, 1963 called Explorer 18. After than it was followed by the Explorer-IMP’s 21, 28, 33, 34, 35, 41, 43, and 47. IMP8 or Explorer 50 was the last one of these series.

Their results have been connected to those of ISEE-3 and Venera 11 and 12 and provided astronomers with a better three-dimensional insight into the source of gamma radiation.

GOES

Voyager

(Angola, GOES 4, M446, Scott 1110c)

(Grenada, Helios, 1976, WB 36,37

1999,

(Australia, Voyager, 2007)

In fact the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) were no satellites for investigation of the sun but weather satellites. Orbiting in a geostationary orbit , however, they carried out important measurements with regard to radiation from the sun such as gamma, proton and electron radiation. The first GOES was launched on October 16, 1975 and weighed 275 kg. Subsequent GOES satellites were considerably heavier at around 627 kg. The first Voyager satellite was launched by the USA on September 5, 1977 and the identical second some weeks earlier at August 20, 1977. As a principle the probes were intended for investigation of the far planets Jupiter (I: 5-3-’79; II: 10-7-’79), Saturn (I:1211-’80; II: 27-8-’81), Uranus (II: 24-1-’86) and Neptune (II: 25-08-‘89), and some of their moons, from which excellent pictures were received, which gave much insight in the structure of our planetary system.

The GOES satellites are managed by the NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and the NASA. Even at the time of writing GOES 10-13 are the basis for the American weather forecast. Also some of the older types are still in working condition, e.g. GOES-3 e.g. is used as a communication satellite. With the help of these series of satellites a classification was made for solar flares. In the meantime a new series of GOES-satellites is under development called GOES-R, which should be operational from 2015. Also these series will contain a couple of instruments for the measurement of solar parameters.

But flying through the heliosphere, as they did, solar investigation could be carried out. In the meantime both spacecraft have reached the borders of our solar system and within the framework of the ‘ Deep Space Network’ they still carry out their measurements.

Some interesting stamps of GOES have been issued by different countries such as: Chad, Niger, St.Lucia and the United Nations. A very interesting site for such kind of information is: www.cira.colostate.edu/cira/ramm/ hillger/.

In 1994 Voyager 1 reached the ‘Termination Shock’ at a distance of 94 AU, which was evidenced by a sudden drop in the speed of the solar wind. Three years later Voyager 2 arrived at this point but at a distance of 84 AU and surpassed this limit several times. 7

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plasma by a satellite and a smaller subsatellite close by. There were five Magion satellites: see table below.

By September 1, 2008 it was taking 15 hours to receive the signal of Voyager 1 at a distance of 107 AU. At this moment this spacecraft is furthest away from Earth.

Magion-1 was launched as a part of the Soviet Interkosmos-18 experiment and disconnected on October 24, 1978. It carried out measurements until September 10, 1981.

No stamps known : image from Encyclopaedia Astronomica website

Magion-2 was part of ACTIVIYA S/C (Interkosmos 24) as the first one in a series of international scientific programs: ACTIVIYA, APEKS en INTERBALL.

ISEE (Ascension, ISEE-Ace 3, 1986, Yv393, WB 34; Chad, ISEE-1/Explorer 56, ISEE-2, 1997)

Magion-3 was a subsatellite of APEKS S/C (Interkosmos 25) and carried out investigations at the aurora plasma in the neighbourhood of the earth, electromagnetic waves, radio characteristics and onlinear wave structures.

Also well-known within the series of solar spacecraft is the American ISEE-3, International Sun-Earth Explorer, or Explorer 59. Via its apparatuses it is design is to investigate the interaction of the solar wind with the earth magnetosphere. The project is carried out by NASA in co-operation with ESA. The programme covers three satellites, ISEE 1, 2 and 3. In the meantime the last one has been re-baptized into ISEE-ICE (international Cometary Explorer) for investigation of comets. ISEE-1 and 2 were launched together on October 22, 1977, ISEE-3 on August 12, 1978. After the re-baptism and reprogramming of ISEE-3 into ISEE-ICE on June 10, 1982 this spacecraft passed the tail of the comet Giacobini-Zimmer on September 11, 1985 and detected particles in the tail. In March 1986 it also crossed the orbit of the tail of Halley’s Comet on a distance of 28 million kilometres. This is why it often appears in the series of spacecraft visiting this comet: Vega-1 and 2, Giotto and the Japanese Suisei and Sakigake.

Magion-4 (C2-X) was part of the Interball-project (see cover above) for measurements of the magnetic tail of the earth. Magion-5 finally carried measurements at the aurora. All Magion projects were sponsored by a great many East-European countries.

The instrument was turned off on May 5, 1997. However, in 2008 it was observed that the instruments were still working and consideration is being given to re -use this spacecraft again in 2017-18 for renewed comet investigation.

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) (Guyana, Cress satellite and Solar Max in the hold of STS-41, 2000, Lollini 10100 GUY 14) opposite top. On February 14, 1980 the Americans launched the SolarMax measuring solar flares. In 1984 the satellite was intercepted by the Space Shuttle Challenger (STS41-C (6/13-04-1984) for repairs.

Magion Magion is a series of small ’magnetospheric and ionospheric’ satellites made by the Czech Republic and meant to carry out different measurements on solar

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AMPTE The Active Magnetospheric Particle Trace Explorers (AMPTE) was a project of three countries and three satellites launched together at August 16, 1984. The CCE (Charge Composition Explorer) was developed by NASA, the IRM (Ion Release Module) was German and the UKS (United Kingdom Satellite) was British made. The three satellites measured energetic ion spectra and the composition and charge of the magnetosphere. After launch the German probe released in the near magnetotail two clouds of lithium and barium ions as a kind of artificial tail of a comet and measured their effect.

With this mission it was observed that the sun shines slightly brighter when there are more sunspots, which is caused by a clearer rim around the sunspots, the ‘faculae’ more than annulling the effect of the darker spots. The satellite burned in the earth atmosphere on December 2, 1989.

Vega 1 & 2 (Soviet-Union, 1985, Vega, Yv5227, WB 499; Soviet-Union, 1986, Vega-Halley, Yv5284, WB506)

H i n o t o r i (Astro-A) (Gabon, Astro-A, 1982, Yv503, WB 107 but the main satellite depicted is the French Signe-3. The Astro-A is the other smaller Satellite at the right upper side with four small wings).

On December 15 (Vega-1) and December 21, 1984 (Vega-2) the Soviet Union launched two satellites into the direction of the planet Venus. Although not a specific solar mission the probes made some measurements with regard to solar activity. Both satellites reached the planet in June 1985 and dropped landers through the extreme atmosphere of the planet to the surface. Vega-2 reached the surface and measured a pressure of 91 atmosphere and a temperature of 736°Kelvin. It transmitted for 56 minutes. Vega-1 also reached the surface but was activated too early and therefore delivered no results.

The Japanese probe for investigations of the solar flares, Hinotori (Japanese for: Phoenix), also called Astro-A, was launched on February 21, 1981. Weighing 188 kg reached an altitude of 600 km and worked until July 11, 1982. During his lifetime it detected 41 solar flares. Additionally the electron density, temperature and some gamma spectra were measured.

Relikt

After that they were redirected for measurements at Halley’s comet in March 1986.

On July 1, 1983 Relikt-1 was launched together with Prognoz-9. Relikt contained a Soviet anisotropic experiment with regard to cosmic microwave radiation.

To be concluded in our June issue.

NB: Anisotropy can be defined as a difference in a physical property (absorbance, refractive index, density, etc.) for some material when measured along different axes. An example is the light coming through a polarizing lens.

Really, the Relikt discovered such an anisotropy, however this was announced only at an astrophysical congress in Moscow in 1992. Relikt-2 was meant to measure the anisotropy of the ‘Cosmic Microwave Background’ (CMB) but with the disintegration of the Soviet Union and therefore lack of funds it never was launched.

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Apollo 13

In an article first published in Orbit for March 2000, and now refreshed, our New York based member Peter Hoffman who was an engineer on the Apollo programme continues his series of recollections of these momentous flights. one hour. However, the only people that watched it were those in mission control because the networks felt that it was not newsworthy enough to broadcast live.

