A Quest for Colonising the Oceans

Kulkarni Kimaya Semester IX (Part 1)

Guided by

Ar. Anmol Warang

Bachelors of Architecture

L.S. Raheja School of architecture, Mumbai Affiliated to Mumbai University

October, 2021

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The completion of this thesis could not have been possible without the participation and assistance of more than a few individuals. Their contributions are sincerely appreciated and gratefully acknowledged. I would like to express a deep sense of gratitude to my thesis guide, Ar. Anmol Warang for always pushing me to do better, encouraging me to explore and being there at every roadblock. I would also like to thank Ar. Mridula Pillai Gudekar and Ar. Meghana Patil for guiding me during key stages of my research. I am also grateful to our principal Ar. Mandar Parab for his insights and providing us with the necessary resources. To the faculty at L.S Raheja School of Architecture for teaching me what I know today and to the non-teaching staff for always making things easy for us. A special thank you Ar Swanand Mahashabde for being an amazing in charge for two academic years. To both Ar. Neeta Sarode for constantly motivating me and Ar. Anmol Warang for his thoughtful insights during semester 7 which has immensely influenced my thought process. To mom and dad for always being there. To my colleagues Aditya Warrier, Surabhi Patil and Sandesh Ghanekar, Shruti Limaye, Brendon D’lima and Shazneen Aga for their support and thoughtful insights during the research. To all my friends for being an important part of the five years architecture journey. To my seniors, Utkarsh Verma and Prachi Kadam for helping me throughout the process. And lastly, a big thank you to all the podcasts and shows for burning the midnight oil with me and keeping me awake!

DECLARATION I hereby declare that this written submission entitled “____________________________________________________________________” represents my ideas in my own words and has not been taken from the work of others (as from books, articles, essays, dissertations, other media and online); and where others’ ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original sources. Direct quotations from books, journal articles, internet sources, other texts, or any other source whatsoever are acknowledged and the source cited are identified in the dissertation references. No material other than that cited and listed has been used. I have read and know the meaning of plagiarism* and I understand that plagiarism, collusion, and copying are grave and serious offences in the university and accept the consequences should I engage in plagiarism, collusion or copying. I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact source in my submission. This work, or any part of it, has not been previously submitted by me or any other person for assessment on this or any other course of study.

Signature of the Student: Name of the Student: Exam Roll No: Date:

Place:

*The following defines plagiarism: “Plagiarism” occurs when a student misrepresents, as his/her own work, the work, written or otherwise, of any other person (including another student) or of any institution. Examples of forms of plagiarism include: • the verbatim (word for word) copying of another’s work without appropriate and correctly presented acknowledgement; • the close paraphrasing of another’s work by simply changing a few words or altering the order of presentation, without appropriate and correctly presented acknowledgement; • unacknowledged quotation of phrases from another’s work; • the deliberate and detailed presentation of another’s concept as one’s own. • “Another’s work” covers all material, including, for example, written work, diagrams, designs, charts, photographs, musical compositions and pictures, from all sources, including, for example, journals, books, dissertations and essays and online resources.

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that ____________________________________________________ has successfully completed his/her design dissertation (Part 1) on the topic ‘_________________________ ____________________’ under the guidance of ______________________________________________. The dissertation is undertaken as a part of the academic study based on the curriculum for Bachelors of Architecture program conducted by the University of Mumbai, through L.S. Raheja School of Architecture, Mumbai. SEAT NUMBER: _____________________ Thesis Guide: Ar. ______________________ L. S. Raheja School of Architecture, Mumbai

Principal: Ar. Mandar Parab. L. S. Raheja School of Architecture, Mumbai

External Juror 1:

External Juror 2:

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 1

The World in 2099, (Source - https://i.pinimg.com/originals/4f/76/18/4f761820782a858460a05bbf88f91e1.jpg, Edited by author)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Prologue It’s the year 2099. Coastlines no longer mark the extent of human civilization. The Blue revolution has given rise to the world’s smallest continent. The new continent does not have a distinct boundary. It is dynamic in nature and is scattered across the globe. Contrary to the nature of the previous continents, this ‘Blue Continent’ is made up of several city-states that have emerged in seas and oceans during the Blue Revolution. By the quarter of this century, humans started to realize that their civilizations were largely parasitic. All this while, they lived on a finite territory, exhausted limited resources and were ignorant to the repercussions of their activities on nature. As the Blue Revolution followed and their dependency on land reduced, they started to colonize the ‘Blue Earth’ in more sustainable ways such that they developed a more symbiotic relationship with nature. It is the year 2099, and the seas and the oceans are not just a home to the aquatic animals but are now inhabited by mankind as well.

