Kara Lugar, Masters Thesis by K. Lugar

Kara Lugar

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many thanks are owed to my project panel: Frank Gallagher, Holly Nelson, Richard Alomar, and Carl Alderson; whose advice and different perspectives brought insights I would otherwise have missed. Thanks also to Pete McCarthy, Park Superintendent for Gateway National Recreation Area, for taking the time to meet with me and share his knowledge of Sandy Hook and goals for the project site; the office of Dr. Norb Psuty for providing some of their base elevation and bathymetric data; the Center for Urban Environmental Sustainability (CUES) for facilitating my initial research, and for introducing me to the expanding research and innovations taking place in the field of coastal resiliency. Special thanks go to my Restoration Ecology teammates Alexis Kleinbeck and Jamila Johnson for their invaluable research on plant communities and site restoration. My particular thanks go to Carl Alderson of NOAA for bringing his living shorelines installation data, site expertise and practical knowledge to this project; and to Jean Marie Hartman for her encouragement and keeping me off tangents. And finally, my deepest thanks to Frank Gallagher for stepping in and guiding with a light touch, keeping me on track and enthusiastic throughout this process.

Kara Lugar

PROJECT STATEMENT The various functions of coastal armoring are rapidly evolving to include a broader understanding of the physics of coastal processes and ecological systems. Growing coastal communities also means that shoreline strategies must incorporate a human element involving accessibility, education, and recreation. In response to shoreline erosion behind the historic Fort Hancock Chapel on the Sandy Hook Peninsula in New Jersey, this project seeks to answer the question of how existing strategies can be adapted to reflect a balance between ecological integrity, erosion control and accessibility. Ultimately, the goal is an engineered ecosystem capable of protecting and restoring the Chapel site, that can be held as an example of balancing a healthy sea-edge ecosystem with protective infrastructure, and promoting access and educational opportunities to site users.

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ABSTRACT A comprehensive understanding of coastal defense strategies increasingly needs to incorporate ecological systems and human interactions, as well as the realities of flooding and erosion. Hard coastal armament alone can no longer be considered sufficient to protect infrastructure and ecological integrity. This project proposes first to understand and describe the components of typical coastal infrastructure methods and applications, second to understand the needs of coastal ecology, and finally to design a method of coastal protection that successfully integrates key components of both engineered and ecological systems for a specific site. The National Park Service is currently seeking this type of combined solution along a section of shoreline behind the historic Fort Hancock Chapel, on the Sandy Hook Unit of Gateway National Recreation Area. The site incorporates the SeaStreak ferry landing making it a key location for visitor access. The historic Chapel building adjacent to the shoreline is currently threatened by severe erosion, both as a result of natural littoral processes and damage from Hurricane Sandy. By first comparing existing seawall and living shoreline case studies, and understanding intertidal and littoral ecosystems, this projects aims to determine the most effective combination of coastal protection for the Chapel Site. The proposed design is intended as an example for halting the erosion currently threatening the chapel, providing an educational and aesthetic access point for visitors, and an ecologically sound shoreline zone. Ultimately, the larger goal is to create an adaptable tool for understanding and analyzing the needs of coastal sites within the framework of adaptability, sustainability, and a resilient future.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................... p. 1 Project Statement .......................................................................................................... p. 3 Abstract ......................................................................................................................... p. 5 Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... p. 7 Introduction: The need for ecological solutions as an alternative strategy for coastal protection ........................................ p. 9 Chapter 1: The cultural and ecological importance of Sandy Hook ................................ p. 13 • 1.1 The geologic and natural history of Sandy Hook and the New York Bight region • 1.2 The military and cultural history of Sandy Hook • 1.3 The importance of barrier island ecology and public open space • 1.4 Sandy Hook Peninsula today, and goals for the Chapel Site Chapter 2: Case study review ........................................................................................ p. 25 • 2.1 Case study matrix and discussion of selected values • 2.2 A description of selected case studies and their relevance to the Chapel Site • 2.3 Case study analysis and Park Service objectives Chapter 3: Analysis of intervention strategies and existing site conditions .................... p. 33 • 3.1 Park Service Design Objectives and intervention strategies • 3.2 Site analysis and existing conditions • 3.3 Intervention analysis and site considerations • 3.4 Site zones and analysis diagrams Chapter 4: Final site design and intervention recommendations ................................... p. 47 • 4.1 Design overview • 4.2 Ecological Restoration and Communities Conclusion: Rethinking coastal protection .................................................................... p. 53 References ................................................................................................................... p. 55 Appendix A ................................................................................................................... p. 58

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Photos by Kara Lugar

Kara Lugar

INTRODUCTION: THE NEED FOR ECOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS AS AN ALTERNATIVE STRATEGY FOR COASTAL PROTECTION Hard human infrastructure is generally considered unyielding, while natural forces are often seen as unforgiving. When the two come into conflict, the result is often disastrous. As vividly demonstrated by Hurricane Sandy in 2012 and Typhoon Hainan in 2013, coastal areas are particularly vulnerable to the effects of storm surge and flooding. In their 1996 book Living by the Rules of the Sea, authors David Bush, Orrin Pilkey Jr. and William Neal state, “a natural hazard is any natural physical process with the potential to cause loss of life or property. Natural processes have always been hazardous, but there haven’t always been people or development vulnerable to the hazards. Without hazards and vulnerability, there is no risk.” (Page 6, 1996) The growth of coastal communities and infrastructure has vastly expanded the potential for risk, leading to an increase in need for coastal protection strategies. However, the idea of ‘coastal protection’ is a highly variable concept that might mean preservation or restoration of ecosystem functions to ecologists, but hard infrastructure meant to halt erosion to property owners or engineers (Cooper & McKenna, 2008). Traditional coastal protection methods typically consist of erecting some type of hard engineered solution that may or may not be able to withstand future events of an unpredictable magnitude (Nicholls, 2011). Case studies of existing seawalls do show the protective benefits of hard solutions to communities and inland infrastructure, but also clearly demonstrate the adverse environmental effects such as erosion, ecological degradation, and loss of heterogeneity and species diversity (van der Meer et al, 1998; McIvor et al, 2012). Additionally, existing hard solutions are typically built to withstand known precedents, particularly maximum flood levels. With the growing uncertainty over sea level rise and storm intensity, coastal protection methods will need to withstand not only known historical conditions but also future conditions at an unpredictable scale in order to remain resilient and adaptable in the face of change. Compounding this issue is the increasing migration of people to coastal urban areas such as New York City, and the subsequent elimination of natural coastal systems (Wilkes, 2011). Historically, marshes and wetlands have been drained and covered over in order to construct more buildings, forests and meadows have been paved over, and the plant and animal species native to those ecosystems were displaced (Nicholls, 2011). In areas where natural systems remain intact, even partially, natural disasters are frequently less destructive and more easily recovered from. When Typhoon Hainan struck the Philippines in 2013, areas with intact mangrove swamps were better able to withstand the storm surge than areas with hardened infrastructure (McIvor et al, 2012). During Hurricane Sandy, the same held true for areas with dune systems, both natural and man-made (National Park Service, 2013). By contrast, when Hurricane Ike struck the coast of Galveston, Texas in 2008, the seventeen-foot high concrete barricade was breached, and much of the barrier island was engulfed by floodKara Lugar

waters, similar to ecologically unprotected areas along the New York and New Jersey coasts (Leatherman, 1983; Cooper et al, 2005). â&#x20AC;&#x153;No matter what the given problem, the manifest solution of a particular problem can hardly ever be used to solve another.â&#x20AC;? (Sasaki 1949, 159) In response to the devastating effects of Hurricane Sandy, New Jersey and New York have begun an ongoing conversation about the concept of Resiliency and what it means to the residents of the region, both economically as well as ecologically. Municipalities and communities are beginning to realize the importance of natural systems as a method of coastal protection. While the majority of densely populated urban areas do not have the space for full-scale native ecosystems, there is usually room for some kind of compromise. As Sasaki points out, the right solution for one space is not necessarily feasible in another, but case studies show that combining hard infrastructure with the relative flexibility of natural systems can be an adaptable solution in many situations (Chapman and Bulleri, 2003). Beginning with the Rebuild By Design competition, New York and New Jersey are currently exploring broader options, with an eye toward economic and environmental sustainability, longevity and structural integrity. The unanticipated level of destruction caused by Hurricane Sandy has begun a long overdue exchange at both the state and municipal levels about reconsidering current building codes and development practices. The recent Rebuild by Design competition has opened the door for some radical shifts in the way people think about solutions. Several of these designs are not in line with current regulations, suggesting that municipalities are beginning to think outside of these restrictions toward broader solutions. A more flexible mindset is becoming increasingly necessary as the effects of long-term climate change become more prevalent and obvious. Continuing to work exclusively within existing regulations would severely handicap the ability of coastal population centers to adapt as these effects become manifest. A good example of the need for a creative solution is demonstrated at the historic Fort Hancock Chapel Site near Horseshoe Cove, a short stretch of coast on the Raritan Bay side of Sandy Hook Peninsula. Part of Gateway National Recreation Area, this site serves as a seasonal ferry stop for summer tourists to area beaches and visitors to the Fort. The historic Chapel can also be rented for private functions, serving as a revenue generator and historic focal point for the Park Service. Strong currents and natural littoral sand movement along Raritan Bay, plus extensive storm surge damage as a result of Hurricane Sandy, have scoured sand away from the footings of the original bulkhead protecting the coastal edge and severely eroded the bank behind the structure. The historic chapel, part of the Fort Hancock Military Museum that oc10

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cupies part of the peninsula, is currently in danger of being undermined by the eroding bank, and the Park Service is taking steps to prevent further erosion and protect the building. An internal NPS proposal to build a new bulkhead off shore and fill behind has already been rejected by the NJ Department of Environmental Protection and the National Park Service itself, since it would negatively impact the existing coastal conditions (EA/AoE, 2011). In addition, remnants of the original wooden bulkhead on the site are protected by the National Historic Registry. The park service is now looking for a plan that would better combine existing hard engineering solutions with a softened edge that will simultaneously preserve the existing intertidal zone and allow for the reestablishment of a marine edge while also stabilizing the bank and protecting the structures behind it. In this case, the implementation of an ecological system would help stabilize of the bank while simultaneously enhancing the wetland and allowing continued recreational uses (EA/AoE, 2011). The intent of this project is to analyze the known potential solutions, both hard and soft, to better understand how they work independently, as well as how they might be improved by working in conjunction with one another. Understanding the benefits and opportunities offered by different coastal protection methods begins to build a parts-kit that can be employed in different configurations, suited to different sites, depending on the individual needs of each. Looking broadly at multiple solutions, and then narrowing down the possibilities to fit a particular site will illustrate how careful analysis of existing and future conditions best indicates which solutions are appropriate for a particular place. Applying this hypothesis to the Chapel Site at Fort Hancock, the goal is a solution that halts erosion and protects the historic Chapel, allows visitor access, and restores the ecological integrity of the coastal zone.

