For a manifesto for Post Fossil Architecture Krishna Parikh | spring 2020
“Without new visions, we don’t know what to build, only what to knock down. We not only end up confused, rudderless, and cynical, but we forget that making a revolution is not a series of clever maneuvers and tactics, but a process that can and must transform us.” Robin D. G. Kelly
There is no doubt that the current fossil economy and carbon capitalism has enabled unprecedented growth of the built environment and given rise to new typologies. It has also systematically eradicated legacies of traditional knowledge in favour of more�scientific innovations�. Perpetuation of these carbon forms feeds into cycles of capitalism, racism, colonialism, egoism that have brought us to the current state of climate disruption. It is imperative that new practices in the scholarship of architecture are imagined; divorced from fossil fuel backed capitalist systems of production. These speculative interventions hold the power to steer away from existing violent methods of building to more symbiotic ways of living. A wide spectrum of futurist imaginaries have consequently been proposed from very high tech, technocratic utopias to low TEK, indigenous radicalisms. Using the concept of imaginative logics developed by the Urban Futures Studio, these imaginations can be broadly categorised in five typologies: doable, juxtaposing, defamiliarizing, guerilla and procedural imaginative logics. The paper examines a cross section of existing proposals for each type to understand the set of principles underlying or constituting the imaginative intervention. These proposals are examined, scrutinised, dissected and even restructured to understand their merits and drawbacks. The aim is to provide a comprehensive framework for mobilising imagination; proposing a new kind of architecture overcoming our current stagnation in conceptualising a post fossil world. In doing so, it becomes a starting point for a manifesto for a post fossil architecture drawn from collective intelligence.
Abstract
0. The Fossil Fuel Revolution 1. Carbon and Capitalism 2. Imagining our way ahead 3. Future through Imaginative logics
3.1 Doable Logic
3.2 Juxtaposing Logic
3.3 Defamiliarising Logic
3.4 Guerilla Logic
3.5 Procedural Logic 4. Start point for Post Fossil Architecture 5. Bibliography
Contents
3
The Fossil Fuel Revolution
0
The production gap report by the United Nations released in 2019 is an attempt to understand the gap in the emissions required to adhere to the 2 degree Celsius warming limit ( Paris Agreement ) and the current rate of production of fossil fuels. If countries follow through on their current plans, they will produce about 50 percent more fossil fuels by 2030 than would be compatible with the international goal of keeping global warming under 2 degrees Celsius, the report said. (Kusnetz, 2019) The production gap report reveals a deeper flaw in our system. Even though there is a global understanding of the implications of increased dependence on fossil fuels, mitigation efforts are not able to match the expectations. Fossil fuels and the energy derived by its production are as entrenched in our system as the edict of limitless growth. Historically, changes in the productive capacity of humans were followed and reinforced by societal transformations. This in turn informed economical, political and spatial revolutions. The shift from a nomadic lifestyle to an agriculture intensive Image Courtesy The Production Gap Report
society was sparked by the energy derived from domestication. Entire settlements were created around farm lands due to the ability to produce and store food. This changed the way society organised itself, from nomadic hunter gatherers to settlers and farmers. Sedentary farming practices allowed humans to harness more energy than hunter gatherers. All sources of energy came from cultivated fields or the wild. As such the economic and social structures during these two paradigms of energy capture had to contend with the limitation of available land and labour (Iturbe, 2019). The dependency on existing biomass for energy also implied certain limits to growth.
Chapter 0
The Fossil Fuel Revolution
Eventual modern innovations of the steam engine and
species, disruption of the nitrogen cycle, pressure on fresh
machinery harnessing energies beyond human or animal labour
water resources, various measures of chemical pollution – also
created the third energy revolution. Vast sources of energy in
surged. (Pirani, 2020) The rapid consumption of fossil fuels
the form of fossil fuels supported scientific inventions that
and the profit increasing nature of capitalism triggered the
heralded the new modern age. Dead plants and animals,
wave of over consumption and wasteful practices of the 90s.
compressed in the pressures of earth, layer upon layer for ages unveiled tremendous sources of energy when combusted.