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 2 author)

The First Seastead by The Seasteading Institue and Ocean Builders(Source:https://thethaiger.com/wpcontent/uploads/2019/04/received_361720224413363-1.jpeg, Edited by

Aim This thesis intends to explore the future relationship of human society with water as an aquatic community and the role of architecture in responding to our new needs. It intends to analyse the future unconventional ways of living, create floating neighbourhoods catering to the same and explore their relationship with land-based communities.

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Objectives •To recognise the challenges of living at sea and understand the scope of future seas as a habitable environment •To understand the lifestyle changes that may occur •To anticipate our needs in the future required to be able to adapt and survive as a floating community •To study the concepts of floating architecture and understand the relationship of architecture with the new environment.

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 3

Sea steading (Source - https://www.hakaimagazine.com/features/the-quest-for-a-floating-utopia, Artwork by Chad Lewis)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Need for Study Humans have always been explorers by nature. The Human desire for exploration leads to discovery.( Bob Granath,2015, NASA’s Kennedy Space Center, Florida). Pre historic man evolved into the modern human due to constant changes in mans life brought about by several discoveries over thousands of years. Humans earlier lived as nomads and wandered in search of food and shelter. Over the years, mankind learnt how to grow food and settled in communities, thus beginning the colonization of land. Several other events followed and mankind is currently in the digital age. Technical advancement has achieved its highest peak so far. The curious nature of humankind further explores the possibility of colonising water sustainably. The ocean covers nearly two-thirds of the planet. It provides a great opportunity to be used as a vast resource. Sea level rise allows exploring a new approach to - building offshore hubs of habitation, commerce, education, and recreation designed to ease pressures facing coastal cities squeezed between rising populations, rising seas and storm risk, resource limits, and threatened ecosystems. (Revkin, Floating cities could ease the world’s housing crunch, the UN says 2021) The seed of this idea of expanding human society into water was planted back in the 20th century and received prominence in the 1960s when Buckminster Fuller proposed the Triton city. Since then, the field of floating architecture has gained huge momentum. In April 2019, UN-Habitat convened a roundtable discussion on how floating cities could be a viable solution to various urban problems like climate change, affordable housing, etc., where a proposal for the Oceanix city was floated. Architects like Koen Olthius and other think tanks have achieved tremendous success in resolving challenges posed to living on water. Several other technologies related to the same are rapidly developing. With this progress, it is somewhere soon that this seed of an idea will germinate into reality. Accepting water as an alternative habitat for human society will call for a lot of changes. Humans have been pragmatic enough to adapt to change. It is important to understand how this change will be accepted and its impact on the human society. Imagining now, how humans will live on water in the future will only prepare mankind better for what is coming. 19

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

METHODOLGY •Ascertain the colonization of oceans •Understand the concepts of floating architecture through case studies and current water-related infrastructure – for example ships, proposals, etc •Because of the number of uncertainties, it is necessary to create variants for the future situation of the design of the city. Hence, typologies of water colonies of the future from the previously studied concepts were derived. •Understand the functioning and lifestyle of people living in the current water-based neighbourhoods •Analyse how the functioning of current paradigms in a neighbourhood would change with respect to typologies of the aquatic city derived earlier. •Analyse progress made in research related to sea steading architecture by studying various proposals, experiments, etc. to understand challenges and their solutions in the new environment.

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

CONSTRAINTS •Live case studies are not possible. Case studies will be based on secondary data. •Real world case studies are quite few. Conceptual case studies and proposals by recognized architects have been studied.