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USGS Satellite Imagery

August 2012: pre-Sandy

July 2014: post-Sandy

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CHAPTER 1: THE CULTURAL & ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF SANDY HOOK Sandy Hook is a five-mile barrier peninsula at the northernmost end of the New Jersey Shore. Protected as part of the Gateway National Recreation Area, it also encompasses historic Fort Hancock, a Coast Guard auxiliary station, and a seasonal ferry dock connecting park visitors to Manhattan. The SeaStreak Ferry docking facility is located next to the Fort Hancock Military Chapel and brings an estimated 20,000 visitors per year, according to the National Park Service in 2013. Visitors arriving by ferry can access a multi-use pedestrian path running the length of the peninsula as well as a seasonal shuttle bus service to the different beaches and amenities. A walking tour of the Historic Fort Hancock also includes the preserved military batteries and the oldest working lighthouse in the US. Longshore sand drift, natural littoral processes and ocean currents have repeatedly altered the face of the peninsula, causing erosion and accretion that continually shift this dynamic shoreline. A wooden bulkhead built along the bay side of Fort Hancock in the early 1900â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effectively halted movement along that length of shoreline until time and natural processes broke down the wooden structure. Ultimately, the weakening of several hundred feet of bulkhead directly behind the Chapel and ferry dock combined with storm surge flooding from Hurricane Sandy in 2012 and began to scour and erode the area behind the old wall. The presence of the remaining bulkhead and an offshore breakwater have continued to contribute to the worsening erosion problem at the Chapel Site. In February 2013, the National Park Service began an environmental assessment process with the goal of halting the erosion, preserving the historic Chapel, and additionally including an expanded dock facility that would serve research and educational efforts as well as the existing ferry and visitor access. 1.1 The geologic & natural history of Sandy Hook and the New York Bight region On a geologic scale, Sandy Hook Peninsula is relatively young. As sea levels have risen and fallen over the last several millennia according to the advance and retreat of glaciation, rivers and drainages have evolved and changed shape into what we now know as the New York Bight. As recently as the late Cretaceous the entire region is believed to have been submerged under as much as 300 feet of ocean water. Nearing the end of the Wisconsin Glaciation 14,000 years ago, the sea level is believed to have been some 300 feet lower than presently. Sedimentation and erosion carved a deep trench in the sea floor between the current locations of Sandy Hook and Long Island now known as the Hudson River Canyon. As the region warmed during the Holocene Era, sea levels began to rise again, changing a tundra landscape into the more modern deciduous forests we know today and shaping the peninsula of Sandy Hook. Longshore drift from the sand beds that formed the barrier island chains along the southern New Jersey shoreline began to push the Hook further into the Kara Lugar

mouth of the New York Bight, a process that is still occurring (Ketchum, Redfield & Ayers, 1951). Changing currents led to the formation of small bays and lagoons on the shoreward side of Sandy Hook that began to support colonization of oyster and mussel species, hard and soft-shell clams, and crab and lobster species. Large beds of oysters were recorded by the Lenape People originally living in the vicinity of Raritan Bay, as well as by European settlers. Raritan Bay is the southernmost extent of the American Lobster, and the northernmost area where Blue Crabs can be found in great numbers (CUNY, 2014). Water in Raritan Bay moves in a counter-clockwise gyre, based on the inputs from the Hudson, Arthur Kill, Raritan, Shrewsbury, and Navesink Rivers. Salinity is estimated to run between 12ppm near the mouth of the Raritan River to 32ppm off Sandy Hook. Water temperature ranges from 33Ë&#x161;F in January to as high as 78Ë&#x161;F in late August (CUNY, 2014). Pollution levels are considered to be high, in large part due to industrial waste coming from the Raritan River. By the 1970s the bay was nearly sterile as a result of pollution and algal anoxia. Ongoing environmental efforts since that time have helped the area to rebound significantly though not completely. Because of the wide water temperature swings and salinity gradient, intertidal and sub-tidal species diversity is limited under the best conditions; heavy harvesting combined with pollution levels offer limited support to biodiversity in this region (HRE Foundation, 2014). The natural geologic forces that formed Sandy Hook continue to work the shoreline, accumulating and eroding sand according to strong bay currents and longshore drift. These processes are initially responsible for the erosion of the shoreline just south of the tip of Sandy Hook, directly behind the historic Chapel. An overlay of historic shorelines from the USGS, National Park Service, NJDEP, and NOAA show a consistent pattern of change over time. Littoral sand movement, that is the constant drift of waves, sand and sediments along the intertidal zone, has progressively built up the northern end of the Sandy Hook Peninsula following prevailing currents from both the Atlantic and the Hudson, Raritan and Sandy Hook Bays. Looking at the physical processed of littoral movement clearly illustrate the dynamic nature of the barrier system. Over the recorded span of 250 years Sandy Hook Peninsula has seen continual and dramatic change. Historic Park Service maps and USGS data clearly illustrate the fragmented and sinuous edge. Historically, the Navesink and Shrewsbury Rivers have at various times broken through the barrier coast and flowed directly into the Atlantic. The construction of a seawall along the southern end of the peninsula in the early 1900â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s forced both rivers to flow north into Sandy Hook Bay, with a measurable effect on the inland coastline. 14

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Map by Kara Lugar

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Illustration by Kara Lugar

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An enlargement of the northernmost three miles highlights these changes in greater detail, showing the ongoing effects of littoral drift patterns. The hardened edge surrounding the Fort and the Chapel site marked here has halted the natural migration of the shoreline.

Illustration by Kara Lugar

1.2 The military and cultural history of Sandy Hook The Gateway National Recreation Area encompasses 26 thousand acres of land and water spanning Raritan Bay in New York and New Jersey. It was added to the National Park System in 1972. (NPS, 2014) The Sandy Hook Unit includes the entirety of the Sandy Hook Peninsula, and separates Raritan and Sandy Hook Bays from the Atlantic Ocean. The lighthouse at the northern end of the peninsula, built in 1764, is the oldest working lighthouse in the US. The northern tip of the peninsula has served as a military defense post since the Revolutionary War, when the lighthouse was captured and held by the British. In response to the War of 1812, militarization began in 1813 with a wooden fortification called Fort Gates. Constriction of a granite gun battery of began in 1859 during the Spanish-American War and was renamed the Fort at Sandy Hook. This battery was never completed, but the Fort remained in use as an active military post during the American Civil War. The “Proof Battery” was established in 1874 on the northern beaches in order to test heavy ammunition. Because of its strategic importance Sandy Hook was the site of the first concrete gun batteries, and the US army’s only steam powered “lift-gun” battery. Constructed behind a natural dune system, the batteries were designed to be completely invisible to ships approaching from the Atlantic. (NPS, 2014) Completed in 1895, the military installation was given the name of Kara Lugar

Fort Hancock. At the start of the First World War and the introduction of airplanes some of the nation’s first anti-aircraft guns were positioned on Sandy Hook, and expanded during World War II following the advent of new weaponry. In 1954 during the Cold War, the fort was briefly home to a Project Nike anti-aircraft missile base. The fort served as coastal defense until 1972 when it was decommissioned and put in the care of the National Park Service, together with the rest of the Sandy Hook Peninsula, Jamaica Bay in Brooklyn and Queens, and a section of the southeastern Staten Island shoreline as Gateway National Recreation Area. In 1980, Fort Hancock and its buildings were added to the National Historic Registry. Today, Fort Hancock remains an important piece of American Military history. (NPS, 2014) In 1848 one of the first Life-Saving Stations was constructed on the bay side of Sandy Hook. It was moved several times according to the needs of the military base, and was finally © National Park Service transferred to the US Coast Guard in 1950. It is currently the home base of Flotilla 22, serving Sandy Hook and Raritan Bay (USCG, 2014). The Historic Fort Chapel was built in 1941 to serve the officers and soldiers stationed there. Initially, it was considered to be a ‘temporary’ structure, but a ‘permanent’ additional chapel was never built. Now, the chapel is a cherished part of the history of Fort Hancock, and of Sandy Hook. The building was extensively restored after Hurricane Sandy and is currently leased out by the Park as an event venue. As such, it is a viable economic entity for the park. Immediately adjacent to the Chapel Site is the landing for the SeaStreak Ferry, a seasonal ferry line running directly from Manhattan to Sandy Hook. Service is offered between Memorial Day and Labor Day and brings an estimated 20,000 people to Sandy Hook each season, and so serves as an important pedestrian hub (NPS, 2014). Underscoring the historical and cultural value of Fort Hancock is the ecological and 18

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psychological importance of the barrier system as public open space. Just to the north of the Fort is a protected nesting area for endangered shorebirds. Together with the wide beaches facing the Atlantic and the intact dune ecosystems, Sandy Hook serves as an important recreational area for urban residents. 1.3 The importance of Barrier Island ecology and public open spaces Sandy Hook Peninsula forms the northernmost barrier ecosystem in New Jersey and is part of a dynamic coastal barrier system with the geological purpose of sheltering the inland shorelines. It’s proximity to the largest urban area on the east coast draws thousands of beachgoers, birders and nature lovers, houses offices for NOAA and other government and research agencies, and serves as critical dune habitat for endangered species. Barrier Islands and peninsulas are considered critical ecological systems for many reasons, acting as the first line of defense against storm surges and coastal inundations (McIvor et al, 2012). Coastal marshes, wetlands, estuaries, dune systems, and maritime forests act as critical links in migratory bird habitat, coastal flood protection, and other systems functions. Many studies have focused on the importance of open space and functioning ecological systems to marine life, to water quality, and to the emotional and recreational well being of area residents. Systems functions are increasingly considered important as an integral part of a larger whole, especially when space is limited by needs of human use. (Ingram et al, 2006) Parks and open spaces have an irreplaceable value as cultural and natural resources. They are critical linkages between habitat and education, and it is here that the disparate biological, ecological, historic and cultural aspects come together. (Gobster, 2001) The codification of protected natural lands as part of the Public Trust Doctrine holds governing bodies responsible for the legal management of property for the public interest. The National Park Service in particular hold such lands in trust as part of a collective understanding of the importance of open space. The mental and emotional benefits to society as a result of the protection of natural systems are larger than the systems themselves. (Bento, 2009) Quoting a statistic that as much as 80% of the world population is expected to live in urban regions by 2030, Steiner, et al (2013) make a compelling argument in favor of devising “courses of action aimed at changing existing conditions into preferred ones.” (p. ??) In practicality, this refers to using ecological functions not only as a benefit to an individual site, but also as a way of contributing social and economic benefits. (Steiner et. al., 2013) To illustrate the relevancy of this topic, a comparison of Ian McHarg’s 1968 map of flood-prone areas on Staten Island to the areas damaged by Hurricane Sandy in 2012 show an almost exact overKara Lugar

