The W omen:
W ealth of
Understanding Islamic Financial Laws
abab R azik
R
The Wealth of Women: Understanding Islamic Financial Laws
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Acknowledgments
First and last, I thank God for giving me the opportunity to learn about my faith and publish this work.
I would like to thank the women who shared their sensitive life experiences with me. They were key to the completion of this work. I would like to thank all team members of the American University for Human Science for their guidance. I thank Dr. Aziz Abdin, the President of the university for making this possible by supporting me when I entered my PhD program. I thank all defense committee members, especially Drs. Marwan Sadeddin and Marawan Shihata, who generously provided their knowledge and expertise. I thank Dr. Abed el-Fattah el-Samman for directing me to a plethora of resources and literature that were particularly valuable to my research. I would also like to give my special thanks to Dr. Ali al-Saadoon who mentored me while I conducted my research and writing – I could not have done it without his general consultation and guidance. Next, I am deeply grateful to Zehra Rizavi for her editing expertise and guidance, which played a significant role in bringing this project to fruition. I would especially like to thank my children – Yusra, Nada, Ehab and Munir – for their never-ending support as I pursued my studies, with special thanks to my daughters for dedicating much of their precious time to assist me, encourage me and be at my side during very hard times. I would also like to thank my mother Amal and sister May for their ongoing prayers and support. I, from the bottom of my heart, thank all the people who helped me along the way, including those I have not named, for their support throughout my PhD studies and book writing. I could not have done this without all of you.
CH a PTER ONE Introduction
When I am invited to lecture in prominent churches in the Chicagoland area, I am bombarded with the same questions I’ve been asked so often over the last 30 years: were you forced to marry your husband? Does wearing a headscarf mean you are married? Are Muslim women allowed to work? I enjoy addressing these questions about Muslim women because the overarching concern symbolizes a more universal struggle that all women share. As a Muslim American woman myself who has lived through the male-dominated workforce of the 1980s as well as the various waves of the American feminist movement, I know women are constantly pushing back against gender inequity, and that this is by no means an Islamic problem. As I point to old, detailed Islamic laws about a woman’s financial independence and agency demonstrated through practices like wives keeping their maiden names after they marry, my audience is both interested and shocked. It’s no surprise that I must often describe the same exact Islamic laws in classes I hold with Muslim American women – who are also sometimes shocked and especially eager to learn more. My motivation for writing this book is drawn primarily from the lack of understanding or follow-through in securing women’s rights under Islam specifically within Muslim communities. I have
discovered that women in Muslim families are not necessarily enjoying all the rights Islamic law provides, despite those provisions being quite substantial. I became particularly interested in women’s financial rights under Islamic law because financial rights and responsibilities are often a point of contention in the lives of many of the women with whom I speak.
The question of how Islamic law treats the financial situations and rights of women in Muslim families lies at the heart of this book. I’ve decided to focus on what may seem to many people to be unconventional rules surrounding the finances of women under Islamic law. But what financial rights does Islamic law unequivocally grant women? And to what extent are Muslim American women enjoying those rights?
These questions warrant closer examination. After spending the last three decades educating women in diverse communities about Islamic law, I have been struck – and sometimes dismayed – by the lack of knowledge, confusion, complaints, and concerns raised by single, married, and divorced Muslim women alike regarding their financial rights. I concluded that shedding light on the topic could make a real difference, not only for Muslim women who are directly affected but for the non-Muslim community as well.
The two original sources of Islamic law – the Qur’an (the Sacred Book of Islam) and the authentic Hadith corpus (the sayings and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad , who is often referenced herein as “the Prophet”) – do elucidate the protection and elevation of women’s financial rights across every life stage. However, centuries of patriarchal attitudes that underpinned cer-
tain societies, and scholars’ sometimes rigid adherence to contextualized fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) rulings from a distant age and time have led to textual misinterpretations of certain Qur’anic verses and Hadith about women’s issues. These misinterpretations have disparaged the status of women while ignoring multiple places in the same texts where her status is explicitly more dignified.