LIMITATIONS • • • •

“Future” here suggests by the end of this century. Analysing and predicting anything beyond that would be highly uncertain. Relying on secondary data to solve technical issues faced relating to floating Relying on scientific research related to structures, materials, techniques, etc. related to floating architecture. Relying on data used in case studies related to floating architecture

ASSUMPTIONS •

• •

The research is based on the hypothesis that floating architecture is the global future. Although current experiments insinuate this to be true, the study is largely based on the assumption that this holds good. The study assumes that policy changes in favour of floating neighbourhoods will be made in the future. Climate change related data primarily predictions related to sea level rise and sinking human settlements is considered to be true.

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

CONTENTS 1.

1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6.

THE BLUE REVOLUTION

LAND IS A FINITE RESOURCE QUEST FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE FREEDOM FROM CURRENT GOVERNMENTS QUEST FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE FUTURE SURVIVAL SEASTEADING-IS IT POSSIBLE?

2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. 2.7. 2.8.

COLONIZING CONCEPTS

PALM JUMEIRAH ISLAND TRITON CITY - BUCKMINSTER FULLER OCEANIX CITY-BIG SEA SCRAPER FREEDOM SHIP INTERNATIONAL AEQUOREA SEA STEADING CITY OCEAN SPIRAL CITY

WATER AS A HUMAN HABITAT

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4.

BAJAUS THE WORLD-RESIDENTIAL CRUISE FLOATING COMMUNITIES IN AMSTERDAM CONCLUSION

24 26 27 28 31 32

36 38 40 42 43 44 46 49

56 59 60 63

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5.

CHANGING PARADIGMS

INNOVATION AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSPORT TRADE AND COMMERCE PUBLIC SPACES BUILT STRUCTURES

5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6.

CHALLENGES AND RESOLUTION

WAVE ACTION WIND NATURAL HAZARDS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT MATERIAL SELECTION

SITE SELECTION

6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5. 6.6.

ENVIRONMENTAL CRITERIA ECONOMIC CRITERIA: LEGAL CRITERIA: OPTION 1 - OFFSHORE CITY OPTION 2 - VADHAVAN PORT CITY OPTION 3 - SEAWEED FARMING

66 68 71 72 75

78 82 84 86 88 91

95 97 99 101 103 105

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 4

(Source - Google Earth, Edited by author)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

“

THE BLUE REVOLUTION It is now difficult for a number humans to imagine what

life only bound to land must be like. It is hard to believe that the whole of humanity crammed up on land a century ago. Humans have always been explorers by nature. From a nomadic lifestyle to the most advanced civilizations, it is the curious nature of the human mind that led to several innovations and brought about changes in the society. Post the genesis of the digital age, mankind’s enduring dream of colonizing the blue side of our planet was finally realized. It all happened only a few decades ago. Over a century of brainstorming and technological advancement helped overcome technical barriers to colonizing waters. All this while, humans had the means and only needed an impetus. This shift from land to water was definitely not easy. Some extreme events, desire to expand human knowledge and dissatisfaction with the then way of living encouraged humans to explore this possibility and provided the necessary impetus to make this dream a reality.

”

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

1.1. LAND IS A FINITE RESOURCE Global population is one of the major factors that determine the fate of the planet. Nearly 10,000 years ago, human population was in a few millions. By early 1800s, world population crossed the 1 billion mark and by 1920s the 2 billion mark. As of 2021, the global population is at an alltime high at 7.8 billion. According to the UN, with 95% certainty, the world population will stand between 8.5 and 8.6 billion in 2030, between 9.4 and 10.1 billion in 2050, and between 9.4 and 12.7 billion in 2100. The UN population prediction for the 2000s was within an error of 3%. This makes the current future predictions reliable as well as alarming. Although the growth rate is predicted to steadily decline till the end of this century, the world will have to make room for more population as it is predicted to reach the 11 billion by 2100. A large majority of this growing population is predicted to be living in the cities (most of which are are located at the cost) by 2050. Observing the recent trends, it can be understood that since the past 200 years migration to urban areas has drastically increased. The increasing urban population further contributes to several other problems in the cities, strains and exhausts its resources and affects the quality of life. Male, the capital city of Maldives is currently running out of land. The island city has no scope but to expand itself upwards. Although the demand for resources increases, land as resource for this growing population remains finite.71% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. The remaining 29% is covered with land. Of the 29%, nearly 71 percent is habitable half of which is used for agriculture. Land as a resource can neither be categorized as non-renewable nor renewable. It is a finite resource but it has the ability to renew itself. The process is very slow compared to human lifespan.