The decade of the 1970s opened with the American nation polarized by the war in Vietnam and with NASA unsure of its future. After a year with two successful lunar landings, many felt that the time was right to abandon the costly high-tech lunar landing programme and use the funds to help improve life on earth. NASA budgets were scaled back to their lowest level in nine years and decisions taken that the number of planned flights to the moon was to be reduced. Meanwhile, preparations went ahead for Apollo 13, set for a launch in the spring of 1970. The crew of James Lovell, Fred Haise and Ken Mattingly were training hard for the mission. At that time I was working at Grumman Corp and was involved with the guidance system for the lunar module. The weekend before the scheduled launch, Charlie Duke, the backup lunar module pilot, came down with a case of Togo 1970 shows originally German measles. He had caught slated crew it from the child of a friend. NASA doctors said that he was not contagious and his illness had been incubating for two weeks, during which time he had been to meetings with all three members of the crew. Lovell and Haise were determined to be immune, but the same could not be said for Mattingly. His backup, Jack Swigert, started more rigorous training. Finally, on the day before launch, the decision was made to replace Mattingly with Swigert for the flight. It turned out that he never did come down with German measles and he took Swigert's place in John Young's crew Maldives1970 shows the crew that flew and went to the moon on Apollo 16. Liftoff went smoothly on the afternoon of Saturday 11 April, as did the first two days on the outbound journey to the moon. On the evening of the second day, the crew gave a televised tour of the lunar module Aquarius and the command module Odyssey that lasted almost 10

Odyssey's electric power came from three chemical power plants called fuel cells. Each fuel cell mixed liquid hydrogen and oxygen to produce water The byproduct of this reaction was electricity. Mission control wanted Jack Swigert to stir up the service module's tanks of cryogenic liquid hydrogen and oxygen. In zero gravity, the super-cold fluids tended to become stratified, making it difficult to get accurate quantity readings. To remedy this problem, each tank contained a fan that acted like an egg beater to stir the contents. He turned the fans on, waited several seconds, and then turned them off. A moment later there was a loud dull bang and he uttered the famous words "Okay, Houston; we've had a problem."

Artistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; impressions of the effect of the catastrophe on Maldives 1970, Fujeira and Mongolia 1971

Swigert had unknowingly triggered an electrical short in one of the two oxygen tanks causing it to explode. The jolt of the explosion caused the fuel cells' reactant valves to snap shut, cutting off their supply of oxygen and hydrogen and starving the electrical system. It also closed valves in the propellant lines that fed the manoeuvering thrusters, making it difficult to steady the spacecraft which was turning in response to the propulsive action of the venting gas. The blast caused the computer to stop in the middle of its work and suddenly restart itself. It also tore out part of the

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plumbing for the service module's remaining oxygen tank and its contents began to leak out. It was only a matter of time before the last oxygen tank would be empty and the last fuel cell dead. At that point Odyssey's only source of electricity would be its batteries, but they were needed for re-entry. The only choice that they had was to use the lunar module Aquarius as a lifeboat. The LM pilot, Fred Haise powered it up. Before shutting down Odyssey, the navigation platform on Aquarius had to be aligned properly. This could not be done by star sightings because the debris outside the cabin interfered with star sightings. The alignment had to be done manually using the readings from the platform of Odyssey. Having done this, all systems on Odyssey were shut down. There was only fifteen minutes of power left, just enough for re-entry. People around the country were being mobilized to help evaluate the situation and provide support to mission control in Houston. Our group at Grumman was one of them. The computer and guidance system that was designed for lunar landing and lift-off would be called upon to get the crew back home. Mission control asked us to evaluate the capability of doing this? We used our simulator to determine that the two required burns could be done safely. But first, it had to be determined if they had enough consumables to survive the trip home. The lunar module was designed to provide life support for two crewmen for 45 hours. That would have to be stretched to over 90 hours for three crewmen. There was plenty of oxygen aboard for the descent and ascent engines, as well as the spacesuits for use on the lunar surface. Aquarius had no fuel cells, but used batteries for power. They were good for two days of normal operation. By turning off all but the most essential systems, there would be just enough battery power to get home. Water was the real problem. It was needed to cool the electronic gear as well as for drinking. They had to cut each man's daily ration to six ounces, a fifth of normal intake. They drank fruit juices, ate hot dogs and other wet -pack foods instead of those that were dehydrated.

short burn would put it back on a free-return trajectory. After rounding the moon, a five minute burn of the descent engine reduced the time of the trip home from four to two and one-half days. It also changed the splashdown point from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean where the recovery force was stationed.

Service module, lunar module and command module (l-r) and right command module just before re-entry on Ras Al Khaima 1970

When the crew finally got home, they were tired, cold and dehydrated, but thankful to the resources of the people back home who came up with all of the procedures that helped make their return possible. Just before leaving Aquarius for the last time, they cut off some of the netting from the harnesses that were used in place of seats and brought it back to earth with them. Soon after the flight, the three astronauts came to Grumman to thank all those who took part in getting them safely home. Everyone that was involved, including myself, was given a small plaque with a message of thanks for a job well done. Each one had the personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name on it, was signed by the three astronauts and contained a one inch square of the netting from Aquarius. It is a very nice keepsake of my part in the mission. References:

Apollo Expeditions to the Moon edited by Edgar M. Cortright, NASA A Man on the Moon by Andrew Chaikin, Penguin.

Peter Hoffman and his piece of history in a recent photo. Peter comments that the plaque, originally blue, has faded with the passing of time.

The next problem was that the trajectory to the moon was not free-return as had been the case on Apollos 8, 10 and 11. The constraints on landing site location and proper lighting conditions for landing forced a hybrid trajectory that would not automatically return to Earth. As a byproduct it also saved fuel. The descent engine was not powerful enough to put the spacecraft on a trajectory that would take it directly back to Earth, without going around the Moon, but a

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The Crew in the Aftermath

Lunar Module Pilot - Fred Wallace Haise, Jr. (born November 14, 1933)

Commander - James Arthur "Jim" Lovell, Jr. (born March 25, 1928) Born in Cleveland, Ohio to a Czech mother, Lovell's family moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where he graduated from Juneau High School and became an Eagle Scout. His father died in a car accident when Jim was young and, for about two years, he resided with a relative in Terre Haute, Indiana. He attended the University of Wisconsin-Madison for two years. He continued on to the United States Naval Academy and, after graduating in 1952, entered the United States Navy where he served in the Korean War. He spent four years as a test pilot at the Naval Air Test Center (now the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School) in Patuxent River, Maryland. Lovell was considered for the Mercury Seven but was ultimately turned down due to a medical technicality later deemed insignificant. He was selected in 1962 for the second group of NASA astronauts. From 1971 - 1973 Deputy Director Marshall Space Flight Center. Since 1973 President Fisk Telephone Systems; later Executive Vice President, Centel Corporation; then President of Lovell Communications, Chicago; in 1999, he opened up Lovells of Lake Forest, a classic full service restaurant in the heart of West Lake Forest. In edition to Apollo 13, he was on the Gemini 7, Gemini 12 and Apollo 8 flights.

Born in Biloxi, Mississippi, attended Biloxi High School and Perkinston Junior College (now Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College). He graduated with honours in aeronautical engineering from the University of Oklahoma in 1959. He completed postgraduate courses at the USAF Aerospace Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in 1964 and the Harvard Business School PMD Program in 1972. NASA career began as an aeronautical research pilot at Lewis Research Center in 1959. He was the first of the 1966 group of astronauts to be assigned to Apollo duties - ahead of some group 3 members. He served on the back-up crew for the Apollo 8, Apollo 11 and Apollo 16 moon missions. Apollo 13 was his only space flight. He is married to the former F. Patt Price of Rogers, Texas. He has four children from a previous marriage to the former Mary (Sissy) Grant of Biloxi, Mississippi: Mary M. (Margaret) born on January 25, 1956; Frederick T., born on May 13, 1958; Stephen W., born on June 30, 1961 and Thomas J., born on July 6, 1970. He retired from NASA in June 1979, and became a manager with Grumman Aerospace, before retiring in 1996.

Command Module Pilot - John Leonard "Jack" Swigert, Jr. (August 30, 1931 - December 27, 1982) Attended Blessed Sacrament School, Regis Jesuit High School and East High School. Graduated from University of Colorado with Bachelor of Science in mechanical engineering. He earned a Master of Science degree in aerospace science from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy New York and Master of Business Administration from University of Hartford in West Hartford, Connecticut. Served in the US Air Force 1953-56 as fighter pilot on Japan and Korea. He was a test pilot for Pratt & Whitney 1957 -64 and North American Aviation 1964-66. He was accepted into the Apollo program in April 1966. At that time, he was the only bachelor astronaut in the US space program. From 1973 - 1977 executive director of the Committee on Science and Technology in the U.S. House of Representatives; was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, but a week before he would have taken this seat in Congress he died from complications of bone cancer. Hobbies: golf, handball, bowling, skiing, swimming, basketball, photography. Apollo 13 was his only space flight.

A little bizarrely, Mongolia decided to commemorate two roughly simultaneous flights in one issue showing a low flying Soyuz !!

ORBIT

Shuttle Story : 2007/8 STSâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;117, -118, -120, -122, - 123, -124, -126

250th manned Orbital Mission STS-117 was flown by Atlantis, launched from pad 39A of the Kennedy Space Center on June 8, 2007. Damage from a hail storm on February 26, 2007 had previously caused the launch to be postponed from an originally-planned launch date of March 15, 2007. The mission, also referred to as ISS-13A by the ISS program, delivered to the International Space Station (ISS) the second starboard truss segment (the S3/S4 Truss) and its associated energy systems, including a set of solar arrays. During the course of the mission the crew installed the new truss segment, retracted one set of solar arrays, and unfolded the new set on the starboard side of the station. STS-117 also brought Expedition 15 crewmember Clayton Anderson to the station, and returned with ISS crewmember Sunita Williams.