lap. (McHarg, 1968; Steiner et al, 2013) Arguably, ecological infrastructure systems would be helpful in mitigating disasters at this scale, as well as improving environmental, economical and community health in vulnerable communities. What Steiner et al call “ecological infrastructure” is a potential method for introducing ecosystem services into areas at risk of future damages. According to the US EPA, these systems can be engineered to mimic natural processes and work in conjunction with natural systems. Policy and politics are quoted as a barrier to this kind of progress, especially in relation to funding. (Steiner et al, 2013) In her 2010 thesis on habitat enhancement of intertidal seawalls, Maureen Goff addresses some of the conflicting interests and uses of seashore applications, referencing industry, recreation, resource extraction and conservation, and marine biodiversity. Armoring in the marine environment both destroys existing/native habitat and creates novel/new habitat in place. This can be detrimental or potentially positive depending on how it’s done. Goff points out that “coastal areas provide almost half (43%) of the worlds ecosystem goods and services” and that “habitat loss is second only to exploitation as the cause of most species depletions and extinctions” (2010; p1). In reference to infrastructure, Ingram, Bowler and Gobster acknowledge the importance of preserving usability as well as ecology, and advocate the replacement of aging structures with upgraded ones that fit in with the individual ecologies. Raising awareness among site users is put forward as a key element in protecting this fragile edge, and collaboration between users and ecologists is necessary for understanding the importance of coastal ecosytems. Identifying the parameters of ecological systems and linking them to social systems changes the dynamic ability of these systems to co-adapt to change over time. This also strengthens the connection of people to natural systems and creates a broader, stronger bond between them (Ingram et al, 2008). In her proposal for “Marine Streets” Barbara Wilks argues that better connections between urban zones and the waterfront would have both ecological and social benefits. On the ecological side, she argues that changing the urban edge to better integrate with the waterfront would provide a surge zone during storm events, while socially it would create an emotional connection and greater awareness of ecological systems (Wilks, 2011). This connection would have a measurably positive effect on urban residents. Having access to the waterfront enables urban costal residents to develop an ecological identity, a cornerstone in a true sense of place (Wilks, 2011). A case study of ‘managed realignment’ of shoreline armament strategies in England demonstrated the advantages of systems rehabilitation by conducting a cost-benefit analysis of the various infrastructural inputs versus the net gain of rehabilitation. The study defines managed realignment as the deliberate breaching of existing coastal defenses with the 20

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goal of flooding the land behind, resulting in the creation or restoration of tidal marshes. The softer defenses work to dissipate wave energy and absorb flood action, as well as increasing the availability of habitat and natural systems. The authors also discuss the necessity of linking multiple individual projects into a single comprehensive system in order to protect and restore greater lengths of coastline, known as the “multiplier effect.” (Louisetti et al, 2010) Quoting the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), the authors also link ecosystem services to the people who benefit from them, classifying services into 4 categories: supporting services such as nutrient cycling, regulating services such as climate and flood management, provisioning services such as fresh water and agriculture, and cultural services such as aesthetic and emotional benefits, and recreation. (MEA, 2005; Louisetti et al, 2010) 1.4 Sandy Hook Peninsula today, and goals for the Chapel Site High levels of pollution combined with overfishing has led to a drastic decline in marine biodiversity in Sandy Hook and Raritan Bays. (Orff, 2013) The loss of native shellfish species in particular has had a negative effect on the historic culture of the region as well as on water quality. While neither Sandy Hook nor the Chapel site can be considered an urban area, it is certainly a refuge for urban residents. Elements of urban infrastructure are present throughout the Fort area and on the Chapel site and do have an impact on the ecosystem function. The number of visitors to the park each year suggest that its importance to the residents of New Jersey and New York in particular should not be underestimated. The ferry landing indicates that the Chapel site is a high pedestrian traffic area, even if the people are transitory on their way to another part of Sandy Hook. Arriving by the ferry and returning to wait for a departing ferry makes the Chapel site a high visibility site and consequently a prime location for connecting visitors to the ecology of the area. Encouraging visitors to connect with the marine edge would help forge the emotional and cultural ties necessary to the preservation of ecological systems. Coastal vulnerability to flooding is a progressively critical issue as the realities of climate change are recognized, particularly after Hurricane Sandy. Defined by the site’s proximity to flood hazard plus the elevation, the patterns of the currents in Raritan and Sandy Hook Bays combine with the site’s low natural elevation and constant littoral sand movement to leave the area at increasing risk. The initial storm surge and bayside flooding resulting from Hurricane Sandy in 2012 greatly exacerbated the erosion problem on the Chapel site. The shoreline is now less than twenty feet from the chapel foundation. In a 2014 meeting with Park Superintendent Pete McCarthy, he stated that his goal is to save the building and preserve the historic integrity of the site, as well as improving the ecological condition Kara Lugar

Map by Kara Lugar

of the site. The wooden bulkhead was built in 1910, and deterioration was evident prior to Hurricane Sandy. The Park Service had already begun to look at possible solutions when Sandy hit in 2012. In the wake of the storm the hardened edge was further damaged, and the existing breakwater does little to mitigate the accelerating erosion. We are now left with a need to develop a more resilient design solution that addresses site protection, historical preservation and an adaptable future. Based on the Park Serviceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Environmental Assessment document, the goals for this space revolve around site users, protective engineering, and ecological integrity. The Park Service would like to incorporate visitor facilities and information as well as additional docking for research vessels and educational. The Chapel hosts weddings, picnics and other gatherings acting as an economic draw, and the US National Park Service has an ongoing commitment to the conservation and restoration of natural resources, and reintroduction of native species with minimal site disturbance. Precedents exist to illustrate the varying typologies for coastal protection strategies. In order to address the issues currently threatening the site, it is necessary to study these precedents in greater detail to determine which might be suitable for the specific conditions and characteristics. Understanding and adapting these typologies to the Chapel Site will form the basis for design intervention restoration strategies. 22

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Map by Kara Lugar

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CHAPTER 2: CASE STUDY REVIEW Coastal armament strategies are increasingly driven by an understanding of the importance of ecosystem services and functions. Historically however, the traditional methods for coastal protection involved the erection of seawalls, bulkheads and other hard-edged structures. With a primary function of retaining the soil behind the structure and preventing water infiltration at the front, hard structures are inflexible and less accommodating to marine organisms in the intertidal zone. By contrast, living shorelines are intended to mimic natural shorelines and typically incorporate little or no non-biodegradable materials, relying primarily on plant roots for soil stabilization. They are effective for floodwater management as well as providing a range of habitats and ecosystem services (Luisetti et al, 2010). A broad range of case studies from around the world have repeatedly demonstrated that hard structures do not readily support biodiverse marine life, or support a reduced assemblage of native organisms (Chapman, 2011). The vertical nature of most seawall edges limits the availability of habitat in the intertidal zone, and erosion at the edge and base of hard structures causes structural issues and further habitat reduction, particularly in high wave energy environments. Living shorelines are better at providing a more naturalized coastal edge ecosystem particularly in the intertidal zone, but require more space in order to accommodate tidal fetch and maximum wave heights (Luisetti et al, 2010). Contemporary literature shows a tremendous variation in coastal armament and protection strategies. A review of twenty-four different case studies of existing seawalls, living shorelines and other coastal infrastructure or management techniques help illustrate how the implementation of different strategies is or is not effective, . This helped to identify the important characteristics of each method as they are intended to work in the physical environment. The aims of coastal management as outlined by the case studies fall into three broad categories: Policy & Management, Hard Structure, and Natural Systems. Specific intervention strategies as outlined by each case study can be grouped under the broad categories with defined goals and results, and each overlap illustrates shared potential outcomes. 2.1 Case study matrix and discussion of selected values Organizing all of the case studies into a general matrix begins to show similarities and differences based on the key individual features of each case study: construction materials, functionality and context, users and use goals, ecological considerations, etc. Identifying and categorizing the key elements of each case study began to illustrate how the armament solutions utilized on the individual sites might then be applied to the chapel site. Building on the Venn diagram above, the principal distinction between case studies is whether the base structure can be considered ‘hard’ or ‘soft’ infrastructure as it relates to Kara Lugar

Diagram by Kara Lugar

material construction, physical flexibility, and ecosystem services. ‘Hard’ refers to structural and engineering materials that are intended to restrict water movement or protect inland structures, and are not meant to decay in place. ‘Soft’ indicates untreated organic material such as logs, coconut or coir fiber rolls, and plant communities intended to mimic or restore the native ecosystem, promote water infiltration and provide coastal habitat (Hardaway, Milligan and Duhring, 2010; HREF, 2012). Also taken into account are policy and management considerations. Various State and Federal regulations categorize coastal interventions based on construction materials and structural purpose (i.e. urban flood reduction) depending on jurisdiction and environmental impact (Cooper, Beevers and Oppenheimer, 2005). In the US, government agencies such as the NJ Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP) and the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) are responsible for monitoring land use 26

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management, water and air quality, and pollution control, among others, for the protection of area residents and environmental health. In order to compare the case studies collectively to each other and to the Chapel Site, it was necessary to identify a set of criteria that described each case study and provided a logical way to link them to each other and to the Chapel Site. A physical description such as height, length, and construction material relates to the nature of each site. An understanding of the surrounding conditions indicate whether the area is urban or developed, hardened or naturalized, and accessible for recreation. Inclusion or exclusion of an ecological element assists in determining where the case study would fall along a gradient of hard or soft infrastructure, and indicates potential goals of structural protection or ecological integrity. The characteristics identified in the case study matrix independently describe each project site and primary goals, and relate them to the broad categorizations of Policy, Structure, and Ecology. Categorizing each case study in this way was useful in determining the most relevant for further research. 2.2 A description of selected case studies and their relevance to the Chapel Site The different coastal armament strategies in the United States and abroad have significant bearing on the Chapel Site project for a number of reasons. Starting with case study research information gathered on existing shoreline alteration projects identified as broad a range of typologies as possible. The studies selected and described below illustrate the implementation of coastal protection methods, each with different goals and outcomes. Each has some relevance to the Chapel Site, and greater consideration is given to those that make a measurable attempt to include ecosystem function in the design. Comparing each case study to the Chapel Site based on three primary criteria pinpointed a more specific set of case studies for deeper analysis. First, this identified the principal use or goal of the structure to determine whether it was used for retention, flood prevention, industry, etc. Second was to look at the structural materiality to identify concrete, treated timber, corrugated metal, etc. Third it was important to evaluate each by whether it incorporated a living component, such as vegetation or textured intertidal panels. Four case studies stood out as good examples of very different coastal strategies. Relating these case studies to the categories laid out in the Venn diagram and comparing them in greater detail illustrated how similar interventions might affect the Chapel Site. At the Woodbridge Creek Marsh in Woodbury NJ, the USACE worked in coordination with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the New York Port 28