26 Blue Revolution

Figure 5 World Population Prediction (Soucre : https://jul.com/wpcontent/uploads/2019/04/postcard.jpg)

Figure 6 Urbanisation over the past 500 years.(Source: OWID based on UN World Urbanisation Prospects 2018)

Figure 7

Global Land Use(Source: OurWorldinData.org)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Increase in population, increases the demand for resources. More land is required for agriculture to meet the growing needs. On the contrary, the percentage of the earth’s surface covered with land is perpetually decreasing due to sea level rise. Other resources needed by humans such as fresh water, oil, fish, etc. seem to be scarce than before. The worrisome question thus arise – ‘DOES EARTH HAVE THE CAPACITY TO SUSTAIN A POPULATION SO LARGE…?’. Experts believe that the lifestyle choices and global consumption rates play a bigger role in answering this. Some believe we might have already crossed the sustainable population limit. A definite answer to this question is probably not possible. Examples from our past suggest that the maximum sustainable limit has constantly changed due to changes in the way the society functions and technological advancements. “Changes in technology, which are often wildly unpredictable, will also affect the maximum population.” – BBC Earth Be it the Indus Valley Civilization, the Egyptian Civilization or the current cities, human civilizations have always emerged at the confluence of land and water and have traditionally expanded landward. With technological advancements in the modern era, most mega cities have also expanded themselves by reclaiming land from the sea. The island-state of Singapore has added 22% onto its size over the past 50 years by building out into the surrounding waters using sand, earth and rock quarried and purchased from elsewhere. The entire Palm Jumeriah archipelago in Dubai is built from 110 cubic metres of dredged sand. 80 -90% of Japan’s tidal flat land was reclaimed after World War II.(BBC Earth,2016) The current trajectory leads towards expanding seawards. The nature in which the colonization is executed could be very different than present times. But the impetus for expanding seawards has already been provided. Sustainable expansion into the sea can be seen as a potential solution to current problems faced by humanity.

Figure 8

Male - Capital of Maldives(Source - BBC)

Blue Revolution 27

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

1.2. QUEST FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE For an aquatic neighbourhood to be fully self-sufficient, it would have to harvest its own energy, produce its own food and deal with its waste wisely. Experts believe that it is an opportunity to start afresh and reimagine our cities to make them more sustainable. “We must build cities with solutions for low emission development — scaling safe and electric powered public transport solutions and changing the grid on which cities rely to clean energy solutions. We must build cities for people, not cars. And we must build cities knowing that they will be on the frontlines of climate related risks — from rising sea levels to storms.” -UN Deputy Secretary-General Amina Mohammed, Roundtable on sustainable floating cities, New York, April 2019. Most floating structures can be modular. They can be built elsewhere at a shipyard, towed and moored at site. This process would reduce the generation of construction waste. Although long term impacts of a floating structure are unknown, unlike structures built on land, they would not permanently alter the terrain.

Figure 9 Floating Solar farm (Soucre : https://global.kyocera.com/ news/2018/0301_wvfh.html)

Figure 10 Floating Windmill(Soucre : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Agucadoura_WindFloat_Prototype.jpg)

Energy can be generated in more renewable forms like wind, solar, tidal, OTEC (Ocean thermal energy conversion). Food could be produced by algae farming, hydroponics and sustainable aquaculture. A dairy farm in Rotterdam can be found floating at the harbour. Water can be used to control temperature as well. Koen Olthius, a Dutch architect uses passive techniques in his proposals. Structures can be huddled closer when temperatures drop and can be pushed apart to allow for evaporative cooling. The Salt and sill hotel in Sweden uses warm water from below the structure to heat its interior during winters. Floating cities could also help to regenerate habitats. Bio – rock is new material that regenerates coral reefs, oysters, seagrasses, salt marshes, mangroves, fisheries and coastal ecosystems where there is no natural recovery (Wells et al., 2010). It can also be used to construct the breakwater. The Seasteading institute believes that floating sea steads would be eco regenerative as they would attract more marine life in the otherwise lifeless part of the ocean.