Flight

STS-117

Commander Pilot

Frederick Sturcow Lee Archambault

MS MS MS MS MS

James Reilly Steve Swanson Patrick Forrester John Olivas Clayton Anderson

KSC Launch Date : 8.6.07 AFB Landing : Purpose / Main Payload

Delivery to ISS of S3/S4 Truss

This mission was the 118th Space Shuttle flight, the 28th flight for Atlantis and the 21st U.S. flight to the ISS. The launch of STS Because of the cancellation of landing -117 marked the 250th orbital human spaceflight. opportunities on June 21st because of weather, STS-117 is the longest mission for On June 11, NASA mission managers announced a two-day Atlantis, landing at Edwards Air Force Base on extension of the mission, adding a fourth extra-vehicular activity June 22nd. (EVA). These two days were inserted into the mission timeline after flight day 8. This possibility had been discussed prior to The segments of the ISS to be installed by this launch. Because of launch day and thus rendezvous day crew can be seen in the mission patch, uncertainty the decision to extend was deferred until after showing lighter on the left : in fact in gold in launch. The repair of the gap in the Orbital Maneuvering System the multi-coloured design. Two astronaut (OMS) thermal blanket (heat shielding) was conducted during office symbols grow out of the mission number EVA 3. along the bottom.

ORBIT

Barbara Morgan Finally In Space STS-118 to the International Space Station was flown by Endeavour successfully lifting off on August 8, 2007 from launch pad 39A at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and landing at KSC on August 21, 2007. It was the first flight of Endeavour since the STS-113 mission in November 2002, which was the last successful Space Shuttle flight before the loss of Columbia on STS-107. STS-118 pilot Charles Hobaugh had been the entry team CAPCOM for STS-107. Had the Columbia not disintegrated, it would have been chosen for this mission, which would have been its 29th mission, and probably its only mission to the ISS. The mission is also referred to as ISS-13A.1 by the ISS programme. The mission added two more components to the International Space Station as well as bringing supplies for its crew. During and after the mission, the media focused heavily on a small puncture in the heat shield, created by a piece of insulation foam that came off the external tank of Endeavour during lift-off. Foam impact was the cause of the destruction of Space Shuttle Columbia, but the extent of damage was very small in comparison and in a less critical area. KSC Launch Director Michael D. Leinbach mentioned in the post-flight press conference, that upon initial inspection on the ground "Endeavour appears to be the 'cleanest' post-flight orbiter since Return to Flight". On August 31, 2007, NASA reported that the damaged tiles had been removed in the Orbiter Processing Facility, and engineers had found no evidence of heat-related damage to the orbiter structure beneath flight of an Mission Specialist Educator due to the presence of Barbara Morgan. The Educator Astronaut Project is the successor to NASA's Teacher in Space Project, which ended with the Challenger disaster in 1986. Also, the official STS-118 mission patch included a flame of knowledge that represented the importance of education, and honoured teachers and students everywhere. The tip of the flames touched Morgan's name on the patch. However, NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin clarified at a

Flight

STS-118

Commander Pilot

Scott Kelly Charles Hobaugh

MS MS MS MS MS

Rick Mastracchio Tracy Caldwell Barbara Morgan Alvin Drew Daffyd Williams

KSC Launch Date : 8.8.07 KSC Landing : 21.8.07 Purpose / Main Payload

Delivery of more ISS components

post-mission press conference that Morgan was not considered a Mission Specialist Educator, but rather a standard Mission Specialist, who had once been a teacher. Morgan had been back up to Christa McAuliffe who lost her life in the Challenger disaster and had a previous flight postponed after the loss of Columbia . Dominating a very “busy” mission patch design is the gold astronaut symbol over the starboard S5 truss segment. The flame of knowledge on the left by the name “Morgan” represents the importance of education, with a maple leaf beside the name of Williams the Canadian on board. The seven white stars in the elongated pennant trailing behind the shuttle suggestive of the US flag represent the crew.

ORBIT

STS-120 flown by Discovery as the twenty third mission to the International Space Station (ISS) launched on October 23, 2007. Also referred to as ISS-10A by the ISS program. STS-120 delivered the Harmony module and reconfigured a portion of the station in preparation for future assembly missions. STS-120 delivered launch package 10A to the International Space Station (ISS) It consisted of the U.S. Harmony module (also known as Node 2), with four DC-to-DC Converter Unit (DDCU) racks and three Zero-g Storage Racks (ZSR) installed; a Power and Data Grapple Fixture (PDGF) for the station's robot arm, and a Shuttle Power Distribution Unit (SPDU). Harmony was built for NASA by Thales Alenia Space in Torino, Italy, as part of an agreement between NASA and the European Space Agency and was the first pressurized habitable module delivered to the station since the Pirs docking compartment was installed in August 2001. Since STS-120 docked to the Pressurized Mating Adapter 2 (PMA-2) on the forward port of the Destiny Laboratory Module, installation of Harmony occurred in two stages: STS-120 installed Harmony to the port node of the Unity module. After Discovery undocked, the station's robotic arm detached PMA-2 from Destiny, and moved it to the forward port of Harmony. Following the relocation of PMA-2, the robotic arm moved Harmony from its initial position to its final position on the forward port of Destiny. The final positioning of Harmony allowed for the later installation of the European Columbus and Japanese Kibō research modules, which were to be attached to the side ports of Harmony. During STS-120, the P6 solar arrays were moved from the Z1 truss on top of Unity, to their final position at the port end of the truss. STS-120 carried the signatures of over 500,000 students that participated in the 2007 Student Signatures in Space program, jointly sponsored by NASA and Lockheed Martin. In celebration of Space Day last May, students from over 500 schools around the world signed giant posters. Their signatures were scanned onto a disk, and the disk was manifested on the STS-120 mission. Also during STS-120, the lightsaber used by actor Mark Hamill in the 1983 film Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi was flown to the

In this mission patch we see the Node 2 module inside the orbiter’s payload bay. The star on the left representsthe ISS with—in the full colour version—yellow and red points representing the current and future solar arrays. On the right

Flight

STS-120

Commander Pilot

Pamela Melreoy George Zamka

MS MS MS MS MS

Douglas Wheelock Scott Parazynski Stephanie Wilson Daniel Tani Paula Nespoli

KSC Launch Date : 23.10.07 AFB Landing : 7.11.07 Purpose / Main Payload

Delivery of Harmony module

station and returned to Earth. Stowed onboard Discovery for the length of the mission, the prop was flown in honour of the 30th anniversary of the Star Wars franchise. On August 28, 2007, In the USA 2007 Star Wars sheet, Obi-Wan Kenobi and Chewbacca from the Anakin Skywaker aka Darth Star Wars films Vader fight with lightsabers presented the lightsaber to NASA officials from Space Center Houston, in an official ceremony at Oakland International Airport. The lightsaber was then flown to Houston, where it was greeted by Stormtroopers. The lightsaber is now displayed at Space Center Houston.

we see our Moon and Mars representing future NASA targets and top left the constellation Orion, whose name has been given to the planned new crew exploration vehicle.

ORBIT

Columbus arrives at the ISS STS-122 to the International Space Station by Atlantis marked the 24th shuttle mission to the ISS, and the 121st space shuttle flight since STS1. The mission was also referred to as ISS-1E by the ISS program. The primary objective was to deliver the European Columbus science laboratory, built by the European Space Agency to the station. It also returned Expedition 16 Flight Engineer Daniel M. Tani to Earth. Tani was replaced on Expedition 16 by Léopold Eyharts, a French Flight Engineer representing ESA. After Atlantis' landing, the orbiter was prepared for STS-125, the final servicing mission for the Hubble Space Telescope. The original target launch date for STS-122 was December 6, 2007, but due to engine cut-off sensor (ECO) reading errors, the launch was postponed to December 9. During the second launch attempt, the sensors failed again, and the launch was halted. A tanking test on December 18 revealed the probable cause to lie with a connector between the external tank and the shuttle. The connector was replaced and the shuttle launched during the third attempt on February 7, 2008.