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Authority and the New Jersey Turnpike Authority to reclaim fifty acres of degraded wetlands and an additional 17 acres of upland habitat. In order to restore native marsh habitat for indigenous bird, fish, and wildlife species, and restore the natural tidal hydrology to the site, the team used a living shoreline approach (USACE, 2013). The phragmites dominating the site was removed along with soil fill to reestablish the tidal creek, and replaced with native marsh vegetation (Alderson, 2013). In this case, no structural material was used, including rock, concrete, or coir log structures (Alderson, 2013). Sydney Harbor on the southwest coast of Australia has many examples of both traditional and innovative armament structures. Since much of the coastline is urbanized, there has been extensive hardening of the coastal edge to accommodate marine traffic and stabilize embankments. A document published by the New South Wales Department of Environment & Climate Change in 2009 compares the ecological viability of hard urban edges with that of ecologically engineered edges. In the Parramatta River Estuary at the headwaters of Sydney Harbor, heavy boat traffic had led to concrete channelization and significant shoreline degradation (Chapman, Bulleri, 2011). To alleviate flooding in a shallow area of the estuary, a native mangrove swamp was added in front of the existing seawall structure with the goal of capturing sediment and rehabilitating shoreline habitat. In adjacent areas, boulders were piled and inter-planted with native vegetation to further sediment accretion and stabilization, as well as to help absorb and mitigate the effects of floodwaters (NSW DECC, 2009). The Cuyahoga River in Ohio is famous as the river that burned as a result of years of intensive pollution from factories and industries along its banks. Although intensive remediation has significantly improved the condition of the waterway, the river is still heavily used as a Federal Navigation Channel (USACE, 2014). According to the Cuyahoga River Remedial Action Plan in 2014, the corrugated steel bulkheads lining the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lower shoreline change and ongoing maintenance of the Navigation Channel cause the river to change from an average depth of 6 feet upstream to a typical depth of 23 feet in the Channel. This contributes to increased water temperature and pollutant retention, decreasing the dissolved oxygen levels and degrading aquatic habitat (2014). To mitigate these issues, the Ohio EPA and the USACE installed cutbacks in the existing and damaged bulkheads to provide riparian edge and wetland systems along the riverbanks without threatening commercial boat traffic (USACE, 2014). Galveston Island is a barrier island located off the coast of Texas, in the Gulf of Mexico. According to the Galveston Historical Center, in 1900 the city of Galveston was almost totally destroyed by a storm surge related to the Galveston Hurricane. In response, coastal engineers began construction of a concrete seawall with the goal of preventing further dam30

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age. Begun in 1904, the wall now stretches along more than ten miles of the island’s twenty seven-mile length (Galveston Historical Center, 2014). The reinforced concrete structure stands 17’ high, is 16’ thick at its base and 5’ thick at its top, with a recurved face designed to reflect high-energy wave action. In 1983, the wall is estimated to have saved the city of Galveston $100 million in damages as a result of Hurricane Alicia (USACE, 2014). In 2008, Hurricane Ike struck the region with a surge that overtopped the seawall, flooding much of the city to an estimated depth of six feet and claiming as many as 50 lives of residents who opted not to evacuate. In response to the devastation, coastal engineers proposed a massive enhancement and expansion of the Galveston Seawall, called the “Ike Dike” (Casselman, 2009). Currently no dune or natural coastal ecological systems exist to accrete sand or stabilize the beach zone. Erosion at the toe of the structure remains chronic (USACE, 2014). Each of these case studies illustrates vastly different techniques for coastal armament. Massive and inflexible infrastructure such as the Galveston seawall act as a flood barrier up to a point, but as sea levels change, the height of such armament becomes inadequate, prompting ongoing efforts to construct higher and higher structures (Casselman, 2009). The bulkheads employed along the Cuyahoga River maintain safe passage for commercial boat traffic while being modified to incorporate an ecological edge (Coyahoga Remedial Action Plan, 2014). The same is true in Sydney Harbor, where natural ecosystems are employed to help manage floodwaters (NSW DECC, 2009). The living shoreline example at Woodbridge Creek is restored to a naturalized state, providing coastal marsh habitat and tidal absorption (Alderson, 2013). All of these considerations are relevant to the Chapel Site at some scale. 2.3 Case study analysis and park service objectives Arraying the case studies along two separate gradients helps to better understand how each might be ranked as harder or softer. The vertical axis addresses the relative hardness of each solution based on physical materials and structural flexibility, while the horizontal axis categorizes each solution by whether the goal was to mitigate an existing problem or plan for resilience to future changes. The relative hardness of each solution is rated according to predominance of structural materials such as concrete, steel, or organic elements. Understanding the justifications for construction, such as response to a prior storm event, increased shoreline health, ecological integrity, or restoration illustrates whether the case study represents an attempt to mitigate existing issues or to plan for future changes. Galveston, Texas at the bottom left is a fully hardened edge with no ecological consideration, built in response to hurricane storm surges. The living shoreline at Woodbridge Creek, New Jersey at the top right has no non-organic material and reclaims 67 acres of shoreline marsh. Kara Lugar

Case Study Comparison

Diagram by Kara Lugar

The case studies selected are important for showing the structural variability between different projects, and how they accomplish the specific goals for each study. The case studies focused on here represent a broad range of methodologies with similar goals. This range underlines the idea that there are many potential solutions to the challenges posed by coastal protection and restoration. In a study comparing manmade structures to natural shorelines, Maureen Goff points out the lack of complexity of a typical seawall in terms of slope, crevices and overhangs, and material variability, with a measurable effect on intertidal habitat complexity (Goff, 2010). Waves overtop coastal defenses when there is a combination of large waves and high water, as with high tide or a storm related surge. This significantly increases the risk of flooding behind the structure, potentially leading to increased erosion or breach. Accurately anticipating the risks and subsequent needs of coastal defense strategies can help prevent â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;over-engineeringâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of coastal armament (McCabe et al, 2013). To better understand how the case studies relate to the Chapel Site, it is necessary to identify the specific goals for the project and apply the same set of criteria outlined in the case study matrix. 32

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CHAPTER 3: ANALYSIS OF INTERVENTION STRATEGIES AND EXISTING SITE CONDITIONS The case studies analyzed in Chapter 2 provide several examples of potential options for shoreline protection at the Chapel Site. For each case study site, specific intervention techniques were used independently to resolve issues directly pertaining to the site in question. Comparing case study sites where a particular technique was successful to similarities with the Chapel site becomes a foundation argument for using the same strategy as part of the solution for the Chapel Site. Before examining each individual intervention, it is necessary to look first at the specific design objectives outlined by the National Park Service Assessment document for the Chapel Site. Mapping out these objectives and overlaying them with the case study analysis shows relationships between the Park Service goals for the site and successful employment of intervention strategies elsewhere. The primary objectives identified by the Park Service for the future of the Chapel Site revolve around managing the needs of site users, historical preservation, and ecological systems in a way that can remain relevant in the face of ongoing shoreline changes. The Superintendent of the Sandy Hook Unit has already rejected a proposal to rebuild the bulkhead and fill in the eroded shoreline, reasoning that such a solution would further degrade the coastal edge, interrupting ecological systems and restricting access to the water (EA/AoE, 2011). The Park Service objectives for the Chapel Site are outlined in the Site Assessment Document as follows: Accessibility, Research and Education, Historical Preservation, Connectivity, Future Adaptability, Shoreline Stability, Ecological Integrity, and Species Diversity (EA/AoE, 2011). Specifically, the Park service would like to protect the Chapel by stabilizing the coastal edge in a way that involves minimal site disturbance and hard structural construction, and incorporates the reestablishment of ecologically appropriate plant communities. The Park Service would also like to expand visitor facilities and information, as well as providing educational signage illustrating the methods of coastal protection being employed on the site. Extending the educational opportunities to research, the Park Service would also like to expand the existing ferry dock to accommodate research vessels. 3.1 Park Service Design Objectives and intervention strategies Based on the Venn diagram outlining the management, structural, and ecological processes, the aims for coastal management at the Chapel Site into the three categories of Policy & Management, Hard Structure, and Natural Systems. Specific interventions can be grouped under each category, and each overlap illustrates shared potential outcomes. Comparing this general overview with the Park Service goals for the Chapel site shows the rationale for specific interventions. Organizing the primary Park Service objectives and the Kara Lugar

Diagram by Kara Lugar

related secondary goals for the Chapel Site along the same axes used to categorize the case studies in Chapter 2 illustrates suitable comparisons between the strategies used in each study that could potentially be applicable to the Chapel Site. Reorganizing the categories as they pertain to the design objectives into a dendrogramatic format shows the individual relationships between each objective and potential outcomes. In this way, general intervention goals lead to specific intervention strategies that would be most effective for the Chapel site. Ultimately, connecting and combining the strongest overlaps and understanding how they can work together begins to direct possible design interventions. 34 Kara Lugar

Diagrams by Kara Lugar Kara Lugar

Building the dendrogram around the specific site objectives helped to visualize the potential outcomes and connectivity of each, addressing individual issues based on representative strategies. Here, the design goals for the site are arrayed around the common center. Sub-objectives branch off from each of the primary objectives indicating which general strategies could be employed to meet individual goals. The small polygons surrounding each sub-objective each show specific ways to achieve these strategies. The colors reflect the three broad categorizations outlined by the case studies: orange indicates policy and management; red shows structural solutions, and green describes natural systems. Accessibility, historical preservation, and future adaptability reflect the importance of site users. Erosion control and stabilization indicate the need for a core structural element, while ecological systems and diversity form the foundation for intervention strategies.

Diagram by Kara Lugar

3.2 Site analysis & existing conditions At a broad scale, the north end of Sandy Hook Peninsula includes a number of recreational draws. Fort Hancock represents over two centuries of military history. The lighthouse, historic buildings and the remaining gun batteries are an important piece of the cultural history of the region. According to the Coast Guard, the auxiliary station marked on the map in red remains the oldest of New Jerseyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s coastal Life Saving Stations (2014). A pedestrian trail runs the length of Sandy Hook; connecting visitors with the intact dune systems, bird sanctuary and area beaches. As illustrated by the historical shorelines overlay in Chapter 1, the hardened edge running along the Bay edge of the peninsula has halted the natural migration of the shoreline, leading to significant deterioration of intertidal habitat. The failure of the wooden bulkhead directly behind the Chapel after Hurricane Sandy has led to continuing weakening of the remaining seawall edge. The Chapel Site is the focus of my design efforts. The site includes the Chapel and grounds, an informal parking area and the ferry dock. The pedestrian path runs adjacent to the site and links visitors to the rest of Fort Hancock and Sandy Hook. No facilities, restrooms or information kiosks currently exist near the site despite serving the seasonal ferry, which brings an estimated 20,000 visitors through the site each summer (NPS, 2014). The Chapel can be rented for private functions serving as an economic opportunity for the Park Service, and the accelerated erosion has put the building at risk. The one-foot contours shown on the map break the site into three logical zones: seaward, intertidal and landward. The seaward zone serves as an area for docking, wave attenuation, and marine habitat. According to NOAAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tidal monitoring station #8531680 (2015), the coastal area in question is considered to be a medium to high wave action region (2015). Wave suppression 36