28 Blue Revolution

Figure 11 Floating dairy in Rotterdam (Soucre : https://static. dezeen.com/uploads/2019/05/floating-farm-rotterdam-goldsmith_dezeen_2364_col_5-852x609.jpg)

Figure 12

Salt and Sill Hotel, Sweden(Soucre :flickr)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

1.3. FREEDOM FROM CURRENT GOVERNMENTS

Figure 13

Principality of Sealand (Soucre :BBC)

Figure 14 Helipad at principality of Sealand (Soucre :https://ychef. files.bbci.co.uk/976x549/p02p4xn1.jpg)

Figure 15

12 km of the coast of England in the North Sea, lies the worlds smallest unrecognized micronation, a platform that rests on two concrete towers eighteen metres above the ocean, The Principality of Sealand. It is merely 4000 square metres and has a registered population of 27 as of 2002. As aptly mentioned by ‘The Atlantic’, this micronation highlighted the lawlessness of the oceans.Known as the HM Fort Roughs, it lay abandoned post war and was seized by the Bates family who proclaimed themselves as rulers of the new nation. Several attempts by the British government to dismiss the new occupants were futile as Sealand lay out of its territorial jurisdiction. Any country can only have control over its territorial water beyond which its laws remain invalid. International waters do not belong to any state’s jurisdiction. Many libertarians believe this to be a golden opportunity to free the citizens from the rule of oppressive governments. Members of the Seasteading Institue are optimistic of being able to colonize the high seas in the future. Since the seas offer the advantage of mobility of structures, any citizen unhappy with the functioning of the society could simply row away the structure to join some other society. This will enable the citizens with a freedom of choice, make the governments more competitive and enable better governance.

Principality of Sealand (Soucre :https://ychef.files.bbci.co.uk/976x549/p08j9t35.jpg)

Blue Revolution 29

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 20 Principality of Sealand (Soucre :https://africaclimatereports.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/ Signs-predicting-sea-level-rise-at-Cottesloe-Beach-in-Perth-Australia.-Image-credit-Julie-G-.jpg)

1.4. QUEST FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE The last ice age ended 2.6 million years ago.Every ice age has a glacial period which lasts tens of thousands of years with freezing temperatures and most of earth is covered with kilometres thick ice.The inter glacial period that lasts for a few thousand years follows.Temperatures are much warmer and the ice begins to melt.Theorists believe that we are currently in the interglacial period which will last for a few thousand years and the earth will become cool again.Until then temperature would increase and the sea level would rise. Anthropogenic activity is most often considered the primary cause of global warming. Some suggest that there are six other theories apart from human activity that is causing the temperatures to rise. Some theory might contradict the other. But a common inference can be drawn from all of them. Humanity is looking at a very uncertain future. Places that seem habitable now might not remain the same later. To be able to adapt to drastic conditions in the future, different environments will be needed to explore. A need for making them habitable will arise. Due to increase in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, the average global temperatures have drastically increased in the last century. Nineteen of the hottest years have occurred since 2000, with the exception of 1998. The year 2020 tied with 2016 for the hottest year on record since record-keeping began in 1880 (source: NASA/GISS). From satellite images taken by NASA it can be understood that the changing climate has caused adverse effects. Melting glaciers, rising sea levels, increased flooding, increased droughts, etc. Sea level rise is a result of melting glaciers and average increase in the temperature of the oceans. The global mean sea level is currently rising at a rate of 3.4mm/yr. NASA believes this rate to be accelerating even further. “Sea levels have risen about 8 inches since the beginning of the 20th century. The ocean is projected to rise by as much as 3 feet or more by the end of this century.” - NASA The general thumb rule is that with every 2.5 cm rise in sea level, 2.5 m of beach is lost. Sea level rise is accelerating coastal erosion and destroying natural barriers that protect the coast. By 2050, 90% of the world’s largest cities will be exposed to the rising sea levels.