Flight

STS-122

Commander Pilot

Stephen Frick Alan Pointdexter

MS MS MS MS MS

Leland Melvin Rex Walheim Hans Schlegel Stanley Love Leopold Eyharts

KSC Launch Date : 7.2.08 AFB Landing : 20.2.08 Purpose / Payload

Delivery of Columbus lab to ISS

Additional payload items were the Biolab, Fluid Science Laboratory (FSL), European Drawer Rack (EDR), and European Physiology Modules (EPM) payloads. Also carried were the Solar Monitoring Observatory (SOLAR), the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF), and a new Nitrogen Tank Assembly, mounted in the cargo bay of an ICC-Lite payload rack, as well as a spare Drive Lock Assembly (DLA) sent to orbit in support of possible repairs to the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ) which is malfunctioning. Illustration of the ISS after STS-122,

Several items were returned with Atlantis: A malfunctioning Control highlighting the addition of the Columbus Moment Gyroscope (CMG) that was swapped out with a new one during laboratory module. STS-118, and the empty Nitrogen Tank Assembly were placed in the orbiter's payload bay, along with a trundle bearing from the Starboard starting flags provided by NASCAR in recognition SARJ that was removed during an EVA performed by Expedition 16. of the 50th running of the Daytona 500 on February 17, 2008, and the 50th anniversary of Stowed within the Official Flight Kit (OFK), Atlantis carried three green NASA on October 1, 2008.

The sailing ship at the bottom right of the mission patch denotes travel of early exhibitions from the east to the west : this mission flew from west to east. A

little more than 500 year after Columbus sailed to the new world, the STS 122 crew brought the “Columbus” module to the ISS for new discoveries. 21

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Japanese Module added to ISS STS-123 was flown to the International Space Station (ISS) by Endeavour as the 1J/A ISS assembly mission. The original launch target date was February 14, 2008 but after the delay of STS122, the shuttle was launched on March 11, 2008. It was the twenty-fifth shuttle mission to visit the ISS, and delivered the first module of the Japanese laboratory, Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō), and the Canadian Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator, (SPDM) Dextre robotics system to the station. This component could be used amongst many other purposes to inspect the shuttle’s thermal protection system, e.g. in the event of suspected damage in the launch sequence. The mission duration was 15 days and 18 hours, and it was the first mission to fully utilize the Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS), allowing space station power to augment the shuttle power systems. The mission set a record for a shuttle's longest stay at the ISS.

Flight

STS-123

Commander Pilot

Dominic Gorie Gregory Johnson

MS MS MS MS MS

Robert Behnken Michael Foreman Richard Linnehan Takao Doi Garrett Reisman

KSC Launch Date : 11.3.08 KSC Landing : 27.3.08 Purpose / Payload

Kibo module delivery and crew exchange

The SPDM was delivered disassembled on a Spacelab Pallet (SLP) and assembled during three spacewalks once it was at the station. STS-324 was the designation given to the Contingency Shuttle Crew Support mission which would have been launched in the event Space Shuttle Endeavour became disabled during STS-123.] It would have been a modified version of the STS-124 mission and would have involved the launch date being in the Space Station brought forward. The crew for this mission would JEM Kibo ELM-PS Processing Facility have been a four-person subset of the full STS-124 crew.

The design of the mission patch on this launch cover shows the shuttle in orbit with crew names trailing behind. Both the Japanese module and the Canadian

JEM Kibo ELM-PS and DEXTR on ISS after STS-123

Dextre robotics manipulator are illustrated and the status of the ISS as it was when the mission crew arrived is shown underneath the pilot’s name. 22

ORBIT

Kibo Continued STS-124 flown Discovery to the International Space Station. launched on May 31, 2008 at 5:02 p.m. EDT, moved from an earlier scheduled launch date of May 25, 2008., and landed safely at the Kennedy Space Center's Shuttle Landing Facility, at 11:15 am EDT on June 14, 2008. The mission is also referred to as ISS1J by the ISS program STS-124 delivered the Pressurized Module (PM) of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), called Kibō, which was berthed to the Harmony module whilst the pressurized section of the JEM Experiment Logistics Module, brought up by the STS-123 crew, was moved from Harmony to the JEM-PM. The Japanese Remote Manipulator System, a robotic arm, was also delivered by STS124 and attached to Kibō. The entire Kibō laboratory is being brought up over three missions.

Flight

STS-124

Commander Pilot

Mark Kelly Kenneth Ham

MS MS MS MS MS

Karen Nyberg Ronald Garan Michaelk Fossum Akihiko Hoshide Gregory Chamitoff

KSC Launch Date : 31.5.08 KSC Landing : 14.6.08 Purpose / Payload

Kibo module delivery and crew exchange

Discovery carried with it replacement parts in a mid-deck locker for a malfunctioning toilet. The crew had been using other facilities for waste until the new replacement parts were installed on the Zvezda module of the ISS.

Flying with the STS-124 crew was an action figure of Buzz Lightyear. Ken Ham, pilot of the STS-124 mission, brought with him episodes of ESPN Radio's Mike and Mike in the Morning, and a plastic microphone stand with the ESPN logo on it. Along with those, a yellow jersey from Lance Armstrong's record-setting seven victories at the Tour de France bicycle race, the backup jersey Eli Manning took to the Super Bowl, and the last jersey that American Major League Baseball's Craig Biggio wore in a game were placed inside the orbiter's lockers. With the completion of STS-124, the next permanent pressurized

The design of the mission patch on this launch cover stresses the Japanese contribution with that country’s flag draped over the pressurised module and the word “Kibo” written in Japanese at the bottom of the diamond-shaped patch. The

JEM Kibō Pressurized Module in assembly

module would not be delivered to the ISS by a Space Shuttle until the STS-130 mission.

sun shining down on the project represents the increased hope that the whole world will benefit from the new lab’s discoveries in space in the fields of biology, Earth observations, materials production and communications.

ORBIT

STS-126 to the International Space Station was flown by Endeavour. The purpose of the mission, referred to as ULF2 by the ISS program, was to deliver equipment and supplies to the station, to service the Solar Alpha Rotary Joints (SARJ), and repair the problem in the starboard SARJ that had limited its use since STS-120. STS-126 launched on November 14, 2008 at 7:55:39 p.m. EST from Launch Pad 39A at NASA's Kennedy Space Center with no delays or issues. Endeavour successfully docked with the station on November 16. After spending 11 days, 16 hours, and 46 minutes docked to the station, during which the crew performed four spacewalks, and transferred cargo, the orbiter undocked on November 28. Due to poor weather at Kennedy Space Center, Endeavour landed at Edwards Air Force Base on November 30, at 21:25 UTC.

Flight

STS-126

Commander Pilot

Christopher Ferguson Eric Boe

MS MS MS

Donald Petit Stephen Bowen Heidimarie Stefanyshyn-Piper Robert Kimborough Sandra Magnus

MS MS

KSC Launch Date : 14.11.08 EAFB Landing : 30.11.08 Purpose / Payload

Two stamps within Bermudaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 40trh anniv of Apollo Xi set directly relate to this mission The starboard SARJ had shown anomalous behaviour since August 2007, and its use has been minimized pending diagnosis and repair. Both the starboard and port SARJs were serviced. In addition to lubricating both bearings, the remaining 11 trundle bearings in the starboard SARJ were replaced. Trundle bearing assembly five had been removed during an Expedition 16 EVA for further examination in December 2007. STS-126 included the Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) on its fifth spaceflight. Leonardo held over 14,000 pounds of supplies and equipment. Among the items packed into the MPLM were two new

Within the design of the mission patch on this launch cover, the inner patch outline depicts the cargo carrier Leonardo. In the blackness of space, the constellation Orion, the Moon and Mars reflect the goals of the human spaceflight

ISS parts delivery and SARJ service

crew quarters racks, a second galley (kitchen) for the Destiny laboratory, a second Waste and Hygiene Compartment (WHC) rack (lavatory), the advanced Resistive Exercise Device (aRED), two water reclamation racks, spare hardware, and new experiments. Also included in Leonardo was the General Laboratory Active Cryogenic ISS Experiment Refrigerator, or GLACIER, a double locker cryogenic freezer for transporting and preserving science experiments. The shuttle also carried irradiated turkey, candied yams, stuffing and dessert for a special Thanksgiving meal at the station, as well as an Official Flight Kit with mementos for those who supported the astronauts and helped them complete their mission successfully.

programme. At the top of the design is the gold symbol of the astronaut office. The sunburst powers all of NASAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s efforts via the solar arrays of the ISS shown near the top of the design.

ORBIT

Astro-Scientists and The Copley Medal This year, as we mark the 350th anniversary of The Royal Society, let’s look at international stamps for winners of its Copley Medal which lie with our theme. This medal, named after Sir Godgery Copley who first donated the funds has been awarded in almost every year since its inception in 1731 and whilst the criteria have changed a little since then it has been given for the best piece of scientific research in that year or in recent years. In each case the name of the winner, the year and the reference terms of the Award are given along with an indication of stamps available for that winner. Much of this information from various reference sources has been published in previous editions of Orbit in our two series “A Chronology of Cosmology” (begun with edition #41 of March 1999) and “Astronomers Royal” (from #51 in October 01 onwards) and is presented here refreshed and re-edited.