“The mansion of modern freedoms stands on an ever-
These hydrocarbons in the form of coal, petroleum, crude oil
expanding base of fossil fuel use,” writes the postcolonial
and natural gas broke open the shackles of possible growth.
theorist Dipesh Chakrabarty in a seminal essay collected
Suddenly large masses could be shifted and deep shafts could
in Energy Humanities. “Most of our freedoms are energy
be mined with minimum human labour. Limits to human
intensive.” Imagining a low-carbon world, then, means
growth now seemed endless. Reaching into these stores of
reevaluating our conception of freedom itself.
carbon now brought about an unprecedented condition of energy abundance which in turn led to major changes in the production capacities of society, restructuring existing social orders and sparking a new phase of development- Capitalismwhat many have called the fossil economy or carbon capitalism. (Iturbe, 2019) There are three main turning points in the history of fossil fuel use that tie it to the advent of capitalism. The industrial revolution in the late 18th and early 19th centuries established the use of fossil fuels in industries. Substitution of human, animal and water power by the more proliferate fossil fuel power led to its rapid geographic spread. The second industrial revolution was marked by the replacement of steam engines by steam turbines. The internal combustion engine sparked a new way of building with energy infrastructures and motorised transport. Highways, roads, electricity networks, heating/cooling systems, urbanised settlements, industrial and military complexes brought about a spatial revolution. What emerged were not just technologies, but complex technological systems. These were the main consumers and producers of fossil fuels through the twentieth century. (Pirani, 2020) The final turning point in the mid 20th century is often defined as “ the great acceleration” of the Anthropocene. There was a sharp acceleration of fossil fuel use, associated with the expansion of the capitalist economy after the second world war. In the mid 20th century, many other impacts of human economic activity on the natural world – extinction of other
5
Carbon and Capitalism
1
The whole infrastructure of capitalism has been built
of capitalism, racism, colonialism, egoism that have brought
on fossil fuels. Ian Angus in his book Facing the Anthropocene
us to the current state of climate disruption. The forces of
makes clear, “Fossil fuels are not an overlay that can be peeled
capitalism in a state of disaster make the race for more power
away from capitalism — leaving the system intact, they are
and resources competitive, pushing already impoverished
embedded in every aspect of the system.� For example, the
nations further down and increasing the gap between the rich
appeal of owning a personal automobile was a part of the larger
and the poor. The main liabilities of climate change are against
energy network that made it possible. Fossil fuels were consumed
corporations, governments and nations that have profited from
in the making of the car, the industries that make the car, the
fossil capitalism. (Wallace Wells, 2020) The decision to adopt
roads on which the car travels, the parking garages in which
fossil fuels were taken by a few early capitalists at the start of
the car is parked. Moreover, day to day functioning of the car
industrialisation but its consequences are felt by everyone in
also uses fossil fuels. The vicious cycle feeds into itself, creating
the present asymmetrically.
more demand with more use. In Fossil Capital, geographer Andreas Malm stated that the fossil fuel economy has the
The capitalist era, riding on the backs of the fossil
character of totality, a distinguishable entity; a socio-ecological
fuel industry, is so big and all-encompassing that it is easier to
structure, in which a certain economic process and a certain
imagine the end of the world than the end of capitalism. The
form of energy are welded together. Capitalism backed by the
irrationality of capitalism dictates the opposite from action
fossil fuel revolution led to a new paradigm of space and form.
that needs to be taken. Mitigating the negative consequences
Architectural typologies in infrastructural network and urban
of climate change requires a radical shift away from fossil fuels
taxonomies were transformed by mechanised productions,
like coal, oil and natural gas. (Hajer and Versteeg, 2019)
geographic displacement, reorganisation of labour, urban density, economic growth and cultures of consumption. The resulting spatial forms: warehouses, factories, worker housings, office towers, apartments, department stores, skyscrapers, strip malls, suburbs, highways, metro cities, airports, market complexes can also be called Carbon forms. (Iturbe, 2019)
There is no doubt that the current fossil economy
and carbon capitalism has enabled unprecedented growth of the built environment and given rise to new typologies. Perpetuation of these carbon forms feeds into existing cycles
Chapter 1
Carbon and Capitalism
Imagining our way ahead
2
Given the fact that fossil fuels are a deeply ingrained
in elaborate policy reports and increasingly alarming
aspect of current societies, a ‘deep transition’ is required, in
quantitative models like those that have been developed by
which practices, culture and social arrangements are rethought
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) over
(Pelzer and Versteeg, 2019). Now more than ever, the world
the last decades (Hajer and Versteeg, 2019). Proliferation of
has recognised the pressing need for a more sustainable
carbon modernity creates a false illusion of permanence and
approach to the growth doctrine; recent international climate
hopelessness in the face of climate change. It is difficult to
change agreements are proof. Yet lack of political will and
imagine any solution not dependent on this fractured landscape
the dependence on fossil fuel investments extend inertia to
of extraction and production. Dominant imaginations focus
the growing climate change movement. The shift from fossil
either on corporate driven technological fixes, like smart cities
fuels to renewable non carbon sources of energy has long
or self-driving cars, or on low-tech bottom-up experiments
become a problem of political inaction and not of technical
and small-scale initiatives. These imaginaries focus chiefly on
advancement. Studies show that a full transition to cleaner and
technology, the energetic implication of carbon neutrality and
greener energy sources is possible with increased investments
the experimental approach of coming to carbon neutrality
in green technologies and disinvestment in fossil fuels. But
(Hajer and Versteeg, 2019).