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Map by Kara Lugar Kara Lugar

structures and breakwaters offer hard shoreline protection, while the addition of reefs offers the potential for shellfish colonization and marine habitat. Experimental structures made of porous marine concrete suitable for marine colonization act as reef habitats. At the Chapel Site, a floating dock can serve as wave suppression device as well as boat access. According to a review of engineered approaches to erosion control published by the Stevens Institute of Technology, The Center for Maritime Systems and the Hudson River Sustainable Shorelines organization, the intertidal zone is the most sensitive to erosion and disturbance. Hard intervention strategies, such as the existing bulkhead, offer limited ecological diversity, restrict access to the water, and are less adaptable to changing sea levels. Strictly vegetative solutions would be unable to withstand the high-energy wave action (Rella and Miller, 2012). This leaves intermediate solutions such as gabions or cribbing that can incorporate both structural and ecological elements, while not restricting access to the water. The landward zone best serves site visitors, with space available for facilities and offering educational opportunities about the importance of conservation and protection, as well as connecting them with the rest of Sandy Hook. Building on the protection offered by the intertidal and seaward zones, this zone offers the most space for revegetation efforts and establishment of natural dune communities. Vegetation here would further stabilize the soil and provide habitat. 3.3 Intervention analysis & site considerations Building off the case study analysis and park service objectives I began by overlaying individual intervention strategies according to the zones in which they would be physically implemented, and connecting them by how they might work in tandem for increased effectiveness. Following the gradients used to scale the case studies, each potential intervention could then be roughly scaled as hard or soft based on material and ecosystem services. Overlaying the intervention diagrams related these potential interventions to the individual zones based on which objectives would be best met. Reorganizing the interventions by zone, the blue boxes shows seaward possibilities; the orange colored boxes show those for the intertidal zone; and the green indicate the landward-based interventions. These potential interventions can then be connected according to how they best complemented each other across zones. Factoring in the hardness scale illustrates the relative flexibility and potential ecological diversity of each solution. A section cut across the site and drawn to scale at the base of the sit map shows the shape of the existing shoreline and where each set of interventions would be generally employed. 38

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Illustration by Kara Lugar Kara Lugar

Looking more closely at the site section, a series of quick process sketches illustrates how each method would look on the site. The hardest solution- the bulkhead- incorporates no ecological element and would significantly alter the topography. A new docking facility could also serve as a floating breakwater, and a hard riprap edge could accrete sand and incorporate some plant material, but intertidal habitat would remain limited. Gabion baskets are usually filled with rocks, serving to accrete or build-up sand deposits and can incorporate intertidal habitat pools and terrestrial plantings. Soft gabions can be filled with organic material that will also accrete sediments before ultimately decaying in place naturally. Crib walls are lighter than gabions, retain soil, and at low heights can be built with bigger spacing to incorporate intertidal structures and vegetation. Artificial reef structures have been proven to be effective for marine habitat creation and wave refraction, rather than deflection. Placed offshore, reefs can be built in conjunction with almost any other solution.

Illustrations by Kara Lugar

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Illustrations by Kara Lugar Kara Lugar

3.4 Site zones & analysis diagrams Looking at the overlay of potential solutions with the Chapel Site, each of the identified coastal zones; seaward, intertidal and landward; could potentially contain an intervention solution that can be linked to those in other zones. Further overlaying the Park Service objectives for the site over each zone individually highlights which objectives can be met by the different solutions. In the seaward zone, artificial reef structures placed offshore offer both structural intervention as well as potential habitat for marine plant and animal species. According to the park Service Assessment document, the area is prime habitat for hard clams and mussel species. NJDEP regulatory restrictions currently prohibit the artificial placement of harvestable shellfish species in fishable waters, but has no control over independent colonization (NJDEP, 2015). Studies on species assemblages in tidal waters demonstrate repeatedly that colonization is generally rapid where habitat is available (Chapman et al, 2009; Goff, 2010). Offshore structures of this type have also been shown to refract incoming wave energy, dispersing the energy in multiple oblique directions and lessening the impact on the shoreline and intertidal zone (Nordstrom and Jackson, 2012). The addition of an expanded docking facility in this zone answers the need for greater research and educational space, and can simultaneously serve as a floating wave suppression system in conjunction with the reef structures.

Illustration by Kara Lugar

Kara Lugar

The intertidal zone is the least extensive and most fragile zone, while also offering the most opportunities for coastal protection methods. The existing bulkhead is no longer functional, and its replacement has already been rejected by the Park Service (EA/AoE, 2011). Other hard structures such as riprap, crib walls or gabion baskets can be adapted to accommodate vegetation. The removal of a linear structure in this zone would help to reconnect the site to the physical processes of littoral sand movement (Nordstrom and Jackson, 2012). The reestablishment of a dynamic coastline would act to expand the intertidal zone, providing additional intertidal habitat and reducing inland flood risk. Rehabilitation of a dynamic coastline and coastal communities would further the Park Service objectives of ecological integrity and species diversity, and would provide the opportunity for ongoing research on successional changes in this zone, leading to greater resilience in the face of future changes.

Illustration by Kara Lugar

The landward zone represents the most hospitable area to site users, and is the most plausible location for public outreach and educational opportunities. Connecting native dune vegetation to the intertidal zone acts to further stabilize the soil and provide habitat for birds and land based animal species, as well as offering an outdoor classroom for furthering research and understanding about the ecological dynamics of the coastal environment. The landward zone also represents the historical and cultural connection to Sandy Hook and Fort Hancock. Most sources are now in agreement that climate change and rising sea levels will continue to pose a risk to coastal structures. Reintegrating the native ecology into the landward zone will help to mitigate future risk of flooding, leading to increased coastal resilience. Kara Lugar

Illustration by Kara Lugar

Kara Lugar

Current conditions leave the site with limited protection and habitat. The failed bulkhead that remains in place serves limited ecological or protective functions. The offshore breakwater consists of loosely piled boulders and does little to slow incoming waves. Submerged at high tide and exposed at low tide, it offers limited intertidal habitat. The ongoing erosion combined with the Fortâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s adjacent lawns rather than native dune systems leaves the site with limited vegetation. Onshore, most of the Fort Hancock buildings near the chapel are unoccupied. Visitors arriving at the site have limited access to comfort facilities, information or amenities, and there are no wayfinding points or signs. The bike path runs along the edge of the site, and a seasonal shuttle service takes visitors to and from the ferry to various points along Sandy Hook, but there is no organized waiting area at the dock or schedule information. As already mentioned, the security measures closing the Coast Guard station leave the nearby research offices without access to a convenient dock for research vessels. Based on the initial case study analysis and the more detailed site analysis outlined in this chapter, the intervention strategies with the potential to meet the Park Service objectives and protect the Chapel Site become clear.

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Illustration by Kara Lugar

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CHAPTER 4: FINAL SITE DESIGN AND INTERVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS The comparison of case studies, intervention strategies and analysis of existing site conditions describe a clear path to potential solutions for the Chapel Site. The hardened edge formed by the bulkhead and breakwater are no longer successful methods for site protection. The decay of the breakwater and subsequent erosion issues showcase the impermanence of structural solutions, and the realities of rising sea levels demand an alternative solution for effective site protection in future scenarios. Replacement of the existing bulkhead will further degrade the coastal ecology and reinforce the disconnection between land and water. The offshore breakwater does little to slow high-energy wave action and prevents the inland transfer of littoral sediments, further disconnecting this piece of shoreline from the natural dynamics of coastal processes. By itself, the existing vegetative cover is insufficient to stabilize the remaining soil or provide ecological systems services. Fully vegetative measures as a stand-alone solution for the site would be poorly equipped to withstand the high-energy wave action. Of equal importance is meeting the objectives outlined by the Park Service and the needs of site users. The ferry landing and shuttle service make the site an ideal location for educational signage describing coastal ecology and processes, sea level changes and historical preservation, and the need think differently about protective solutions. Building on the case study analysis, the three categories of Policy, Structure, and Ecology become particularly significant at the Chapel Site as an example of the effectiveness of combining multiple solutions to meet multiple goals. The high volume of ferry riders and other visitors combine with the historical and ecological importance of the Chapel Site to make it a good representation of the intersection between these three goals. The proposed design interventions build on the site analysis and comparison of existing armament typologies to create a site-specific solution tailored to the needs of the Park Service and the conditions currently challenging the Chapel Site. 4.1 Design overview Reviewing the site at its broader scale relates it to the context of Sandy Hook and Fort Hancock and shows the interconnections between all of the historical, ecological and recreational elements present in the area. Any one of the single solutions described will not be enough to solve the issue of erosion and ecological degradation at the Chapel Site. The analysis of potential interventions led to a combination of several complimentary solutions, beginning with the removal of the decaying bulkhead and majority of the existing breakwater. To halt the erosion and begin to accrete littoral sand, a modified cribbing structure set into the existing topography of the Kara Lugar

intertidal zone is intended to stabilize the sandy soil and act as a structural anchor. Crib walls are typically used to stabilize embankments and retain soil. In this case, the crib rails would be spread further apart to accommodate gabions filled with a mixture of native rock and organic materials. Gabions built of an open mesh or galvanized metal would set between the cribbing structure, further acting to accrete sand and as a base for intertidal habitat. Small crevices between the gabion fill serve as intertidal habitat for small crabs and other aquatic species, as well as providing a planting medium for eelgrass and other intertidal species. The currents flowing northward out of the Navesink River and into the Sandy Hook Bay continually move sand along the shore in a northward direction. Structures projecting into the Bay naturally accrete sand on the northward side as shown in satellite imagery from 2014. The natural patterns of longshore drift continually move sand along the littoral zone from south to north (USGS, 2014; NOAA, 2015). The current placement of the bulkhead and breakwater have prevented the accretion of sand as part of the dynamic shoreline processes. Removal of these structures and inclusion of the cribbing structure would allow a gradual reestablishment of these natural processes. The structural elements proposed in this design are intended to anchor the shoreline in a less obtrusive manner than traditional seawalls, and ultimately be buried by the constant movement of sand along the shoreline, without depriving adjacent coastal areas of sand deposition. Native plantings surrounding the landward edge would further stabilize the soil, provide additional habitat and increase biodiversity. Offshore assemblies called Wave Attenuation DevicesÂŽ, or WADs, are large, hollow structures made of marine concrete that can be set at almost any depth and act to refract incoming waves, as well as providing valuable reef habitat for shellfish and other marine organisms. Waves moving toward the shore in this zone pass around and between these structures, diffusing the energy of the wave before it reaches the intertidal zone, and lessening their physical impact. Looking at the site in plan-view shows the relationships between the different interventions. The goal is for the seaward, intertidal and landward zones to each have a distinct method or combination of methods for protection based on the analysis, and for those individual interventions to connect with and complement each other to magnify the strength of the whole. The inclusion of the circulation diagram shows how visitors will move around the site and connect to the rest of Fort Hancock and Sandy Hook. One of the primary objectives of the Park Service was to include an expanded dock capable of housing up to five research vessels as well as the ferry. Turning the existing dock and extending the gangway accommodates the ferry and also allows larger boats to dock in the deeper water. Redesigning the parking area allows a more organized space for Chapel 48

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Illustration by Kara Lugar Kara Lugar

visitors, researcher vehicles and an expanded waiting area for ferry and shuttle passengers. The Park Assessment has already designated a building just off the edge of the site to house facilities for information and restrooms. The addition of crosswalks and sidewalks directs visitors safely between ferry, shuttle, and facilities. Space is available adjacent to the building for amenities like bike rentals. Informational and educational signage installed along the pedestrian trail and near the ferry landing and shuttle stop would help educate site visitors about the shoreline changes, and how it is helping to protect cultural heritage and a dynamic and valuable ecosystem. Illustrations by Kara Lugar

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4.2 Ecological communities Addressing the ecology of the Chapel Site and its surroundings is intended to enhance coastal and maritime habitat and ecological communities as well as providing an additional layer of resilience to future changes. Restoring coastal communities and creating a naturalized vegetation gradient from the intertidal zone inland to the maritime forest supports the Park Service objective of ecological integrity and strengthens the cultural and historic connection to the coast. A dynamic coastal community restores communication between the coastal and maritime forest zones, adding to the long-term resilience of the site in the face of climate change and rising sea levels. Existing conditions across the site consist of limited and degraded habitat, compacted soils and invasive plant species. The existing bulkhead and breakwater donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t offer much variation in intertidal habitat or species assemblies, and the wide lawns maintained as part of the Fort Hancock grounds limit the connectivity between the intertidal zone and the natural dune systems and inland forest communities. Identifying restoration goals and outcomes for each community zone ties into the structural elements proposed for the Chapel Site and successfully meets the Park Service objectives for species diversity and ecological integrity. Restoration targets and plant community lists, assembled with the assistance of Alexis Kleinbeck and Jamila Johnson can be seen in greater detail in Appendix A, as part of a restoration plan established for the Chapel Site and surrounding areas.