1748 : James Bradley (1693-1762) “On account of his very curious and wonderful discoveries in the apparent motion of the Fixed Stars, and the causes of such apparent motion" Bradley was an English astronomer who in 1728 announced his discovery of the aberration of starlight, an apparent slight change in the positions of stars caused by the yearly motion of the Earth. That finding provided the first direct evidence for the revolution of the Earth around the Sun. Bradley was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, where he received the B.A. in 1714 and the M.A. in 1717. He was instructed in observational astronomy at Wanstead, Essex, by his uncle, the Rev. James Pound, clergyman and skilled amateur astronomer, who introduced him to the famous astronomer Edmond Halley. Bradley's scientific acumen was stimulated by his membership in the Royal Society, to which he was elected a fellow in 1718 on the recommendation of Edmond Halley. Bradley took church orders and became vicar of Bridstow in 1719. The income from that position was augmented by a sinecure as an absentee rector in a parish in Pembrokeshire, Wales, which was procured for him by his friend and astronomical collaborator, Samuel Molyneux. Bradley resigned his church offices when he was appointed in 1721 to the Savilian chair of astronomy at Oxford and thenceforth devoted his full time to astronomy. After the publication of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium by Copernicus in 1543, it became increasingly imperative for astronomers to be able to observe and measure the parallactic displacement of a star--the change in a star's position over a six -month period--to confirm the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun. Such information would provide the empirical

evidence needed to augment the mathematical and conceptual arguments thitherto advanced for the idea that the Sun does not revolve around the Earth. In the absence of such evidence for parallax, Tycho Brahe, the 16th-century astronomer, had not been favourably disposed to Copernican theory. Ole Rømer, the Danish astronomer, measured an apparent displacement of the stars Sirius and Vega in the 17th century, but his observations were found to be erroneous. Robert Hooke, one of the founding members of the Royal Society, measured the star Gamma Draconis in a series of observations in 1669 for a similar attempt but was forced to report failure. In 1725, using Molyneux's house as an observatory, Bradley attempted to repeat Hooke's measurements on Gamma Draconis with a telescope aimed so as to avoid any error resulting from the refraction of light. Although he failed to detect parallax because the star was too far away, Bradley made one of the two discoveries for which he is famous. He observed that Gamma Draconis shifted south in position by an astonishing 1" of arc in three days--the wrong direction and by too large an amount to be accounted for by parallax. It is said that the explanation for this phenomenon came to Bradley as he sailed on the Thames, observing how the wind vane on the mast shifted position with the varying motion of the boat, even though the wind had not changed direction. He concluded that the apparent stellar shift was brought about by the aberration of light, which was a result of the finite speed of light and the forward motion of the Earth in its orbit. Bradley communicated this discovery to the Royal Society in 1728, shortly after the death of Molyneux. On the basis of his quantitative observations of aberration, Bradley confirmed the velocity of light to be 295,000 kilometres (183,000 miles) per second and gave a proof for the Copernican theory. Bradley's star measurements in 1727-32 also revealed what he called the "annual change of declination in some of the fixed stars," which could not be accounted for by aberration. He concluded that this was caused by the slight and uneven nodding motion of the Earth's axis (nutation) that resulted from the changing direction of the gravitational pull of the Moon. But he withheld this announcement until he had made careful confirmatory observations during one complete set of revolutions of the Moon in its orbit. It was for this achievement that The Royal Society of London awarded him The Copley Medal in 1748. Members of the Royal Society in their function as "visitors and directors" of the Royal Greenwich Observatory recommended Bradley in 1742 to succeed Halley in the post of Astronomer Royal. (Halley, the second Astronomer Royal, had followed John Flamsteed.) Bradley received £250 a year and the then sizable grant of £1,000 for instruments, notably an 8-foot (2.4-metre) quadrant for more precise measurements. In 1744 he married Susannah Peach, by whom he had one daughter. He held his important scientific, administrative, and consultative position at Greenwich until his death. The bulk of Bradley's observations was published after his death in an atmosphere of acrimony. Dispute between his

ORBIT

heirs and the British Admiralty over the ownership of his work delayed publication until 1798-1805. The German mathematician Friedrich Bessel analyzed and organized his data, correcting for the small errors in Bradley's instruments, and then computing star positions.

In March 1993 The Harrison Gallery was opened at Greenwich on the tercentenary of Harrison’s birth, displaying these magnificent timekeepers and also in 1993 the Royal Mail issued commemorative postage stamps (as illustrated).

1775 : Rev Nevil Maskelyne (1732 - 1811)

It must be pointed out that eventually Harrison did receive and award of £8,750 for his work on discovering how to calculate longitude.

I"n consideration of his curious and laborious Observations on the Attraction of Mountains, made in Scotland, - on Schehallien" The Rev Nevil Maskelyne was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge and was ordained in 1755. He was the third of the clerical Astronomer Royal Triumvirate, serving from 17651811, although unlike his two predecessors the Rev Bradley and Rev Bliss, he did not obtain a clerical posting.

(Fantasy G.B. stamp design by John Berry who also wrote this section) In 1761, the Royal Society sent Maskelyne to St Helena to observe the transit of Venus, to see if he could estimate the distance of the Earth from the Sun. However, heavy clouds precluded any observations being made which would assist the calculation. The long sea journeys were not wasted, permitting Maskelyne to ponder a method of deducing longitude by what he termed The Lunar Distance Method, published around 1766 and discussed later. Meanwhile John Harrison, born in Lincolnshire in 1693, taught himself to be a clockmaker and travelled to London to meet the then Astronomer Royal Edmond Halley, who introduced Harrison to the great clockmaker George Graham. Harrison produced four designs in a quarter of a century in his quest to find a method of discovering longitude at sea. H1 performed “suitably”; his H2 dissatisfied him, resulting in H3, which took nineteen years to complete, supported by grants from the Board of Longitude. These three “sea clocks” were quite large and by a coincidence, Harrison, using a small pocket watch merely to test the accuracy of his clocks, discovered that a small timepiece with a high frequency oscillator was much more suitable than his large clocks. Consequently he produced H4, and required funds, but was frustrated by the Board of Longitude who had lost interest in his endeavours, considering that for twenty seven years he had worked on a flawed concept. But Harrison now knew that his H4 would provide the Board’s requirement for a device to provide accuracy in calculating longitude. H4 failed its initial sea trials but in August 1763 Maskelyne was sent to Barbados to test it and was delighted to find that it performed three times better than the Board of Longitude required performance rate.

In 1766—the NMM website says 1767—Maskelyne produced the first edition of The Nautical Almanac, which included tables enabling navigators to “estimate” their longitude by observing angles between the Moon and specified stars and calculating Greenwich Mean Time. Maskleyne carried out extensive alterations to the Observatory during his tenure but in one respect he was frustrated. His idea was to build two 12 feet square rooms on either side of The Great Room so that the Equatorial Sector could be move to either room dependent upon the whereabouts of a comet. This excellent suggestion was given the “thumbs down”. Instead, conversions were made to form new observatories causing the then Astronomer Royal Sir George Biddel Airy to state in 1855, “I am utterly at a loss to conceive under what circumstances these places were selected !” Maskelyne died in 1811, after serving as Astronomer Royal for forty-six years.

1777 : John Mudge (1721-1793) " n account of his valuable Paper containing directions for O making the best Composition for the metals of Reflecting Telescopes; together with a description of the process for grinding, polishing, and giving the best speculum the true parabolic form" John Mudge was an English physician and amateur creator of telescope mirrors. (I am aware of no philatelic recognition to date).

1781: Sir William Herschel (1738-1822) " or the Communication of his Discovery of a new and F singular Star; a discovery which does him particular honour, as, in all probability, this start has been for many years, perhaps ages, within the bounds of astronomic vision, and yet till now, eluded the most diligent researches of other observers" Herschel was a German-born British astronomer, who made many important contributions to astronomy.

The Board was now anti-Harrison and refused to give him the promised prize and ordered him to explain the secrets of the H4 pocket watch to that copies could be made by other watchmakers. Furthermore, Maskelyne was ordered to go to Originally named Friedrich Harrison’s house and “seize” his four timekeepers to stop Wilhelm Herschel, he was Harrison, in a possible fit of pique, selling his devices to foreign born in Hannover, Germany. governments. 30

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At the age of 19 he went to England, working as a music teacher and organist but devoting all his spare time to astronomy and mathematics. Unable to procure adequate instruments, he constructed and constantly improved his own telescopes. In 1774, with the aid of his sister Caroline he began a comprehensive and systematic survey of the heavens. In 1781 he discovered a new planet, which he named Georgium Sidus in honor of George III, king of Great Britain, but which is now universally called Uranus. A year later he was appointed private astronomer to the king, a position that enabled him to devote all his time to his astronomic pursuits. He erected a telescope at Slough with a 48-inch mirror and a focal length of 40 ft. Using this, he discovered two satellites of Uranus and the sixth and seventh satellites of Saturn. He studied the rotation period of many planets and the motion of double stars, and also cataloged more than 800 double stars. He studied nebulas, contributing new information on their constitution and increasing the number of observed nebulas from about 100 to 2500. Herschel was the first to propose that these nebulas were composed of stars. He was elected to the Royal Society in 1781 and knighted in 1816. He is considered the founder of sidereal astronomy.