Uncovering the answers to these questions is crucial because the topic concerns the family unit, a focal point in Islamic law whose deterioration is believed to have a ripple effect and ultimately devastate the whole of society. Under Islamic law, every stone in the family unit – husband, wife, father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister – has God-given rights, which include spiritual, physical, emotional, and financial rights. The stronger the commitment of each individual in this structure to secure the legal rights of the others, the stronger the foundation upon which the unit stands, radiating its stability and goodness into the larger community. However, if one party falls short in giving the others their due rights, that failing becomes a harbinger of the family unit’s undoing.
Although each family member is equally important in Islam, this book gives special attention to the wife and the implementation of her financial rights. Among the plethora of studies and books on the importance of the family in Islam, no literature to date features case studies on the specific financial problems that women living in the U.S. face in their marriages to Muslim husbands. Therefore, this question forms the focal point of this book. My studies examine the types of financial problems women encounter throughout their marital lives and aim to find practical solutions that will both preserve the marriages of women
CH a PTER TWO
Women’s Financial Rights Under Islamic Law
Having established that the Qur’an and Hadith, the two original sources of Islamic law, lay out the ground rules for women’s financial rights across each phase of their lives, the next undertaking is to explore those laws in detail. Islamic law specifies financial provisions for women in the following instances: prior to and during marriage; upon divorce; in cases of the death of family members (inheritance); in terms of charitable giving; with respect to a woman’s own personal earnings; and in other miscellaneous circumstances. The fact that women are afforded financial rights across each of these areas is undisputed. This chapter is devoted to providing an overview of the financial rights of women according to Islamic law, while the next chapter will examine more controversial issues and interpretations stemming from the same sources that delineate these rights.
In determining the precise financial rights that Muslim women possess under Islamic law, Sunni Muslims turn to three general sources: the Holy Qur’an, the example and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad , and scholars of Islamic Law, including those from amongst the four major classical Sunni schools of thought – or the madhāhib (sing. madhhab ).The Qur’an itself is the most important
piece of literature on the subject, along with the best-known interpretations of the Qur’an, such as Jāmiʿ al-Bayān ʿan Ta’wīl āy al-Qur’ān by Abū Jaʿfar Muhammad ibn Jarīr ibn Yazīd al-Ṭabarī and Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-ʿAẓīm by Imam Abū al-Fidā’ Ismāʿīl ibn Kathīr
Specific Qur’anic verses – particularly in Sūrah al-Nisā’ (the Women) and al-Ṭalāq (the Divorce) – address the rights of married, divorced, and widowed Muslim women, with their interpretations holding paramount importance. In addition, since many rulings were deduced from the life and words of Prophet Muhammad, books such as Fatḥ al-Bārī by al-Ḥāfiẓ Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī , which offer meticulous detail on authentic narrations or the Hadith of the Prophet and their historical context, also informed this research. 1
Of course, the writings and rulings of the original scholars of the major classical schools of thought in Sunni Islam are key to any analysis of Islamic law: these men devoted their lives to both studying the Qur’an and Sunnah, developing processes for extracting Islamic law from the Qur’an and Sunnah, and— most notably— pioneered the science of applying Islamic law into distinctive contexts and in light of the cultural norms of their communities. It is no surprise that the vast majority of Muslims around the world, including those living in the U.S. today, adhere to the judgments of one or more of the legal schools of thought developed by these scholars. Throughout this book, I highlight the different rulings these four schools of jurisprudence hold on the financial rights of women, but also examine the views of Imam Ibn Ḥazm al-Ẓāhirī , a student of Imams Mālik and al-Shāfiʿī , who developed another school of thought that holds some unique Shariah-based views that are distinct from his teachers’ views. 2 I also examine the views of other
The mahr is a gift owned free and clear by a wife, and Islamic law does not permit a man to demand that his wife return the mahr to him for any reason, even if she hurls imprecations against him, as evident in at least one report. 44 In a narration by Saʿīd ibn Jubayr regarding a husband and wife who had invoked curses upon one another and separated (through either contract annulment or final divorce), a husband asked the Prophet about the mahr he had gifted his wife, hoping it would be returned to him because of his wife’s insults, but the Prophet replied: “No money is due for you, if you spoke the truth then indeed you consummated the marriage (already), and if you lied then it is further from you than you can imagine.” 45