the historic investment in the fossil fuel industries preserved through cycles of capital and colossal vested interests
In the book, the Great Derangement, Amitav Ghosh
accompanied by state machinery pose massive economic and
expounds on this conundrum by stating that the climate crisis
political obstacles. If we accept that fossil fuels are completely
is also a crisis of culture, and thus of the imagination. The scale
embedded in capitalism then the conclusion must surely be
of the crisis, he argues, makes it all but “unthinkable.” Wallace
that we have to get rid of that system. (Leather, 2017)
Wells calls it a hyperobject, a conceptual fact so large, complex
and multifaceted that it is difficult to even begin comprehending
Spatial implications of the carbon paradigm need to extend
its scale, leaving people immobilised. Confronting a problem
the scope beyond carbon footprint calculations. It is imperative
that threatens the collapse of human civilization as we know
that new practices in the scholarship of architecture are
it means drastically rethinking how that civilization functions.
imagined; divorced from fossil fuel backed capitalist systems
(Ghosh, 2016) For the built environment, it means rethinking
of production. These speculative interventions hold the power
our ways of building and maybe even the scope of what it
to steer away from existing violent methods of building to
means to build.
more symbiotic ways of living.
Imaginations of climate change tend to be cast
Chapter 2
Imagining our way ahead
7
Future through Imaginative Logics
3
Using scenarios is one way to cope with this
exploration of future perspectives. It is a methodological
uncertainty in decision making. Scenarios can be defined as
framework developed by the Urban Futures Studio and not
coherent narratives about futures which differ strongly on a set
a prescriptive mechanism for projections. It is possible for
of dimensions of uncertainty that are deemed to be important
proposals to belong to one or more imaginative logics at a time
for taking decisions (Hajer and Versteeg, 2019). A multiplicity
depending on the scale, timeline and objectives of the project.
of imaginations, along with desirable and undesirable future simulations, holds the power to foreshadow possible narratives. A wide spectrum of futurist imaginaries have consequently been proposed from very high tech, technocratic utopias to low tech, indigenous radicalisms. Using the concept of imaginative logics developed by the Urban Futures Studio, these imaginations can be broadly categorised in five typologies: doable, juxtaposing, defamiliarizing, guerilla and procedural imaginative logics. The notion of imaginative logic helps to perceive the different ways in which choices and imaginative leaps are made in the process of presenting and materializing an abstract phenomenon. (Hajer and Wersteeg, 2019)
The next section examines a cross section of existing
proposals for each type to understand the set of principles underlying or constituting the imaginative intervention. These proposals are examined, scrutinised,
dissected and even
devolved to understand their merits and drawbacks. The aim is to provide a comprehensive
framework for mobilising
imagination; proposing a new kind of architecture overcoming our current stagnation in conceptualising a post fossil world. In doing so, it becomes a starting point for a manifesto for a post fossil architecture drawn from collective intelligence. These imaginative logics are not an exhaustive list of possible scenario building methods. Infact, these stand as sources for further
Chapter 3
Future through Imaginative Logics
3.1
Doable Logic
The first imagination, and by far the most
straightforward and simplistic speculation, is the Doable
where to go but it definitely recommends a set of instructions to how to get to this yet unknown future.