1783 : John Goodricke (1764-1786) " or his discovery of the Period of the Variation of Light in the F Star Algol.â&#x20AC;? Goodricke who gained a share of the Medal in 1783, was an English astronomer who was the first to notice that some variable stars (stars whose observed light varies noticeably in intensity) were periodic. He also gave the first accurate explanation of such periodic variables. Goodricke was deaf and mute throughout his life, probably because of a serious illness he had contracted in childhood. He nevertheless proved to be a bright student and in 1778 he entered Warrington Academy, where he excelled in mathematics and his interest in astronomy was awakened. After leaving the academy in 1781 he started making his own astronomical observations, and in November 1782 he noticed that the brightness of the star known as Algol varied over a period of a few days. By further observations he confirmed these periodic variations and was also able to estimate the period's duration with remarkable accuracy. (Algol's variations in brightness had been noted by an Italian astronomer in the 17th century, but Goodricke was the first to establish the periodic nature of these variations.) Goodricke reported his findings to the Royal Society, and the society awarded him a Copley Medal in 1783. In the remainder of his short life Goodricke discovered the variability of two other stars that are visible with the naked eye. More importantly, he suggested that the variability of Algol was due to its being periodically eclipsed by a darker companion body; this theory was eventually confirmed and forms the basis for astronomers' knowledge of the class of stars known as eclipsing variables. Goodricke died at age 21 as a consequence of his exposure to cold night air while making his observations.

1799 : John Hellins (c.1749â&#x20AC;&#x201D;1827) " or his improved Solution of a problem in Physical F Astronomy, &c. printed in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1798; and his other Mathematical Papers" John Hellins FRS was an autodidact, schoolteacher, mathematician, astronomer and country parson. (I am aware of no philatelic recognition to date).

1831:Sir George Biddell Airy (1801-1892) " or his Papers, On the principle of the construction of the F Achromatic Eye-pieces of Telescopes, - On the Spherical Aberration of the Eye-pieces of Telescopes, and for other Papers on Optical Subjects in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society" Airy was a versatile English scientist and seventh Astronomer Royal (1835-81). He reorganized the Royal G r e en w i c h O b s er v a t o r y , installing new apparatus and rescuing thousands of observations from oblivion, but his hesitation in acting on the calculations of English astronomer John C. Adams in 1845 somewhat delayed the discovery of Neptune. Airy improved the theory of the orbital motions of Venus and of the Moon, and in 1871 he used a water-filled telescope to test the effect of the Earth's motion on the aberration of light. In 1838 he devised a compasscorrection system for the Royal Navy. Airy in 1827 was the first to attempt to correct astigmatism in the human eye (his own) by use of a cylindrical eyeglass lens. He contributed also, in optics, to the study of interference fringes and to the mathematical theory of rainbows. The Airy disk, the central spot of light in the diffraction pattern of a point light source, is named for him. In 1854 he measured gravity by swinging the same pendulum at the top and bottom of a deep mine and thus computed the density of the Earth. He was among the first to propose (c. 1855) the theory that root structures of lower density must exist under mountains to maintain isostatic equilibrium. Airy was knighted in 1872.

1846 : Urbain Le Verrier (1811-1877) For his investigations relative to the disturbances of Uranus by which he proved the existence and predicted the place of the new Planet; the Council considering such prediction confirmed as it was by the immediate discovery of the Planet to be one of the proudest triumphs of modern analysis applied to the Newtonian Theory of Gravitation"

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stars catalogued by his father.

Le Verrier was a French astronomer who predicted by mathematical means the existence of the planet Neptune.

The movements of these pairs of stars about each other offered the best hope of investigating the gravitational forces operating in the universe. John was fortunate to find in James South a collaborator who was able to afford the refined instruments best suited for this work. The catalogue that they compiled between 1821 and 1823 and published in the Philosophical Transactions in 1824 earned them the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society and the Lalande Prize in 1825 from the Paris Academy of Sciences. This work was their only joint undertaking.

Appointed a teacher of astronomy at the Ă&#x2030;cole Polytechnique ("Polytechnic School"), Paris, in 1837, Le Verrier first undertook an extensive study of the theory of the planet Mercury's orbit and compiled greatly improved tables of the motion of that planet. In 1845 he turned his attention to the irregular orbit of Uranus, which he explained by assuming the presence of a previously unknown planet. Independently of the English astronomer John C. Adams â&#x20AC;&#x201C; see below-, he calculated the size and position of the unknown body and asked the German astronomer Johann G. Galle to look for it. On Sept. 23, 1846, after only an hour of searching, Galle found Neptune within one degree of the position that had been computed by Le Verrier. As a result of this achievement Le Verrier received, among other awards, the Copley Medal from the Royal Society of London and was named an officer in the Legion of Honour. A chair of astronomy was created for him at the University of Paris. In 1854 Le Verrier became director of the Observatory of Paris. He reestablished the efficiency of this institution, but some of the uncompromising measures taken raised a storm of protest that was appeased only by his removal in 1870. On the death of his successor in 1873 he was reinstated, but with his authority restricted by the supervision of an observatory council. During his difficulties as director of the observatory, he carried out a complete revision of the planetary theories and compared them with the best observations then available. In particular, in 1855 he took up the problem of explaining an unusual characteristic of the motion of Mercury. He postulated a second asteroid belt inside Mercury's orbit, and, when an amateur astronomer reported finding an inner planet, Le Verrier assumed it was one of the larger of his asteroids and named it Vulcan. Further observations failed to confirm the find, however. The unusual orbital motion of Mercury, which includes an advance of its perihelion, was completely explained in 1915 by Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.

1847 : Sir John Herschel (1792-1871) "For his work entitled Results of Astronomical Observations made during the years 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837 and 1838, at the Cape of Good Hope; being a completion of a telescopic survey of the whole surface of the visible heavens, commenced in 1825" Herschel, shown standing centre in this 1970 G.B. issue with his father (left) and Francis Baily centre) astronomer and chemist, born in Slough, educated at the University of Cambridge. John major task in astronomy was the reobservation

was a British England, and Herschel's first of the double

John Herschel's sense of obligation to complete his father's work in astronomy led him to consider a journey to the Southern Hemisphere to survey the skies not visible in England. In 1832 he began planning his expedition. The revision and extension of his father's catalogues, which he carried out at Observatory House, beginning in 1825, was brought to completion and published in 1833. In November of that year, John and his family set sail for the Cape of Good Hope with a large reflecting telescope for observing faint nebulae, similar in size to William's favourite instrument. He also possessed a refracting telescope for observing double stars. The family established their home at Feldhausen, a Dutch farmhouse southeast of Cape Town. John spent four years of intense scientific activity, the clear southern skies allowing much more rapid progress in observing than was possible in England. When the family embarked for home in March of 1838, John had recorded the locations of 68,948 stars and had amassed long catalogues of nebulae and double stars. He had also described many details of the Great Nebula in the constellation Orion, as well as the Magellanic Clouds--actually two galaxies visible only in the Southern Hemisphere--and had observed Halley's Comet and the satellites of Saturn. In addition, his descriptions of sunspot activities and his measuring of solar radiation by means of a device he had invented contributed to the development of systematic studies of the Sun as an important part of astrophysics. Upon his return he was made a baronet (1838) and was lionized by the scientific world. During the 1840s Herschel worked on Outlines of Astronomy (1849), a book for educated laymen. This very successful science text went through many editions, including Arabic and Chinese. But the bulk of his time was occupied with the Results of Astronomical Observations, Made During the Years 1834-38 at the Cape of Good Hope (1847). This work contains catalogsue and charts of southern-sky nebulae and star clusters, a catalogue of the relative positions and magnitudes of southern double stars, and his observations on the variations and relative brightness of the stars. Herschel became President of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1848. He was knighted in 1831 and was created baron in 1850. As a result of his seeking public office, Herschel at the end of 1850 was appointed Master of the Royal Mint. The strain of the work caused his health to deteriorate; he became depressed, and in 1854 he suffered a nervous breakdown. In 1856 he resigned his post at the Mint. He spent his remaining years working on the catalogues of double stars and of nebulae and star clusters.