Of note, the fourth verse of Sūrah al-Nisā’ describes that a wife can, if she wishes and does so “willingly,” choose to return some or all of the mahr back to her husband: 46
And give the women [upon marriage] their [bridal] gifts graciously. But if they give up any of it willingly, then take it in satisfaction and ease. 47
Marital Maintenance: The Husband and Father’s General Obligation to Provide for his Wife, Children, and Others
Nafaqah is the Arabic word used to describe any sort of spending that is good, permissible, and pleasing to God. 48 As further described in this chapter, under Islamic law, the nafaqah of a wife is a fundamental and material term of any marriage, even when unwritten. 49
To that end, the classical scholars also held that divorced women have a right to receive support for their own living expenses if they are pregnant, until childbirth. This nafaqah right is derived from Chapter 65:6:
…And if they should be pregnant, then spend on them until they give birth. And if they breastfeed for you, then give them their payment and confer among yourselves in the acceptable way; but if you are in discord, then there may breastfeed for the father another woman. 142
The wages provided to a woman for carrying and taking care of her and her ex-husband’s children is oftentimes viewed as separate from child support, which relate to the expenses children accrue. Under Islamic law, after the waiting period and upon the finalization of a woman’s divorce, a father is also obligated to pay his ex-wife child support, or nafaqit al-walad . 143 The obligation to pay child support stands whether or not the divorce is revocable or irrevocable.
Women’s Inheritance Rights
The Qur’an specifically delineates the individuals entitled to inheritance after the death of a family member. These individuals are commonly referenced throughout this book as lawful “heirs” to a deceased family member. Under Islamic law, there are four possible grounds for inheritance: certain blood relationships, a valid marriage contract (regardless of consummation),
CH a PTER THREE
Scholarly Controversies and Varying Interpretations
Chapter Two presented an overview of the financial rights Islamic law provides for women in general terms – those interpretations of the Qur’an and Hadith regarding which most jurists and scholars can agree. However, many issues remain where scholars differ in their textual interpretations of Islamic jurisprudence related to women’s financial rights. This chapter is devoted to discussing those controversies and variations in opinion. Many of the verses under discussion in this chapter appear in the primary Qur’anic chapters referenced in this book, Sūrah al-Nisā’ and Sūrah al-Ṭalāq, while others are drawn from different sections of the Qur’an.
Differing Opinions on the Marital Gift or Mahr
As noted in Chapter Two, the right to mahr is a key financial right of a married Muslim woman. According to Islamic law, it is obligatory upon a man to give a gift of value, known as al-mahr or al-ṣadāq, to the woman he marries: 1
her treatment and pays for the medicine she needs?” 88 Dr. ‘Abida al-Mu’yed al-Aẓam opined that the husband’s non-expenditure on his wife’s medical needs is baseless. 89
Retranslating and Reinterpreting a Controversial Qur’anic Verse about Wives
After understanding the significant financial burden Islam places on a husband, a seemingly contentious Qur’anic verse, often translated as follows, becomes clear:
Men are in charge of women by [right of] what Allah has given one over the other and what they spend [for maintenance] from their wealth. So righteous women are devoutly obedient, guarding in [the husband’s] absence what Allah would have them guard. But those [wives] from whom you fear arrogance [ nushūzuhuna sing. nushūz ] –[first] advise them…. 90
Too often, readers – both Muslim and non-Muslim – interpret this verse 34 to mean that Allah created men as superior to women since they have been placed in charge of women. First, in the aforementioned translation as well as many others, the phrase “in charge” is translated from the Arabic word “ qawwāmūn ( sing. qawwām ) ,” and the well-known Arabic dictionary Lisān al-ʿArab defines “ al-qawwām ” as a person who protects and is just. 91 So, in
have earned, and for women is a share of what they have earned . And ask Allah of his bounty. Indeed, Allah is ever, of all things, Knowing. 329
The above verse from 7 th century Arabia demonstrates not only the idea that women may earn an income just as men might, but that their earnings are their own. 330 The Shariah unequivocally encourages both men and women to strive to receive the earth’s blessings in verses 3 and 4 of Chapter 92: And [by] He who created the male and female. 331 Indeed, your efforts [strive] are diverse. 332