Maritime Forest

Maritime Meadow

Military Batteries

Parade Grounds

Road Maritime Meadow Marittime Forest Fort Hancock Grounds

Illustration by Kara Lugar

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Backdune

Road

Intertidal

Chapel

Road

Chapel & Grounds

Sandy Hook Bay

Breakwater

Breakwater Intertidal Low Marsh High Marsh Tidal Fetch

Subtidal

Illustration by Kara Lugar

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CONCLUSION: RETHINKING COASTAL PROTECTION Any proposal for a strategic approach to coastal armament would to need to include protection of communities and cultural history as well as the integrity of ecosystem functions, while also recognizing the threat posed to coastal zones by climate change and sea level rise (Cooper & McKenna, 2008). While the challenges of coastal protection bear significant similarities in many cases, each individual site is unique and demands an equally unique solution. There is no â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;one-size-fits-allâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; resolution to this issue. Coastal ecosystems vary significantly from place to place, and fitting each site into its surrounding context must be considered on an individual basis. As demonstrated by this project, the Sandy Hook Peninsula is a highly dynamic barrier environment, and any potential infrastructure must have the flexibility inherent to a barrier system in order to remain functional and relevant into the future. Working with the National Park Service on the Chapel Site brought a functional knowledge of the broad range of strategies with the potential to address the set of issues presented by this challenging site. Understanding the needs of the site itself as well as those of the varied site users was a critical part of finding a workable solution. The detailed analysis of the different solutions for coastal protection was an important step in understanding how each solution is intended to work, and under what circumstances they are most effective. This understanding was then an integral part of defining potential linkages between the different solutions, and helped lead to a better appreciation of how the individual interventions do and do not work together. The broad range of case studies examined for this project were important to show examples of physical implementation of the different methods and how they work under existing conditions. Overlaying this analysis of existing strategies and case studies with the Park Service objectives helped to outline what a final solution for the site should look like, and the conflicts and opportunities presented by the existing conditions for potential solutions. Together, the case studies, site analysis, and Park Service objectives show a clear path to the combination of interventions proposed for the Chapel Site. The recommendation for a combination of hard and soft solutions reflects a better understanding of the importance of the linkages between the solutions themselves as much as between goals and outcomes. While the softer solutions are more effective at meeting ecological goals and future sustainability, the harder engineered components are necessary to achieve goals of mitigation, protection and access. Site visitors are a central reason for the necessity of preservation and protection, and add an additional layer to the importance of protecting the Chapel and grounds. Meeting the design objectives outlined by the Park Service offered a much better understanding of the challenges inherent in combining social, ecological and physical processes and led to a greater appreciation for the importance of Kara Lugar

keeping all these priorities at the front of the design process. In many cases a singular focus on one objective works to the detriment of others. In an example such as the Chapel Site, the balance between multiple objectives is necessary to arrive at a successful design solution. Depending on the primary goal of a specific project, there is frequently a definite separation between restoration, preservation, and access. Combining all of these priorities into a single project requires compromise. The historical and cultural significance of the Fort Hancock Chapel is a draw for site users, and remains a necessary link to the psychological importance of open spaces and public lands. The existing infrastructure already on the site has permanently altered the adjacent coastline. The effect of this change on the natural ecosystem and dynamic processes is significant and long lasting. Bringing the natural coastal ecology back to the site as part of the solution to the ongoing erosion is a beneficial compromise between site users and reconnecting the site to the dynamic nature of the barrier ecosystem. While this project has focused on finding a solution for a specific site with specific objectives, the importance of adapting coastal infrastructure to changing conditions remains the larger question. The uncertainty surrounding the effects of climate change and sea level rise means that aging infrastructure may no longer be sufficient to adequately protect coastal structures and populations. While there are no human communities directly at risk on Sandy Hook, the hope is that this detailed analysis of multiple coastal protection strategies and their potential combinations can also be considered applicable on a broader scale. There is no simple or universal solution to this issue, and the growing understanding of the importance of coastal ecosystems requires an equal understanding of methods for incorporating ecological elements into new infrastructure. Hopefully, the intervention strategies outlined here can be helpful to the National Parks Service in their plans for the Chapel Site, and that the thinking and research that led to these interventions can be useful as a tool for planning future resiliency.

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REFERENCES “About Sandy Hook.” The Sandy Hook Foundation. http://www.sandyhookfoundationnj.org/index.htm. Britton, Wilton Everett. Vegetation of the North Haven Sand Plains,. 1903. Alberti, M. "The Effects Of Urban Patterns On Ecosystem Function." International Regional Science Review (2005): 168-92. Print. Alderson, Carl. "Living Shorelines Restoration Projects in New York & New Jersey." (2014). Allen, James R. "Beach Erosion as a Function of Variations in the Sediment Budget, Sandy Hook, New Jersey, U.S.A." Earth Surface Processes and Landforms (1980): 139-50. Anna, McIvor, Iris Moller, Tom Spencer, and Mark Spalding. "Reduction of Wind and Swell Waves by Man groves." Natural Coastal Protection Series: Report 1, Cambridge Coastal Research Unit Working Paper 40, The Nature Conservancy; Wetlands International (2012). Print. Bento, Lucas. "SEARCHING FOR INTERGENERATIONAL GREEN SOLUTIONS: THE RELEVANCE OF THE PUBLIC TRUST DOCTRINE TO ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION." Common Law Review 11 (2009). Biju Kumar, A., and R. Ravinesh. "Will Shoreline Armoring Support Marine Biodiversity." Current Science 100.10 (2011). Print. Britton, Wilton Everett. Vegetation of the North Haven Sand Plains,. 1903. Bush, David M., and Orrin H. Pilkey. Living by the Rules of the Sea. Durham, N.C.: Duke UP, 1996. Print. Chapman, M. G., and D. J. Blockley. "Engineering Novel Habitats on Urban Infrastructure to Increase Intertidal Biodiversity." Oecologia (2009): 625-35. Print. Chapman, M.g., and F. Bulleri. "Intertidal Seawalls—new Features of Landscape in Intertidal Environ ments." Landscape and Urban Planning (2002): 159-72. Print. Chapman, M.g., and A.j. Underwood. "Evaluation of Ecological Engineering of “armoured” Shorelines to Improve Their Value as Habitat." Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology (2006): 302-13. Chiesura, A. "The Role Of Urban Parks For The Sustainable City." Landscape and Urban Planning (2003): 129-38. Print. "Coastal and Marine Geology Program Internet Map Server and GIS Data." USGS Coastal and Marine Geology Program Internet Map Server. Web. <http://coastalmap.marine.usgs.gov/>. Cooper, J A G, and J. Mckenna. "Working with Natural Processes: The Challenge for Coastal Protection Strategies." Geographical Journal (2008): 315-31. Print. Cooper, J. Andrew G., and Orrin H. Pilkey. "Sea-level Rise and Shoreline Retreat: Time to Abandon the Bruun Rule." Global and Planetary Change (2004): 157-71. Print. Cooper, Matthew J.P., Michael D. Beevers, and Michael Oppenheimer. "FUTURE SEA LEVEL RISE AND THE NEW JERSEY COAST." Science, Technology and Environmental Policy Program (2005). Crawford, Mark. "Keeping the Sea at Bay." Mechanical Engineering-CIME 1 Aug. 2013. "Cuyahoga River Bulkhead Habitats." Cuyahoga River Remedial Action Plan & Cuyahoga – American Heritage River Initiative (2014). Cuyahoga River Remedial Action Plan &amp; Cuyahoga – Ameri can Heritage River Initiative. Web. <www. CuyahogaRiverRAP.org>. Dugan, Jenifer E., David M. Hubbard, Iván F. Rodil, David L. Revell, and Stephen Schroeter. "Ecological Effects of Coastal Armoring on Sandy Beaches." Marine Ecology (2008): 160-70. Print. EPA, and USACE. "Waters That Qualify as Waters of the United States Under Section (a)(1) of the Agecies’ Regulations." Appendix D. Print. "Environmentally Friendly Seawalls A Guide to Improving the Environmental Value of Seawalls and Seawall-lined Foreshores in Estuaries." Sydney Metropolitan Catchment Management Authority and Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW (2009). Print. Faccioli, M., Font, A. R., & Figuerola, C. M. T. (2014). Valuing the recreational benefits of wetland adapta tion to climate change: a trade-off between species’ abundance and diversity. Environmental management, 1-14. Feagin, Rusty A., William K. Smith, Norbert P. Psuty, Donald R. Young, M. Luisa Martínez, Gregory A. Car ter, Kelly L. Lucas, James C. Gibeaut, Jane N. Gemma, and Richard E. Koske. "Barrier Islands: Kara Lugar