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1848:John Couch Adams (1819-1892) " or his investigations relative to the disturbances of Uranus, F and for his application of the inverse problem of perturbations thereto" Adams, shown here on a 1997 British Cinderella with Le Verrier on right was a B r i t i s h mathematician and astronomer, one of two people who independently discovered the planet Neptune, the other being Frenchman Urbain Le Verrier. On July 3, 1841, Adams had entered in his journal: "Formed a design in the beginning of this week of investigating, as soon as possible after taking my degree, the irregularities in the motion of Uranus . . . in order to find out whether they may be attributed to the action of an undiscovered planet beyond it. .” In September 1845 he gave James Challis, director of the Cambridge Observatory, accurate information on where the new planet, as yet unobserved, could be found; but unfortunately the planet was not recognized at Cambridge until much later, after its discovery at the Berlin Observatory on Sept. 23, 1846. Adams also showed (1866) that the Leonid meteor shower had an orbit closely matching that of a comet (1866 I). He described the Moon's motion more exactly than had PierreSimon Laplace and studied terrestrial magnetism. After being made professor of mathematics at the University of St. Andrews (Fife) in 1858 and Lowndean professor of astronomy and geometry at Cambridge in 1859, he became director of Cambridge Observatory in 1861.

was at last complete; but within about a decade, it was noticed, and shown by Simon Newcomb, that the optimism had been unfounded: deviations between computed and observed positions began to grow at a rate showing that further refinement was necessary. For some years Hansen's theory continued to be used with Newcomb's corrections (from the Nautical Almanac's issue for 1883), but it was eventually (as from 1923) superseded by E W Brown's theory. Hansen twice visited England and was twice (in 1842 and 1860) the recipient of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. He communicated to that society in 1847 an able paper on a long-period lunar inequality (Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society, xvi. 465), and in 1854 one on the moon's figure, advocating the mistaken hypothesis of its deformation by a huge elevation directed towards the earth (ib. xxiv. 29). He was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal Society in 1850, and his Solar Tables, compiled with the assistance of Christian Olufsen, appeared in 1854. Hansen gave in 1854 the first intimation that the accepted distance of the sun was too great by some millions of miles (Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc. xv. 9), the error of J.F. Encke's result having been rendered evident through his investigation of a lunar inequality. He died on 28 March 1874, at the new observatory in the town of Gotha, erected under his care in 1857.

1855 : Jean-Bernard-Léon Foucault (1819-1868) "For his various researches in experimental physics" Foucault was a French physicist who introduced and helped develop a technique of measuring the absolute velocity of light with extreme accuracy. He provided experimental proof that the Earth rotates on its axis. Foucault was educated for the medical profession, but his interests turned to experimental physics. With Armand Fizeau, he began a series of investigations of light and heat. By 1850 he established that light travels slower in water than in air. In the same year he measured the velocity of light, finding a value that is within 1 percent of the true figure.

1850 : Peter Andreas Hansen (1795-1874) "For his researches in physical astronomy" Peter Andreas Hansen was a Danish astronomer, who in 1838 published a revision of the lunar theory, entitled Fundamenta nova investigationis, &c., and the improved Tables of the Moon ("Hansen's Lunar Tables") based upon it were printed in 1857, at the expense of the British government, their merit being further recognized by a grant of £1000, and by their adoption in the Nautical Almanac as from the issue for the year 1862, and other Ephemerides. A theoretical discussion of the disturbances embodied in them (long familiarly known to lunar experts as the Darlegung) appeared in the Abhandlungen of the Saxon Academy of Sciences in 1862–1864. At the time of publication of Hansen's Tables of the Moon in 1857, astronomers generally believed that the lunar theory

In 1851, by interpreting the motion of a heavy iron ball swinging from a wire 67 m (220 feet) long, Foucault proved that the Earth rotates about its axis. Such a "Foucault pendulum" always swings in the same vertical plane, but on a rotating Earth, this vertical plane slowly changes, at a rate and direction dependent on the geographic latitude of the pendulum. For this demonstration and a similar one utilizing a gyroscope, Foucault received in 1855 the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London and was made physical assistant at the Imperial Observatory, Paris. He discovered the existence of eddy currents, or "Foucault currents," in a copper disk moving in a strong magnetic field, constructed an improved mirror for the reflecting telescope, and in 1859 invented a simple but extremely accurate method of testing telescope mirrors for surface defects.

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1890 : Simon Newcomb (1835-1909)

will tend to have the leading digit "1" than any other leading digit.

"For his contributions to the progress of gravitational astronomy" Simon Newcomb was a CanadianAmerican astronomer and mathematician. Though he had little conventional schooling, he made important contributions to timekeeping as well as writing on economics and statistics and authoring a science fiction novel. In the prelude to the American Civil War, many US Navy staff of Confederate sympathies left the service and, in 1861, Newcomb took advantage of one of the ensuing vacancies to become professor of mathematics and astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory, Washington D.C.. Newcomb set to work on the measurement of the position of the planets as an aid to navigation, becoming increasingly interested in theories of planetary motion. By the time Newcomb visited Paris, France in 1870, he was already aware that the table of lunar positions calculated by Peter Andreas Hansen was in error. While in Paris, he realised that, in addition to the data from 1750 to 1838 that Hansen had used, there was further data stretching as far back as 1672. His visit allowed little serenity for analysis as he witnessed the defeat of French emperor Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War and the coup that ended the Second French Empire. Newcomb managed to escape from the city during the ensuing rioting that led up to the formation of the Paris Commune and which engulfed the Paris Observatory. Newcomb was able to use the "new" data to revise Hansen's tables. He was offered the post of director of the Harvard College Observatory in 1875 but declined, having by now settled that his interests lay in mathematics rather than observation. In 1878, Newcomb had started planning for a new and precise measurement of the speed of light that was needed to account for exact values of many astronomical constants. He had already started developing a refinement of the method of Léon Foucault when he received a letter from the young naval officer and physicist Albert Abraham Michelson who was also planning such a measurement. Thus began a long collaboration and friendship. In 1880, Michelson assisted at Newcomb's initial measurement with instruments located at Fort Myer and the United States Naval Observatory, then situated on the Potomac River. However, Michelson had left to start his own project by the time of the second set of measurements between the observatory and the Washington Monument. Though Michelson published his first measurement in 1880, Newcomb's measurement was substantially different. In 1883, Michelson revised his measurement to a value closer to Newcomb's In 1881, Newcomb discovered the statistical principle now known as Benford's law, when he observed that the earlier pages of logarithm books, used at that time to carry out logarithmic calculations, were far more worn than the later pages. This led him to formulate the principle that, in any list of numbers taken from an arbitrary set of data, more numbers

In 1891, within months of Seth Carlo Chandler’s discovery of the 14 month variation of latitude, now referred to as the Chandler wobble, Newcomb explained the apparent conflict between the observed motion and predicted period of the wobble. The theory was based on a perfectly rigid body, but Earth is slightly elastic. Newcomb used the variation of latitude observations to estimate the elasticity of Earth, finding it to be slightly more rigid than steel.

1898 : Sir William Huggins (1824-1910) "For his researches in spectrum analysis applied to the heavenly bodies" Shown in a 1986 stamp from Mauretania, Huggins was an English astronomer who was one of the first to use the spectroscope; with it he revolutionized the observation of celestial bodies. In 1863 Huggins showed that stars are composed of elements that occur on the Sun and Earth. In examining a nova in 1866, he observed bright hydrogen lines and correctly deduced the emission of a shell of hydrogen gas at a temperature higher than that of the star's surface. In 1868 Huggins showed that comets emit the light of luminescent carbon gas, and in the same year he tried to measure the radial velocities of stars by the Doppler shift of their spectral lines. He and Henry Draper, working separately, were the first to photograph the spectrum of a comet (Comet 1881 III), on June 24, 1881. He was knighted in 1897.

1909: George William Hill (1838-1914) “On the ground of his researches in mathematical astronomy” George William Hill was a U.S. astronomer and mathematician, whose work focused on the mathematics describing the three-body problem, later the four-body problem, to calculate the orbits of the Moon around the Earth, as well as that of planets around the Sun. The Hill sphere, which approximates the gravitational sphere of influence of one astronomical body in the face of perturbations from another heavier body around which it orbits, was described by Hill.

1911: George Howard Darwin (1845-1912) “On the ground of his researches on tidal theory, the figures of the planets, and allied subjects"

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Sir George Howard Darwin, FRS was an English astronomer and mathematician, the second son and fifth child of Charles and Emma Darwin.

Palomar Mountain Observatory near Pasadena. He was known also for his researches in solar physics, particularly his discovery of magnetic fields in sunspots.

He was admitted to the bar in 1872, but returned to science. In 1883 he became Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy at the University of Cambridge. He studied tidal forces involving the Sun, Moon, and Earth, and formulated the fission theory of Moon formation. He won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1892, and also later served as president of that organization.

1925 : Albert Einstein (1879—1955) “For his theory of relativity and his contributions to the quantum theory" Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist. His many contributions to physics include the special and general theories of relativity, the founding of relativistic cosmology, the first postNewtonian expansion, explaining the perihelion advance of Mercury, prediction of the deflection of light by gravity and gravitational lensing, the first fluctuation dissipation theorem which explained the Brownian movement of molecules, the photon theory and wave-particle duality, the quantum theory of atomic motion in solids, the zero-point energy concept, the semiclassical version of the Schrödinger equation, and the quantum theory of a monatomic gas which predicted Bose-Einstein condensation. Einstein is best known for his theories of special relativity and general relativity. He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” Einstein published more than 300 scientific and over 150 nonscientific works. He is often regarded as the father of modern physics.