Scholars point to various circumstances when women in Islamic history or throughout the Qur’an needed to find employment. In one example presented in the Qur’an, two unmarried women worked to support their family when their father was too ill to carry on his responsibility as breadwinner. 333 Chapter 28, verse 23 describes the story of two girls in the town of Madyan who had no choice but to strive to provide sustenance for themselves, their family, and animals in order to survive:
And when he [Prophet Moses] came to the well of Madyan, he found there a crowd of people watering
required in certain instances, like when, for example, those responsible to financially support her fall short of their obligations. As another example, approval is unnecessary for a widow or divorcée who must work to earn a living for herself and her children, particularly if no men in the family step up to assist her. 340 In one incident, the Companion Jābir ibn ʿAbdullāh h related the situation of his divorced aunt, who took initiative to earn an income on her own by farming during her waiting period. He explained:
My maternal aunt was divorced, and she wanted to collect the harvest from her date-palm trees. A man rebuked her for going out to the trees. She went to the Prophet g who said, “No, go and collect the harvest from your trees, for perhaps you will give some in charity or do a good deed with it.” 341
This tradition may explain why the Prophet’s wife ʿĀ’ishah i gave a legal opinion ( fatwa ) that a woman could go out to earn a living for her general needs during her three-month waiting period following her divorce. 342 In fact, when ʿĀ’ishah’s brother-in-law was killed, she took her sister to perform ʿUmrah during her threemonth waiting period . For that reason, when Imam al-Ghazālī r was asked by the parents of their widowed daughter whether they may take her to ʿUmrah during her waiting period to relieve her depression, he remembered ʿĀ’ishah’s ruling and gave them permission to do so. 343
Education for women was actively promoted during the life of the Messenger g . In fact, in one tradition the Prophet g said, “Seeking knowledge is an obligation upon every Muslim.” 344 The Messenger g himself championed the employment of
CH a PTER FOUR
Study of the Lives of 21 American Women
Chapter Four forms the heart of this book – a summary of the stories of 21 women living in America who are or were married to Muslim men. I conducted thorough, structured interviews with these women between March 2019 and January 2021. The study aimed to ascertain the main financial conflicts faced by Muslim-American women of different cultural backgrounds –including whether or not they enjoyed their financial rights under Islamic law. Specifically, I examine whether or not these women received certain financial rights to begin with, whether or not they were able to maintain their rights, and if they were able to manage their own personal income without threat or manipulation. I did begin each interview by providing an overview of the Islamic financial rights of women during marriage, divorce, and widowhood.
I took a phenomenological approach when interviewing these women. Phenomenology is concerned with understanding social and psychological phenomena from the perspectives of the very people who have lived or are living out those phenomena. 1 This approach is characterized by in-depth interviews of a limited number of participants (10-20). 2 Lengthy, informal interviews are
she could spend on herself and her children, but also to boost her self-confidence, which would take a daily beating from his incessant fault-finding. When he would return home from work at the end of the day, he would often pass belittling remarks such as, “What have you been doing all day – nothing!” Her husband showed no appreciation or empathy for the efforts Nabila made in the way of raising their children and keeping up with all household responsibilities of cooking, cleaning, and laundry. She felt she needed house help, but never dared to ask (it was only for a few months, when she fell terribly ill following childbirth, that her husband reluctantly hired temporary domestic help). As the years passed and their children grew, she continued pressing her husband to allow her to work outside the house. He could no longer recycle his earlier objection that their small children would be neglected if she did not remain at home full-time and he ultimately relented to her pleas, but on the condition that her paycheck would be automatically deposited into their joint account, which he alone controlled. Her new job did not bring her any additional spending money, but it did set her free, she said. For years she had felt like a slave under a master, but now she began to meet new people and feel valued and respected by her manager and coworkers.
Despite Nabila’s work offering a reprieve, her husband’s financial abuse became unbearable with time and finally she asked for a divorce. He refused to sign divorce papers (within the American legal system) unless she gave up all her financial rights, including her earnings placed in their joint account or jointly-owned stocks. Another condition was to give up any alimony rights granted by either the U.S. courts or the Islamic Shariah. He threatened to just flee back to his native country if she did not comply.