Logic. The doable logic intends to engender optimism and potentially collective action. It does not necessarily have to be feasible in practice yet, but it does provide its audience with a perspective of direction and a potential course of action (Pelzer and Wersteeg, 2019). The proposals which follow the doable logic offer prescriptive solutions that are possible within attainable goals. The recent emerging voices report by Peterson Rich Office(PRO) addresses the rising problem of financial deficits for repair and unlivable conditions in the deteriorating NYCHA public housing. Since hurricane Sandy in 2012, NYCHA has been shifting basement electric generators to roof tops. Moreover, leaky roofs have created an issue with mold for residents. PRO proposes a financial feasible addition in the form of a rooftop canopy that can not only protect mechanical equipment but also provide secondary rain protection. The rain canopy can also provide necessary social space for the residents in the form of rooftop gardens and decks, thereby increasing financial value of the property. As an added benefit the rooftop canopy can house PV panels providing clean energy to the residents. As estimated by PRO, the 20 million square feet of NYCHA roofs could provide clean energy for 300,000 homes eventually transitioning out of electric generators. (pro-arch.com,2020) Just like Lacatan and Vassal in Cite du Grand Parc, instead of tearing down the entire housing complex, the project addresses insufficient floor space by adding extensions in forms of balconies and converting parking garages. The project exemplifies that doable logic imagination because it does not provide a clear imagination of
Chapter 3.1
Doable Logic
9
3.2
Juxtaposing Logic
The juxtaposing logic presents audiences with two or
alternative vision of more sustainable building, he underscores
more alternative constructions of the future, allowing them
rampant urban disparities and the ingenious functional
to compare these alternatives (Pelzer and Wersteeg, 2019) . It
aesthetics of these disenfranchised zones, figuratively and
seeks to draw attention to unforeseen and neglected avenues
literally. The project examines the ways in which the nature of
of future production by highlighting the trade-offs in extreme
impoverished spaces, which are not only highly self-organized
scenarios. Such an approach has been well-rehearsed in the
but also deploy sustainability practices as a matter of necessity,
field of scenario building, where scenarios function as ‘learning
can be applied to cities undergoing massive population growth.
machines’ (Pelzer and Wersteeg, 2019). Olalekan Jeyifous
While this might be an apt approach in some – particularly
in Shanty Megastructures draws focus on one of the fastest
expert-led – situations, more experiential scenarios are critical
growing metropolises in the world, Lagos, Nigeria. The city
to foster a deeper engagement from people with different
is plagued by pro real estate development projects bulldozing
backgrounds. Contrary to the doable logic, a juxtaposing logic
informal settlements, leaving millions homeless. Nigeria’s state
creates extreme scenarios but does not provide clear directions
dominated oil refinery has been supplemented by the private
to reach there, leaving future possibilities open ended.
sector lending arm of World bank, the international Finance Corporation in form of loans and investments (Fascar, 2019). While the fossil fuel industry is profitable for the political and business elite, it provides no relief to its common citizens who live without electricity. Africa’s most populous country needs more than 10 times its current electricity output to guarantee supply for its 198 million people - nearly half of whom have
Image Courtesy Olalaken Jeyifous
no access at all (Gerretson, 2018). In Shanty Megastructures, Jeyifous proposes an alternative imagination to the urban density of Lagos. In it, he depicts Lagos with a skyline of ramshackle high rises, mushrooming from its shantytowns and swirling up toward the sky. The megastructures in these images are mishmashes of architectural typologies. Each high-rise seems to be buzzing with plant, human, animal, and mechanical parts, giving it the air of something alive. Each is the dominant organism in a lush and interconnected urban ecosystem. (Misra, 2016) By juxtaposing the reality of the informal shacks with an
Chapter 3.2
Juxtaposing Logic
3.3
Defamiliarising Logic
On the other hand, the defamiliarizing logic depends
on the element of surprise and curiosity by reimagining the familiarity of a situation. The defamiliarizing logic uses a well-known place, setting or object, to which a surprising or novel perspective or element is introduced (Pelzer and Wersteeg, 2019). The familiarity of the setting allows for an emotional connection with the audience, a mechanism which is frequently used in dystopian movies, whereas the unintended use stimulates marvel. The People’s Pavilion designed by Bureau SLA along with Overtreders W epitomises a 100% circular economy, where no material is lost in construction. All
Image Courtesy Filip Dujardin
the materials used in construction were completely borrowed from residents and traders and returned to them after use. The facade tiles were made from recycled plastic collected from the city and returned to respective residents. The pavilion instead of being an accomplice to the extractive process of the construction industry became an urban repository, borrowed for a particular use and then returned to its original cycle. A new design language is proposed based on intelligent construction systems operating with available resources
Image Courtesy Filip Dujardin
rather than importing and mining for more. It answers one of the most important questions of contemporary times by disrupting traditional chains of material extraction, production and disposal. Aptly called People’s Pavilion, the structure is literally and metaphorically, for the people, by the people and of the people. Defamiliarizing is an important technique to open up new opportunities and push the boundaries of what is possible within existing paradigms.