1932 : George Ellery Hale (1868-1938) “For his distinguished work on the solar magnetic phenomena and for his eminence as a scientific engineer, especially in connexion with Mount Wilson Observatory" Hale was an American astronomer known for his development of important astronomical instruments, including the Hale telescope (completed 1948), a 200-inch reflecting telescope at the California Institute of Technology's

Following education and research in Massachusetts and Berlin, Hale organized (1888-91) the Kenwood Observatory in Chicago, where he invented and developed the spectroheliograph, an instrument for photographing the Sun in the light of a very small range of wavelengths (monochromatic light). In 1892 he joined the faculty of the University of Chicago and began organizing the Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis., of which he was director until 1904. There he built the 40-inch refracting telescope, which remains the largest of its type in the world. He established the Astrophysical Journal, an international review of spectroscopy and astronomical physics, in 1895. In 1904 he organised the Mt. Wilson Observatory, near Los Angeles, under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., and was its director until 1923. There he built solar apparatus of great power as well as the huge 60inch and 100-inch stellar telescopes, both of the reflecting type. He began work on the Hale telescope on Palomar mountain in 1928. Hale was an excellent fund-raiser, an ability that helped in the establishment of the Yerkes Observatory and the observatories on Mt. Wilson and Palomar Mountain. He also helped organize the National Research Council (1916). The recipient of many honours, he was also elected to most of the world's leading academies of science.

1956 : Patrick Blackett (1897—1974) I"n recognition of his outstanding studies of cosmic ray showers and heavy mesons and in the field of palaeomagnetism" Patrick Baron Blackett OM CH FRS was an English experimental physicist known for his work on cloud c h a m b er s , c o sm i c r a y s , a n d paleomagnetism. He also made a major contribution in World War II advising on military strategy and developing Operational Research. His left-wing views saw an outlet in third world development and in influencing policy in the Labour Government of the 1960s.

1960 : Harold Jeffreys (1891—1989) I"n recognition of his distinguished work in many branches of geophysics, and also in the theory of probability and astronomy" Sir Harold Jeffreys, FRS was a mathematician, statistician, geophysicist, and astronomer.

At Cambridge University Jeffreys taught mathematics, then geophysics and finally became thePlumian Professor of 35 Astronomy.

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One of his major contributions was on the Bayesian approach to probability as well as the idea that the Earth's planetary core was liquid. He was knighted in 1953. Jeffreys received the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1937, the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1960, and the Royal Statistical Society's Guy Medal in Gold in 1962.

1964 : Sydney Chapman (1888â&#x20AC;&#x201D;1970) I"n recognition of his theoretical contributions to terrestrial and interplanetary magnetism, the ionosphere and the aurora borealis" Sydney Chapman FRS was a British mathematician and geophysicist, who was also recognized as one of the pioneers of solar-terrestrial physics. This interest stemmed from his early work on the kinetic theory of gases. Chapman studied magnetic storms and aurorae, developing theories to explain their relation to the interaction of the Earth's magnetic field with the solar wind. Chapman was President of the Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The idea of the IGY stemmed from a discussion in 1950 between Chapman and scientists including James Van Allen. The IGY was held in 1957 -58, and resulted in great progress in fields including Earth and space sciences, as well as leading to the first satellite launches.

1984 : Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910â&#x20AC;&#x201D;1995) I"n recognition of his distinguished work on theoretical physics, including stellar structure, theory of radiation, hydrodynamic stability and relativity" Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, FRS was an Indian American astrophysicist who became a Nobel laureate in physics along with William Alfred Fowler for their work in the theoretical structure and evolution of stars. In July 1930, Chandrasekhar was awarded a Government of India scholarship to pursue graduate studies at the University of Cambridge, where he was admitted to Trinity College and became a research student of Professor R. H. Fowler. On the advice of Prof. P. A. M. Dirac, as part of his graduate studies, Chandra spent a year at the Institut for Teoretisk Fysik in Copenhagen, where he met Prof. Niels Bohr. Chandrasekhar's most famous success was the astrophysical Chandrasekhar limit. The limit describes the maximum mass of a white dwarf star, ~1.44 solar masses, or equivalently, the minimum mass, above which a star will ultimately collapse into a neutron star or black hole (following a supernova). The limit was first calculated by Chandrasekhar in 1930

during his maiden voyage from India to Cambridge, England for his graduate studies. When Chandra first proposed this limit during his fellowship at Trinity college in the 1930s, it was opposed by Arthur Eddington and much to Chandra's frustration none of the established physicists in Europe came to his rescue. This episode had a bitter impact on Chandra resulting in his move to the University of Chicago in the United States and in his choice of moving to another research topic. Chandra, however, compiled all his work on the topic of stellar structures into a book for posterity. This also subsequently led to his style of working continuously in one specific area of physics for a number of years and at the end of that period compiling a book on that topic. As a result, Chandra has left us with great expositions on different topics. In 1999, NASA named the third of its four "Great Observatories'" after Chandrasekhar. This followed a naming contest which attracted 6,000 entries from fifty states and sixty-one countries. The Chandra X-ray Observatory was launched and deployed by Space Shuttle Columbia on July 23, 1999. life."

2006 : Stephen Hawking (b. 1942) " or F his outstanding contribution to theoretical physics and theoretical cosmology. " Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA is a British theoretical physicist known for his contributions to the fields of cosmology and quantum gravity, especially in the context of black holes. He has also achieved success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own theories and cosmology in general; these include the runaway best seller A Brief History of Time, which stayed on the British Sunday Times bestsellers list for a recordbreaking 237 weeks. Hawking's key scientific works to date have included providing, with Roger Penrose, theorems regarding singularities in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes should emit radiation, which is today known as Hawking radiation (or sometimes as Bekenstein-Hawking radiation). He is a world -renowned theoretical physicist whose scientific career spans over 40 years. His books and public appearances have made him an academic celebrity. He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, and a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Science. On August 12, 2009, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge for thirty years, taking up the post in 1979 and retiring on October 1, 2009. He is also a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge and a Distinguished Research Chair at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo, Ontario.

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Hawking has a neuro muscular dystrophy that is related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a condition that has progressed over the years and has left him almost completely paralyzed.

2008 : Roger Penrose (b. 1931) f"or his beautiful and original insights into many areas of mathematics and mathematical physics. Sir Roger has made outstanding contributions to general relativity theory and cosmology, most notably for his work on black holes and the Big Bang." Sir Roger Penrose, OM, FRS is an English mathematical physicist and Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford and Emeritus Fellow of Wadham College. He has received a number of prizes and awards, including the 1988 Wolf Prize for physics which he shared with Stephen Hawking for their contribution to our understanding of the universe. He is renowned for his work in mathematical physics, in particular his contributions to general relativity and cosmology. He is also a recreational mathematician and philosopher. Penrose earned his Ph.D. at Cambridge (St John's College) in 1958, writing a thesis on 'tensor methods in algebraic geometry' under algebraist and geometer John A. Todd. He devised and popularised the Penrose triangle in the 1950s, describing it as "impossibility in its purest form" and exchanged material with the artist M. C. Escher, whose earlier depictions of impossible objects partly inspired it. In 1965 at Cambridge, Penrose proved that singularities (such as black holes) could be formed from the gravitational collapse of immense, dying stars. In 1967, Penrose invented the twistor theory which maps geometric objects in Minkowski space into the 4-dimensional complex space with the metric signature (2,2). In 1969 he conjectured the cosmic censorship hypothesis. This proposes (rather informally) that the universe protects us from the inherent unpredictability of singularities (such as the one in the centre of a black hole) by hiding them from our view behind an event horizon. This form is now known as the "weak censorship hypothesis"; in 1979, Penrose formulated a stronger version called the "strong censorship hypothesis". Together with the BKL conjecture and issues of nonlinear stability, settling the censorship conjectures is one of the most important outstanding problems in general relativity. Also from 1979 dates Penrose's influential Weyl curvature hypothesis on the initial conditions of the observable part of the Universe and the origin of the second law of thermodynamics. Penrose wrote a paper on the Terrell rotation. In 2004 Penrose released The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe, a 1,099-page book aimed at giving a comprehensive guide to the laws of physics. He has proposed a novel interpretation of quantum mechanics.[

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Grenada 1971 : the parachutes open within sight of the recovery ship the aircraft carrier USS Iwo Jima and in the water with flotation collar attached.

A number of territories simply overprinted previous Apollo issues in 1970 E.g. Togo, Fujeira and Haiti, whilst naturally Hungary and Mali produced elegant results

Yemen Kingdom 1970 : Fred Haise is out whilst another of the crew exits the capsule and all safely onboard Iwo Jima and needing a shave !

Unusual British and Italian covers for Apollo 13