She had to accept his demands, and all their accumulated wealth went to him. He also did not want to pay child support. Nabila tried to singlehandedly provide for her children but after some time it became clear that she was financially unable, and none of her male family members had the means to help. Eventually, she felt pressured to voluntarily give up her physical custody of her children, all of whom were under 11 years old while she pursued an education and career. He assured her that once she began to earn enough money to support the kids, he would return the children to her, but his promise quickly proved to be specious because before the divorce was even finalized, he moved back, with the children in tow, to his home country and remarried. Nabila’s marriage was instantaneously dissolved by the U.S. court since her husband never showed up to the final divorce hearing. Nabila was devastated about the loss of her children, but she moved back into her parents’ home and took charge of her life by working during the day and attending to college classes in the evening. Her children grew up overseas and she finally saw them once they had reached adulthood and did not need their father’s permission to travel back to the United States.
In time, Nabila rebuilt her life and even remarried. Her second husband was a wealthy man who earned four times more than she did. She feels he was certainly better than her first partner; he provided her with a comfortable home and an abundance of food, although he too was somewhat tightfisted when he offered her a mahr amount of a mere $500 – which she never received –and insisted she pay for household electric bills, as well as all personal needs, including house help. Nabila found these conditions bizarre, but she accepted them and preserved her marriage
CH a PTER F i
Islamic Compliance in Muslim Households: An Analysis
In this chapter, I delve further into the 21 case studies to examine the extent to which the financial rights of the women I interviewed, based on Islamic principles, were enjoyed or violated. I assess the magnitude of any such violations, explore potential underlying causes for such violations, and highlight the resultant physical, mental, and social ramifications of such deprivations. Furthermore, I examine how the rampant financial abuse we find in marriages today are not only in direct conflict with Islamic law, but at times stemming from patriarchal biases and/or selective reliance on textual misinterpretations.
Violations of Financial Rights
To begin, I must emphasize that women married to Muslim men who live in a non-Muslim country should still enjoy all the financial rights they would have under Islamic Law. I asked each of the 21 study participants about whether or not and how certain indisputable financial rights, rooted in the Qur’an and Prophetic traditions, were granted to them throughout their marriages, including but not limited to (1) the right to a wedding reception ( walīmah ) in which the marriage is made public, (2) the right to the marital gift ( mahr ), (3) the right to manage her own personal
CH a PTER S i X
Recommendations
and Conclusions
The results of this study are disheartening to say the least. This collection of study participants unambiguously reveals that a diverse group of American women married to Muslim men in the U.S. have, for the most part, not received their most basic financial rights according to the Shariah. The women in these marriages were rarely treated in a fashion that even remotely resembled the financial stability and independence the Prophet g granted his own wives. What’s more is that these women have been deprived of these rights to the obvious and often severe detriment of their physical, psychological, and social well-being.
What do we do with this wealth of information? As I see it, there are three ways in which we can make changes to help married women safeguard their financial rights as given to them by Islamic law, and thereby strengthen their marriages and protect their physical and mental well-being. First, we will look at the first-hand recommendations that many of the 21 study participants themselves give to other women who are either in similar positions or who are single and contemplating marriage in the U.S.. Their advice is invaluable as it comes from their decades-long lived experiences. Second, I will advocate that today’s scholars reopen
Endnotes
C hapter O ne
1. References to “American women” in this book are references to women who live in the United States.
2. The Chancellor, Masters and Scholars of the University of Cambridge , The Encyclopedia Britannica , s.v. “Women,” 11th edition, Volume 28 (Cambridge, England, the University Press, 1911), https://archive.org/details/Encyclopaediabri28chisrich_201303/page/n815/mode/1up, 782.
3. Britannica , “Women,” 782.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Sir Henry Sumner Maine, Lectures on the Early History of Institutions, 7th edition (London, John Murray, 1914), Lecture XI. The Early History of the Settled Property of Married Women, https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/maine-lectures-on-the-early-history-of-institutions, 124-37.
7. Glanville L. Williams, The Legal Unity of Husband and Wife, Modern Law Review , Vol. 1, Issue 1(1947), https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1468-2230.1947. tb00034.x, 17-18.
8. Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy, Volume One (New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1986), https:// gepacf.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ women-and-history_-v-1-gerda-lerner-the-creation-of-patriarchy-oxford-university-press-1987.pdf, 216-18; Maine, Lectures on the Early History of Institutions, 124-37.
al-Aẓam, Mā Ḥudūd Ṭāʿat al-Zawj? https://abidaazem.com/ 8 ,/ جوزلا-ةعاط-دودح.
48. Al-Aẓam, Sunnah al-Tafāḍul, 47.
49. See Qur’an 4:34.
50. Muhammad ibn Yūsuf ibn ʿAlī ibn Yūsuf ibn Ḥayyān, Tafsīr al-Baḥr al-Muḥīt (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār Iḥyā’ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 2002), Volume 3, 335.
51. Ibn Ḥayyān, Tafsīr al-Baḥr al-Muḥīt , 335.
52. Ibid , 336.
53. Azizah Y. Hibri, “Muslim Women’s Rights in The Global Village Challenges and Opportunites,” Law Faculty Publications 15 J. L. & Religion 37 (2000), https://scholarship.richmond.edu/ cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1162&context=law-faculty-pu blications, 46-47.
54. Sonia D. Galloway, “The Impact of Islam as a Religion and Muslim Women on Gender Equality: A Phenomenological Research Study.” Doctoral dissertation. Nova Southeastern University. Retrieved from NSUWorks, Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences. (14), https://nsuworks. nova.edu/shss_dcar_etd/14, 141.
C hapter t w O
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2. Adil Salahi, “Imam Ali ibn Hazm” (Muslim Heritage, visited 2020), http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/imam-aliibn-hazm; Abū Muhammad ʿAlī ibn Aḥmad ibn Saʿīd ibn Ḥazm, Al-Muḥallā fī Sharḥ al-Mujallā bi al-Ḥujaj wa al-Āthār (Amman, Jordan: International Idea Home, n.d.), 7; Ibn Ḥazm al-Ẓāhirī (384 AH- 456 AH): One of the most prom -
born in the year 26 AH and passed away 86 AH. Razān Ṣalāḥ, “Maʿlūmāt ʿan ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān” (Mawḍūʿ, 2019), https://mawdoo3.com/ ناورم
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53. Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, Tafsīr al-Fakhr al-Rāzī , Volume 9, 189.
54. The Qur’an, 4:20.
55. Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, Tafsīr al-Fakhr al-Rāzī , Volume 9, 189.
56. Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī, Al-Umm (Cairo, Egypt: Dār al-Ḥadīth, 2008), Volume 8, 507; my translation.
57. Muṣṭafā al-ʿAdawī, Jāmiʿ Aḥkām al-Nisā’ (Cairo, Egypt: Dār Ibn ʿAffān, 1999), Volume 5, 222-23.
58. Al-ʿAdawī, Jāmiʿ Aḥkām al-Nisā’, Volume 5, 223.
59. Ibid, Volume 5, 171.
60. Zaydān, Al-Jāmiʿ fī al-Fiqh al-Islāmī , Volume 7, 201ʿAbdullāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muḥsin al-Tarīqī, “Al-Nafaqah al-Wājibah ʿalā al-Mar’ah li Ḥaqq al-Ghayr” ( al-Alūkah al-Sharīʿah , 2007), http://cp.alukah.net/web/turaiqi/0/363/.
61. Ibn Qudāmah, Al-Mughnī (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dār ʿAalam al-KutubʿPublications, 1986), Volume 4, 100-02, https://ia80 1609.us.archive.org/23/items/WAQmogni/mogni04.pdf; Ibn al-Hamam, Fath al-Qadeer (Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 2003), Volume 2, 275, https://ia802801.us.arc hive.org/22/items/waq72501/02_72502.pdf; Mustafa al-Adawy, Jami’ Ahkam Al-Nisaa’, Volume 2, Net Library E-Book Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/jami-3-ahkam-ni ssa-e/ 202 % ج20 % ءاسنلا20 %
20 % عماج/page/n96/mode/ 1up?view=theater, 97.
62. Ibn Qudāmah, Al-Mughnī , Volume 4, 101-02.
63. Zaydān, Al-Jāmiʿ fī al-Fiqh al-Islāmī , Volume 10, 224.
64. Ibid, Volume 10, 227.
65. Ibid, Volume 10, 228.
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