Chapter 3.3
Defamiliarising Logic
11
3.4
Guerilla Logic
The guerilla logic depends on the blurring of
boundaries between fact and fiction by small tactical disruptions. Similar to guerilla urbanism, it relies on small community driven interventions to propose tactical changes to larger systems. These tactics are based on traditional knowledge, local participation and subversive politics, leveraging loopholes in existing systems to their advantage. The Portable Light Project enables people in the developing world to create and own solar textiles, providing clean energy and light to improve education, health care and sustainable economic development, while strengthening the local craft traditions of diverse cultures and
Image Courtesy Portable Light |portablelight.org
global regions. It is a mobile energy infrastructure that not only reduces dependence on larger fossil based energy networks but also provides employment in the process (portablelight. org, 2012) Local textile and craft knowledge in conjunction with renewable micro-technology like flexible photovoltaic material, LED lighting and USB receptors create rugged solar textile kits that provide around 20 hours of LED light with one charge. Portable Light represents a paradigm shift from the mass-produced single-form, hard-plastic industrial design
Image Courtesy Portable Light |portablelight.org
of the 20th century to a soft design process with many possible forms that can be adapted to different needs and available materials. When adopted on a large scale, it tactically seizes power from fossil fuel based energy grids and empowers local communities. Guerilla logic can be thought of as a powerful tool of empowerment and recontextualisation.
Chapter 3.4
Guerilla Logic
3.5
Procedural Logic
The last logic is the procedural logic, which as the
on understanding the scale of necessary transformation and
name suggests, creates a framework of operation rather than
ensuring that there is a process of fairness in its deployment.
a fixed goal. The procedural logic is the most open futuring
Even though large scale transformations through procedural
intervention and catering to different kinds of engagement
logics are time intensive, the GND proposes a set of generative
and situations. Unlike guerilla logic which aims to subvert the
conditions for an equitable transition to clean green energy.
system piece by piece, procedural logic proposes to strategically transform the system as a whole. Rather than suggesting a particular construction of the future, the futuring intervention is intended as a bedding to imagine diverse possible futures. A post capitalist, anti fossil fuel re-imagination of our current economic system was proposed by democrats Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez of New York and Senator Edward J. Markey of Massachusetts. Following its name sake the New Deal proposed by FDR after the great depression, the GND seeks to face climate change by cutting off dependence on fossil fuels and shifting to renewable sources of energy. It also addresses structural inequalities by developing green technology industries, providing job training and education, diversifying economies away from fossil fuels, enforcing labour and wage laws, protecting native lands and rights, and ensuring more equitable outcomes. It prioritizes the role of the federal government and public funding. It emphasizes the unjust impacts of climate change of “frontline and vulnerable communities� (Goh, 2020). Most energy experts and scientists affirm that the USA has the technological fixes to upgrade existing infrastructure to renewables but it needs the financial planning and political support to deploy on a large scale. There are a few challenges related to intermittent sources of power like dependence on seasonal variability and storage but rather than focussing on making the perfect solution, GND focuses
Chapter 3.5
Procedural Logic
13
Start Point for a Post Fossil Architecture
4
Contrary to popular belief, modernism did not emerge
a framework to compare abstract concepts of future realities.
as a complete rejection of the past but rather a reaction to the
Projects in this paper have been examined retroactively and
rupture caused by energy transition. Automobiles changed the
then categorised according to their intentions. A similar
way people moved in cities, factories and warehouses changed
exercise can be thought of where proposals of a certain logic
the way people worked and lived in cities. Carbon forms that
or a combination of logics can be used as prospective solutions
emerged have persisted through years of transformation and
to the carbon paradigm. These logics can be extrapolated
create a built environment which is more and more dependent
to create a manifesto for the future of building just like the
on dense and abundant energy. To break normative rules of
modernists in CIAM.