30 Blue Revolution

Figure 16

Increase in atmospheric CO2 (Soucre :NASA)

Figure 17 :NASA)

Increase in global temperatures over the years (Soucre

Figure 18

Increase in sea level (Soucre :NASA)

Figure 19 Central)

Cities threatened by Sea Level Rise (Soucre :Climate

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

“The area covered by Arctic sea ice at least four years old has decreased from 718,000 square miles (1,860,000 square kilometers) in September 1984 to 42,000 square miles (110,000 square kilometers) in September 2016.”

“Until Hurricane Walaka struck in October 2018, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands included East Island, shown in the September image. But the storm washed away most of the 11 acres of sand and gravel that constituted the island, leaving only two slivers of land, visible in the October image.”.

“These images show eastern Bangladesh before and after unusually severe flooding from monsoon rains. According to a report on Aug. 19, 2020, by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, flooding in Bangladesh damaged some 1.3 million homes, displaced more than 167,000 families, and affected more than 420,000 acres of agricultural land.”

“Abnormally heavy monsoon rains drenched Southeast Asia in August 2018, leading to the worst flooding in Kerala, India, since 1924. The February image shows the region before flooding began. The August image shows the results of the flooding. In both false-color images, water is dark blue and vegetation is bright green” Figure 21

(From top to bottom)Nasa Imges of Change, A. Melting Sea ice, B. Disappearing Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, C.Flooding in Bangladesh, D.Flooding in Kerala (Source - NASA)

Blue Revolution 31

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Several efforts are already underway to combat rising sea levels. But the rate at which the sea rises, the sustainability of these methods is often questioned. Considered as one of the pioneering nations of maritime engineering, the Dutch have conducted tremendous research about floating settlements. As one third of Netherlands already lies below sea level, the Dutch have already started to experiment with structures and communities that live in floating houses on water. Several other nations have begun adapting to floating architecture. In April 2019, UN-Habitat convened a roundtable discussion on how floating cities could be a viable solution to urban challenges such as climate change and affordable housing, where a proposal for the Oceanix city was floated. Architects like Koen Olthius and other think tanks have achieved tremendous success in resolving challenges posed to living on water. With this progress, it is somewhere in the near future that this seed of an idea will germinate to reality.

Figure 22 Methods to deal with rising sea levels (Soucre :https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/ sites/3/2019/10/IPCC-SROCC-CH_4_Box_4_3_figure_1-3000x1124.jpg)

32 Blue Revolution

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

1.5. FUTURE SURVIVAL Mankind has always dreamt of colonizing other planets. In 2017, Stephan Hawking suggested that humanity has 100 years to save itself from apocalyptic situations. Humanity must colonize other planets in space to be able to survive through a catastrophic situation. Setting up a colony in space would have various challenges apart from the ones mankind is currently aware of. Colonizing the oceans could be the first step towards space colonization. To live permanently at sea would also require to adjust to a new environment, only much closer to the current inhabitant. It will help understand the psychological and technical barriers to be able to survive as a self-sustainable community and resolve them much faster compared to those encountered in space. This would help researchers gain practical experience and knowledge to further colonise space. The ‘NEEMO 21’ was a 16-day expedition conducted in 2016 by NASA to train its astronauts for living in extreme and unfamiliar conditions. They were to live 60 feet below the surface of the Atlantic Ocean in Florida International University’s Aquarius Reef Base undersea research habitat 6.2 miles off the coast. The main objective of this mission was to isolate the crew members at the bottom of the ocean to simulate life and work for astronauts in microgravity environments like the International Space Station or in spacecrafts that will travel to unexplored environments. Similar to outer space, mankind is yet completely aware of the ocean bed. Colonizing oceans will also take mankind one step closer to knowing more about the oceans. As most natural disasters such as landslides, earthquakes, volcanic activities, floods and extreme weather conditions are felt at land, the future water habitat could act as a safe haven to avoid such events.