Coupling Anthropogenic Stability With Ecological Sustainability." Journal of Coastal Research (2010): 987-92. Print. "Final Report New Jersey Living Shoreline Possibilities." Partnership for the Delaware Estuary, Rutgers University Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory PDE Report No. 12-05 (2012). Print. Freudenburg, Robert. "PUBLIC ACCESS IN NEW JERSEY: The Public Trust Doctrine and Practical Steps to Enhance Public Access." The Coastal Management Office of the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Print. "Gateway National Recreation Area, Sandy Hook Unit, Dock Replacement Environmental Assessment." U.S. Department of the Interior, Park Internal Review (2011). Print. Gedan KB, Kirwan MJ, Wolanski E, Barbier EB, Silliman BR (2011) The present and future role of coastal vegetation in protecting shorelines: answering recent challenges to the paradigm. Climatic Change 106: 7–29. "Geomorphology for Integrated Coastal Zone Management: A Theoretical Approach with Examplesfrom Kerala, India." Indian Journal of Geo-Marine Sciences 39.4 (2010): 623-30. Print. Gobster, Paul H. "Visions of Nature: Conflict and Compatibility in Urban Park Restoration." Landscape and Urban Planning (2011): 35-51. Print. Goff, Maureen. "Evaluating Habitat Enhancements of an Urban Intertidal Seawall: Ecological Responses and Management Implications." A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science University of Washington (2010). Print. Grizzle, R. E., and L. D. Coen. "Slow Down and Reach Out (and We'll Be There): A Response to "Shellfish as Living Infrastructure" by Kate Orff." Ecological Restoration (2013): 325-29. Print. Gross, Matthias. "Beyond Expertise: Ecological Science and the Making of Socially Robust Restoration Strategies." Journal for Nature Conservation (2006): 172-79. Print. Gross, M., and H. Hoffman-Riem. "Ecological restoration as a real-world experiment: designing robust implementation strategies in an urban environment." Public Under standing of Science 14, no. 3 (2005): 269-284. "Hudson Raritan Estuary Comprehensive Restoration Plan; Executive Summary." (2014). Ingram, Mrill. "Urban Ecological Restoration." Ecological Restoration 26.3 (2008). Print. Iverson Nassauer, Joan. "Messy Ecosystems, Orderly Frames." Landscape Journal 14.2 (1995): 161-69. "Living Shoreline Design Guidelines for Shore Protection in Virginia’s Estuarine Environments." Virginia Institute of Marine Science College of William & Mary Gloucester Point, Virginia (2010). Print. Long Island Sound Habitat Restoration: Initiative Technical Support for Coastal Habitat Restoration (2003) Retrieved May 3, 2015 Luisetti, Tiziana, R. Kerry Turner, Ian J. Bateman, Sian Morse-Jones, Christopher Adams, Leila Fonseca. "Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Services Valuation for Policy and Management: Managed Re alignment Case Studies in England." Ocean &Coastal Management (2010): 212-24. Print. "Management, Policy, Science, and Engineering of Nonstructural Erosion Control in the Chesapeake Bay." Proceedings of the 2006 Living Shoreline Summit (2006). Print. McHarg, Ian L.. Design with nature. [1st ed. Garden City, N.Y.: Published for the American Museum of Natural History [by] the Natural History Press, 1969. Mitsch, William J., Li Zhang, and Amanda M. Nahlik. "Designing a Regeneration Zone for the Cuyahoga River Valley: Ecological Restoration." Schiermeier Olentangy River Wetland Research Park, School of Environment and Natural Resources, The Ohio State University (2005). Print. “National Park Service - Home.” National Park Service - Home. Accessed April 20, 2015. http://www. nationalparkservice.org/. "New Jersey Geologic History." Coastal Research Center, the Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. Web. 12 May 2015. <http://intraweb.stockton.edu/eyos/page.cfm?siteID=149&pageID=3>. Nicholls, Robert. "Planning for the Impacts of Sea Level Rise." Oceanography 24.2 (2011): 144-57. Print. Nordstrom, Karl F., James R. Allen, Douglas J. Sherman, and Norbert P. Psuty. "Management Consider- ations for Beach Nourishment at Sandy Hook, New Jersey, U.S.A." Coastal Engineering (1978):

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215-36. Print. Nordstrom, Karl F., and Nancy L. Jackson. "Removing Shore Protection Structures to Faciltate Migration of Landforms and Habitats on the Bayside of a Barrier Spit." Geomorphology (2012): 179-91. NOAA. Web. 12 May 2015. <http://www.noaa.gov>. Orff, K. "Shellfish as Living Infrastructure." Ecological Restoration (2013): 317-22. Print. Otvos, Ervin G. "Coastal Barriers — Nomenclature, Processes, and Classification Issues." Geomorphology (2011): 39-52. Print. Perkol-Finkel, Shimrit, and Ido Sella. "Ecologically Active Concrete for Coastal and Marine Infrastructure: Innovative Matrices and Designs." Print. Phillips, Jonathan D. "Headland-bay Beaches Revisited: An Example from Sandy Hook, New Jersey." Marine Geology (1984): 21-31. Print. Psuty, Norbert P., and Jeffrey P. Pace. "Sediment Management at Sandy Hook, NJ: An Interaction of Science and Public Policy." Geomorphology (2008): 12-21. Print. "Raritan Bay." GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK BIGHT. Web. <http://www.geo.hunter.cuny. edu/bight/raritan.html>. "Rebuild by Design." Rebuild by Design Comments. Web. Rella, Andrew J., and Jon K. Miller. "Engineered Approaches for Limiting Erosion along Sheltered Shore lines: A Review of Existing Methods." Hudson River Valley Greenway Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve The Hudson River Sustainable Shorelines Project (2012). Print. Robichaud, Beryl, and Karl Anderson. Plant Communities of New Jersey: A Study in Landscape Diversity. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994. Sandy Hook Chapel. (2015). Accessed on 5/5/15: http://www.sandyhookchapel.com/. “Sandy Hook/ Gateway National Recreation Area.” Sandy Hook/ Gateway National Recreation Area. Accessed May 1, 2015. http://www.njaudubon.org/SectionIBBA/IBBASiteGuide.aspx?sk=3151. Sasaki, Hideo. “Thoughts on Education in Landscape Architecture” Landscape Architecture Vol. 40, October 1949 to July 1950 "Station Sandy Hook, New Jersey; USLSS Station #1, Fourth District." U.S. Coast Guard History Pro gram. Print. Steiner, Frederick, Mark Simmons, Mark Gallagher, Janet Ranganathan, and Colin Robertson. "The Eco logical Imperative for Environmental Design and Planning." Frontiers in Ecology and the Envi ronment (2013): 355-61. Print. Swann, LaDon. "The Use of Living Shorelines to Mitigate the Effects of Storm Events on Dauphin Island, Alabama, USA." American Fisheries Society Symposium 64:000–000 (2008). Print. Tiner, R. W. (1987). Field guide to coastal wetland plants of the northeastern United States. Univ of Massachusetts Press. USACE. "FACT SHEET - Woodbridge Creek." Restoration and Mitigation Project. US Army Corps of Engi neers. Web. 4 Apr. 2015. <http://www.nan.usace.army.mil/DesktopModules/ArticleCS/>. United States. National Park Service. "National Park Service." National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, 11 May 2015. Web. 12 May 2015. <http://www.nps.gov>. "Waterfront Seattle Framework Plan." (2011). Waterfront Seattle. Web. <www.seattle.gov/transporta tion/seawall.htm>. Wilkes, Barbara. “Design Approaches to Ecological Solutions: Marine Streets- A Living Edge” Ecological Restoration Vol. 29, No. 3, 2011

Kara Lugar

Our coasts are in the midst of a land loss crisis. Sea level rise and increase events of storms threaten the loss of coastal protection, displacing resources, infrastructure, and biodiversity. Achieving a sustainable coast will require a collaborative approach to accommodate the dynamic nature of the coastal processes, with emphasis on reducing bank erosion by improving protection and enhancing ecosystem complexity. The following goals serves as a guideline in fulfilling the mission and objectives of the plan.

Illustrations by Kara Lugar, Photos by Kara Lugar & Alexis Kleinbeck Text by Alexis Kleinbeck, Jamila Johnson & Kara Lugar

Kara Lugar

APPENDIX A: ECOLOGICAL TARGET COMMUNITIES

Intertidal Community Enhancement of intertidal habitat to provide shelter for aquatic organisms and food for foraging waterfowl. Installation of reef wave attenuation devices to improve sand accretion and deposition for a dynamic coastline.

Beach/Dune Community Connect the intertidal community to the beach/dune community with plantings that encourage the deposition of sand. The spreading roots of native dune species stabilize soils and help mitigate floods. Pathways will help direct public access to minimize root damage to important sand-building species.

Maritime Meadow Community To connect the fragmented communities and develop a continuous habitat. By planting native grasses and shrubs this will provide a sustainable habitat for birds and encourage visitors to utilize the meadow. The installation of corridors will provide access to the grassland for walking, biking and bird watching. Maritime Forest Community Removal of invasive plant species and restoration of native trees. Introduction of plants that can be used to develop a cracked garden. Allow access to the forest and provide opportunities for educational enrichment.

Kara Lugar

INTERTIDAL COMMUNITY

Sand Accretion The Fort Hancock shoreline has many problems with erosion and loss of sand. This plan aims to remove the existing breakwater to allow landward sand deposition (Living Shoreline Solutions, 2015). The failed bulkhead offers no wave protection to the bank, blocking communication from the Sandy Hook Bay to the shoreline. In the seaward zone, living reef WADsÂŽ (wave attenuation device) will replace the breakwaters, opening the seaward zone to the intertidal zone (Figure 1). To enhance sand accretion in the intertidal zone, cribbing will be filled with the breakwater rocks that are currently covered with rocky intertidal plant species (Fucus distichus and Ulva lactuca). Below the cribbing, a sandy intertidal plant species will be planted (Zostera marina). Rock planting adult shoots is appropriate for high energy environments, using biodegradeable material to anchor plants when natural rocks are unavailable (Seagrass LI, 2010).

Shoreline Protection Near and above the shoreline, marsh species will planted to expand the existing marsh community. Minimal slope grading will be required to create a gentler slope from the steep bank erosion created by Hurricane Sandy in front of the Chapel. Wetlands provide habitat, water filtration, and nutrient retention, increasing environmental quality and providing a unique experience for tourism (Faccioli, 2014). The economic value of wetlands includes habitat for sport fishing stocks and waterfowl for bird watching and erosion control in protecting shore60

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line. Coastal marsh vegetation significantly impacts wave attenuation by reducing wave height, protecting coastal communities and property from storms (Gedan, 2011). Marsh restoration is urged as a priority in protecting coastlines and building coastal defense against storm surges (Erwin, 2009). The marsh species listed in Table 1 were selected for their common use in restoration projects in the mid-Atlantic and are native species to the region. Habitat Diversity Re-establishing intertidal plant communities will provide habitat for many aquatic species. Sea lettuce, Rockweed, and Eelgrass provide essential habitat for fish and macrocrustaceans. Eelgrass is vital habitat for juvenile weakfish, summer flounder, and blackfish for food and shelter from predators. In the past, the NOAA Sandy Hook Marine Sciences Laboratory partnered with organizations to focus efforts in restoring eelgrass in Sandy Hook (Anglers Conservation Network, 2012). Their efforts were met with success in Barnegat and Peconic Bay, where bay scallop populations were also improved. While restoring oysters in Sandy Hook is a desirable goal, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP) prohibits restoration projects using oysters in waters classified as Restricted or Prohibited. NJDEP aims to prevent unsafe and illegal shellfish harvest in contaminated waters. Sand Hookâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bay is designated as Special Restricted Area, designating the waters condemned for the harvest of shellfish (NJDEP, 2015). Shorebirds heavily rely on intertidal and low coastal areas for feeding habitat. The diversity of habitats and the density of invertebrate prey support large numbers of shorebirds during their energetically demanding migrations. Increasing intertidal plant diversity decreases density-dependent interactions that can negatively impact the diversity and survival of shorebirds (Goss-Custard, 1996).