carbon modernity, reactionary approaches are required that create the same conditions which allowed its inception to begin with. As illustrated above, imaginary logics are a way to better understand the possibilities of intervention and their implications on the larger discourse of architecture. An important acknowledgment is the dilemma between the acceleration of necessary transition and the painful and slow political actions involved. These logics provide a design language for understanding the larger goals of projects and drawing relationships between them. Climate change arguably requires short term action and the doable imaginative logic might help to align stakeholders and interests, but the flip side is that it might close down the consideration of alternative interests and values. The juxtaposing logic is essential to test the limits of imagination and to create awareness to trade-off and strengths of certain solutions. The three relatively open logics of defamiliarizing, guerilla and procedural are better equipped to contribute to an open deliberative process, precisely because they might help to bring political aspects to the fore (Pelzer and Wersteeg, 2019). From an academic perspective these logics help create
Chapter 4
Start Point for a Post Fossil Architecture
Bibliography
5
Angus, Ian. 2016. Facing the Anthropocene: Fossil Capitalism and the Crisis of the Earth System. NYU Press Emerging Voices Reports: Peterson Rich Office. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://archleague.org/article/provideo/ Fascar, F. 2019. World Bank keeps investing in fossil fuel projects: DW: 11.04.2019. Retrieved from https://www.dw.com/en/world-bank-keeps- investingin-fossil-fuel-projects/a-48262426 Gerretsen, I. 2018, May 03. Oil-rich Nigeria turns to renewable energy as population booms. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nigeriabritain-renewables-analysis/oil-rich-nigeria-turns-to-renewable-energy-as-population-booms-idUSKBN1I419F Ghosh, Amitav. 2016. The Great Derangement. Penguin Books Iturbe, Elisa.2019. Architecture and the death of Carbon Modernity. Log 47 Fall 2019 Kusnetz, N., McKenna, P., Lavelle, M., Tigue, K., Berwyn, B., Bruggers, J. Fahys, J. 2019, November 20. World’s Current Fossil Fuel Plans Will Shatter Paris Climate Limits, UN Warns. Retrieved from https://insideclimatenews.org/news/20112019/fossil-fuel-production-climate-change-goals-subsidies-policiesun-report Leathers, Amy. 2002, May 01. Hopelessly devoted to fossil fuels. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20170105181006/http://socialistreview.org. uk/420/hopelessly-devoted-fossil-fuels Leathers, Amy. 2017, January 09. Why capitalism is hopelessly addicted to fossil fuels. Retrieved from https://climateandcapitalism.com/2017/01/09/whycapitalism-is-hopelessly-addicted-to-fossil-fuels/ Lim, A. 2018, June 04. The Ideology of Fossil Fuels. Retrieved from https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/ideology-fossil-fuels-apocalypsepetrocapitalism-energy-humanities Luco, Andreas. 2019, April 29. People’s Pavilion / bureau SLA + Overtreders W. Retrieved from https://www.archdaily.com/915977/peoples-pavilionbureau-sla-plus-overtreders-w Maarten Hajer & Wytske Versteeg. 2019. Imagining the post-fossil city: why is it so difficult to think of new possible worlds?, Territory, Politics, Governance. Misra, Tanvi. 2016, August 05. Skyscrapers Rising From Shantytowns: A Futuristic Vision of Lagos. Retrieved from https://www.citylab.com/equity/2016/08/ a-futuristic-vision-of-lagos-skyscrapers-arising-from-shantytowns/494528/ Peter Pelzer, Wytske Versteeg. 2019. Imagination for change: The Post-Fossil City Contest, Futures, Volume 108, 12-26 Peterson Rich Office Studio. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.pro-arch.com/info Pirani, S., & Pluto Press. 2020, January 29. Socialism, Capitalism and the Transition Away from Fossil Fuels. Retrieved from https://www.resilience.org/ stories/2020-01-29/socialism-capitalism-and-the-transition-away-from-fossil-fuels/ Portable light. 2012. Retrieved from http://portablelight.org/about Szeman, Imre and Boyer, Dominic. 2017. Energy Humanities: An Anthology. JHU Press Wallace-Wells, David. 2020. Uninhabitable Earth: life after warming. [S.l.]: Tim Duggan Books. Watson, Julia, and Wade Davis. 2019. Lo-TEK: design by radical indigenism.
Chapter 5
Bibliography
15