Figure 23 NEEMO training at the bottom of the sea(Source - https://www.ecomagazine.com/images/ Newsletter/0_2016/I33)

Blue Revolution 33

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

1.6. SEASTEADING-IS IT POSSIBLE? There are various technical and logistical issues that need to be resolved in order to coloize the oceans Challenges like waves and tsunamis, energy production, resource management, sustainability need to be dealt with. Tremendous research has also been done to regarding the materials used. Research published by the Sea steading Institute suggests that geo polymer concrete is a material that can be used to make the platforms that float on water and do not corrode easily. Ian Koblick, one of the pioneers of ocean exploration said, “There are no technological hurdles. If you had the money and the need, you could do it today.” (Rachel Nuwer, 2013, Will we ever... live in underwater cities?, BBC). The Seasteading Institute and Ocean Builders built the first floating Sea stead. In an experiment conducted by the two institutes in 2019, a group of people lived on this sea stead until they were chased by the Thai navy and were forced to flee. The aquapreneurs believe that technology isn’t a barrier anymore. It is the political and financial hurdle that needs to be dealt with.

34 Blue Revolution

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 24 First Seastead by the Seasteading Institute and Ocean Builders (Source - https://youtu.be/8bceePdFruU)

Figure 25 First Seastead by the Seasteading Institute and Ocean Builders(Source - https://youtu.be/8bceePdFruU)

Figure 26 Seastead Floating Mechanism (Source - https://youtu. be/8bceePdFruU)

Figure 27

Seastead Interiors (Source - https://youtu.be/8bceePdFruU)

Blue Revolution 35

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 28

Sea Skeyscraper from “The future: An image of the world of tomorrow”,(Source- Gunther Radtke)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

“

COLONIZING CONCEPTS

It took humans more than a century of brainstorming to set up a large-scale aquatic civilization. Planners from the twentieth century had various ideas to build an aquatic city. Authors, film makers and artists had their own versions of the same. Over the years, these ideas evolved with advancement in technology, flexibility of lifestyle, etc. Prototypes of many concepts were successfully executed in the beginning of this century. Some ideas were heavily criticized, while some were highly lauded. Nonetheless, all the concepts helped the society visualise and understand what the sea had to offer. The projects paved way for a sustainable way to realise the future water neighbourhoods. 37

”

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

2.1. PALM JUMEIRAH ISLAND One of the world’s largest manmade island, the Palm Jumeirah is located off the coast of Dubai. The Palm Jumeirah covers 600 hectares of reclaimed land and spans over four to five kilometers. Its construction added 78.6 km to Dubai’s 72 km long coastline. Primarily built for luxury living and leisure, the island has several rows of villas, apartments, hotels and other essential services and currently had a population of 10,500 as of 2016. It is connected to the mainland through a monorail that runs over trunk of the palm shaped island. A crescent shaped break water forms a ring that encircle the islands to protect them from harsh waves. The man-made islands are protected from the harsh waves by a 11.5 km long break water. Instea od using conrete, natural materials like sand and rocks were used. Not only did the choice of materials attract marine life but also promoted the construction of artificial reefs. The outermost layer of the break water is made from rocks that are interlocked together with each rocking weighing up to 6 tons. Since, concrete is not used in the construction, the interlocking arrangement secures the rocks in position. Regular checks are done to look for cracks in the assembly Two 328-foot openings are found in the break water to allow circulation of water between the sea and the protected area around the islands. They prevent water stagnation and allow marine traffic. A bridge over these openings maintains vehicular circulation throughout. 94 million cubic metres of sand was dredged from three barren sea beds in the Persian Gulf. This sand was coarse, dense and resistant to wave impact. Since Dubai lies in an earthquake prone area, the sand was compacted through vibro compaction and thus, prevent liquefaction. Figure 31

Aerial VIew of Palm Island (Source -https://curlytales.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/palm.jpg)

38 Colonising Concepts

Figure 29 Palm Jumeirah Island Plan (Source- https://sites.google. com/site/palmislandsimpact/_/rsrc/1260061285109/general-information/construction-of-the-islands/Picture%201.pngarchitecture)

Figure 30 Land Fill for Palm Island (Source - https://www. iadc-dredging.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/article-case-studydesign-of-palm-island-no-1-dubai-96-05.pdf)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