Kara Lugar

BEACH/DUNE COMMUNITY

Soil Stabilization Increasing the diversity of plant species that provide a functional role in facilitating sand deposition on the beach will be vital for erosion control and a sustainable beach/dune landscape. Sand stabilizing plant species will help to mitigate the loss of sand without using hard infrastructure that blocks communication with the shoreline. Erosion control plants that are also tolerant of salt spray will be planted along the bank and upland of the bank. Grasses and herbs will help stabilize the beach (Panicum amarum, Panicum virgatum, Ammophila breviligulata, Solidago sempervirens, Symphyotrichum novi-belgii) while stands of bushes mixed with other vegetation will stabilize the sandy soils in the back dune (Prunus maritime, Morella pensylvanica, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Schizachyrium scoparium). Current stands of poison ivy and prickly pear are present to help encourage the growth of dunes, but with added plant diversity the plant community has great potential to dramatically enhance beach stabilization.

Site Protection Preserving public infrastructure from shoreline erosion will help to reduce risk of economic losses. Using a diverse community of sand accumulating species will help to protect the cultural heritage on Fort Hancock. The historic sites offer many recreational services valued by the public and the National Park Service. It is important to the public community to continue 62

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offering transportation services through the ferry landing near the chapel that facilitates access. Site protection and historical preservation will allow those services to continue, along with use of the chapel site as a popular venue for weddings, family gatherings, memorials, and other special events (Sandy Hook Chapel, 2015). Pathways will be marked to help direct public access to minimize root damage of important sand-building species and reduce disturbance as much as possible. Wildlife Habitat Plants growing on the beach and in the sand dunes are found above the high marsh and are drought resistant and tolerant of salt spray. These plants provide food for waterfowl and songbirds. The seed and foliage can also be used by small mammals and invertebrates (Tiner, 1987). Native warm forage grasses benefit many species of wildlife with tall upright growth, providing over-head cover for protection, nesting sites, and space to search for food. Perennial grasses are low maintenance when properly managed with little disease problems and no insect pests (Wolf, 2009). Grouping natural plant communities of beach and dune species incorporates features that provide many habitat features to improve the ecological value for wildlife. Planting a variety of plants that produce pollen, seeds, and fruit offers food and cover for wildlife year-round. Pollinating insects supply reproductive services to 94% of wild flowering plants (Klein, 2007). Pollinators are highly valued for their importance in plant fertilization to set seed and fruit, and for their keystone role in the food webs supporting 25% of wildlife (Mader, 2011). Protection and management of habitat matrices are of great value to maximize species ability to migrate into neighboring landscapes. Improving vegetation complexity positively influences the rate of succession and increases the development of wildlife habitat (Robinson, 1993).

Kara Lugar

MARITIME MEADOW COMMUNITY

The current problems that exists at the site includes an open field that is underutilized by the public. The open space is lined with sycamore trees along the edges and is disconnected from the coastal and maritime forest communities. The field does not provide any ecological value to wildlife habitat nor is it used for recreational purposes. The goal for this restoration site involves developing sustainable grass/shrub land communities that can provide a safe habitat for native wildlife. The restoration of the open space will enhance the aesthetic outlook of the habitat that will encourage birds to nest, improve the diversity of native plants and attract visitors to the site. Vegetation Gradient Presently the natural habitat at Fort Hancock is disconnected. There is no continuous gradient from coastal vegetation to inland woodlot. The habitats are isolated from each other thus has resulted in a decrease in the size of the habitat, and the loss of diversity of plant, bird and animal species. The long term restoration plan will include a larger more intact ecosystem. The goal is to restore a native grassland with designated shrub patches that will naturally succeed overtime into a maritime forest. The plantings of native grasses, wildflowers and small trees will preserve and enhance the natural ecosystem. The envisioned maritime meadow will be 9 acres of grassland and small trees. More than 80% of the meadowland will be grass communities whereas 20% will contain designed patches of different species of shrubs. The grasses and wild flowers will be planted closer to the coastline community and throughout the field. The shrubs will be densely planted facing the maritime forest and along the walkways to provide shade from the sun. Space Utilization Plans for recreational uses involve installation of pervious corridors throughout the meadow to provide access to the public for walking, biking and bird watching. The restored meadow can also serve as an opportunity for educational enrichment. The installation of placards and signage along the corridors can entail information about ecological restoration, and the benefits it will provide in the long term. Interesting facts about the wild life communities that live here can be useful for educational field trips and environmental awareness. 64

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Wildlife Habitat Meadow The plantings of predominantly grassland and wild flowers will provide succession into a mature maritime meadow. The grasses will prepare the soil for the next community and thus succession will occur faster. Native fruit trees that have edible fruits such as Shadbush (Amelanchier alnifolia), High bush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) etc. attracts a variety of birds and small mammals. The grasses such as little blue stem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and Switch Grass (Panicum virgatum) provides ground cover and seeds for nesting birds. Attracting birds and insects will be vital for pollination and dispersal of seeds.

Kara Lugar

MARITIME FOREST COMMUNITY

The problems that exists in the maritime forest includes the invasion of invasive plant species, dumping of debris, fragmentation and urbanization (impervious pavements). The remnants from the concrete pavements have isolated the forest from the other existing habitats. The forest cannot sustain native wildlife because it is damaged and degraded. The plan for this habitat is to restore a native forest ecosystem. The enhancement of the forest will attract migratory birds and small mammals to the habitat. The development of a cracked garden will support the introduction of native herbaceous plant species.

Native Forest The plantings of native trees will restore the forest back to its native habitat. Removal of non native invasive plants and preservation of canopy and understory vegetation. Herbaceous plants are valuable components of the ground cover, serving as food for young herbivorous mammals are in rapid growth phases 2 The understory vegetation will provide a safe habitat for animals and a source for regeneration of trees. The dense canopy will provide shelter to understory shrubs. The maritime forest will be connected to the coastal and maritime meadow communities. This continuous corridor will increase biodiversity of the ecosystem. The total area to be restored with natives is 219,251 square feet. 66

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Public Access Currently the site is not appealing because of debris, invasive plant species and abandoned concrete pavements. The invasive plants will be managed by removal. Broken trees limbs and debris dumped there will also be removed. The introduction of native trees will beautify and increase the natural diversity of native plants and animal species. The concrete pavement will be designed to sustain plant herbaceous seedlings and will develop into a cracked garden. The installation of a cracked garden will be more sustainable overtime since the concrete will be broken up by the herbaceous plants. The cost for removal of concrete pavement would be higher when compared to building a crack garden. Holes that are drilled in the cement will hold pockets of herbaceous plants that are tolerant to impervious material. The garden will be considered for social activities and will be open for public access. Placards and signage will be installed to provide information about the ecological benefits and opportunities for educational enrichment about restoration ecology. Wildlife Habitat Maintaining the forest will provide safe habitat for migratory and resident birds. Degraded maritime forests has limited vegetation for birds. The introduction of native canopy, understory and herbaceous plant will develop into a sustainable habitat. By having an intact habitat the forest edges will be protected and will attract birds. Migratory birds use the forest edges and upper canopy trees for nesting. Fruit bearing trees will provide food for small birds that will be agents for dispersal. The restored native ecosystem will also provide homes for small mammals such as foxes.

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BUDGET

The plants recommended for this restoration project are categorized according to ecological community. The proposal includes a significant percentage of native plant species adapted to the changing conditions of a barrier ecosystem, which we believe are the most appropriate for this restoration project. All plants will be obtained from local nurseries specializing in locally sourced plant materials The additional materials specified are intended to improve the survivorship of the installed plants and enhance the restoration project. Geese are problematic on the site, so exclusion netting is budgeted to further protect the installations. The signage is included 68

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as part of the educational nature of the project, and will help inform visitors of the goals of coastal restoration. Sod removal is necessary for site preparation and plant survival. Project managers will need to be on- site throughout installation to ensure the accuracy and success of the plantings. A team of laborers will be required for 40 hours per week for approximately 5 weeks to complete site preparation and installation. Regular mowing of meadow paths allows visitor access and safety without the expense or disruption of an impermeable surface. Kara Lugar

MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE Ongoing monitoring of the entire restoration site would be included in the project budget for five years, per NJDEP recommendations. Irrigation for the first year would be necessary to increase plant survival, and can be performed by park employees and by the restoration team. Installed plant communities would be surveyed each year to estimate plant survival ratios over the initial five-year period. As future budgets allow, additional plants could be reintroduced as necessary, and invasive plant species removed, facilitating ongoing habitat improvements for the maintenance of healthy coastal communities As part of ongoing coastal research efforts, the restoration team will survey the site each year and perform population counts of species found on site. Comparing these results to the initial restoration plan will help measure the successional changes and monitor the spread of invasive species. A review of accumulated data after five years will inform future adaptive management planning decisions. Included in the coastal research effort would also be ongoing monitoring of shoreline erosion and accretion rates, based on the proposed structural changes behind the Fort Chapel. As sand accumulates along the shoreline, it may become necessary to move or replant intertidal species. Because the entire site falls under the jurisdiction of the National Park Service, future monitoring of the restoration project after the mandatory five-year period could be assumed by park employees. The National Park Service has an ongoing commitment to the preservation of natural resources, which includes the monitoring of native ecosystems and necessary interventions to prevent degradation (NPS, 2015). The high visitor traffic across the Chapel Site and inland to the Maritime meadow and forest communities presents an excellent educational opportunity on the importance of coastal ecology. The M.A.S.T. Academy of Maritime Science & Technology also has a campus branch utilizing some of the refurbished Fort Hancock buildings. This grade 9 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 12 career academy focuses on marine and coastal sciences, technology and research. As part of the ongoing maintenance and monitoring of the restored site, a lesson plan could be presented to the school as an addition to their ongoing curriculum. Under the supervision of Academy teachers and Park Service Employees, the students would incorporate the monitoring of the restoration site into their studies. The goal would be for students to contribute to the ongoing observation of the restoration site, tracking successional changes over time with regard to sea level changes and weather patterns and the spread and survival of native and non-native plant and animal species. Coastal research programs could use the site as a case study to expand understanding of intertidal plant species migration and spread under dynamic conditions. This becomes particularly relevant as sea levels rise and the Sandy Hook Peninsula undergoes related changes. Organizations such as NOAA, Rutgers Marine and Coastal Sciences, and Baykeeper, as well as the National Park Service and the MAST Academy are all important contributors to ongoing research surrounding this dynamic barrier ecosystem. Ultimately, the long-term goal for this restoration project and site is to encourage natural successional processes over time. Climate change and sea level rise will have an unpredictable but measurable effect on the Sandy Hook Peninsula, and the establishment and survival of ecological systems best adapted to the barrier environment has the highest chance of survival through these changes. This restoration project is an important contributor to the expansion of this understanding, and can serve as a model for future projects. 70 Kara Lugar