LILYPAD

Main deck with marina

Artificial Lagoon and Mountain

Lilypad is a floating ecopolis for climate refugees proposed by Vincent Callebaut Architcets. The amphibious city, designed by biomimicking the ribbed leaf the lilypad, is meant to float in the oceans. It has the capacity to accommodate 50,000 inhabitants. It has a central lagoon, completely immersed and is meant to collect and purify rainwater. It has three marinas and three mountain like structures each dedicated for working, shopping and entertainment. The whole set is covered by a stratum of planted housing in suspended gardens and crossed by a network of streets and alleyways with organic outline. The structure’s skin is made with polyester fibres covered by a thin layer of titanium oxide. This enables it to absorb atmospheric pollution by a photocatalytic reaction as it comes in contact with UV rays. The proposal aims to be sensitive towards four important issues climate, biodiversity, water and health. It functions on renewable sources of energy (solar, thermal and photovoltaic energies, wind energy, hydraulic, tidal power station, osmotic energies, Phyto purification, biomass) and claims to produce more energy than it would actually consume.

Aquaculture fields

Network of streets

Collection tank and park

Lilypad

Figure 32 (From top to bottom) -Assembly of Lilypad (Source - https://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/080523_lilypad/hr/lilypad_pl046.jpg)

Figure 33 jpg/)

Lilypad Section (Source- https://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/080523_lilypad/hr/lilypad_pl046.

Colonizing Concepts 39

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

2.2. TRITON CITY - BUCKMINSTER FULLER The concept of sea steading was envisioned by Buckminster Fuller way back in the 1960s. The design initially started as the Tetrahedron City proposed to be located at Tokyo Bay and was commissioned by a Japanese patron called Matsutaro Shoriki. It was later taken over by the United States Department of Urban Development and was proposed to be located near New York. The city was proposed to serve as a satellite community (with a high proportion for residential use), to an existing dense urban set up with the aim to act as solution for overpopulation, improve quality of life while still being a part of the urban fabric and closer to the city centre. The floating city aimed to be flexible in terms of its location, size and rate of growth, range of uses, etc., thus maximising its potential. Fuller had designed the city as a tetrahedron. In his words: “The tetrahedron provides the most possible “outside” living. Its sloping external surface is adequate for all its occupants to enjoy their own private, outside, tiered, terracing, garden homes. These are most economically serviced from the common nearest possible center of volume of all polyhedrons. All the mechanical organics of the floating city are situated low in its hull for maximum stability. All the shopping centers and other commercial service facilities are inside the structure; tennis courts and other facilities are on the top deck.” Study of a Prototype Floating Community,2005

The Triton City was proposed as a prototype to be built off shore a metropolitan area with a high density and harbour with a depth of 30 ft. A population density of about 930 persons (or 300 dwelling units) to the acre in Triton City was proposed. It proposed an incremental growth of the city, which allowed more flexibility. Size of one platform was four acres in area (3 times a football field, 1 field is 1.32 acres) meant for 5000 people. Platform size was chosen on the basis of structural stability, potential for larger open spaces, then technology provided by shipping yards

Figure 35

Proposed Growth of Triton City (Source- Author)

Figure 36 View of Triton City Module (SOURCE -https:// mir-s3-cdn-cf.behance.net/project_modules/1400_ opt_1/81dcca23085683.560475409343e.jpg)

40 Colonising Concepts

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 37

Triton City Master Plan (Source : behance)

Figure 38 Section of a module (Source -https://megaestructuras. tumblr.com/post/189330086413)

Figure 39 (From left to right)A-Ground Floor Plan of a module, BPlan of Commercial Sector (Source -https://megaestructuras.tumblr.com/ post/189330086413)

All residential modules would be connected to town centres and city centres by a network of highways that would pass through the structure at the ground floor. A transportation system consisting of automobiles as well as public transport was adopted. As an incremental growth of the city was planned, it would initially be dependent on the land based city for services such as drainage and water supply, but would later grow to have a fully independent system.

Permissible structural height was derived to be twenty stories for a water depth of 30ft. The ground floor was designed for pedestrian as well as vehicular movement. A highway connecting one module to another would also pass through this floor. The remaining super structure was dedicated for habitable spaces. Three floors which made the sub structure would be used for parking, mechanical

Each module is planned such that residential units are placed at the edge, facing outwards. This allows for a better design of the units and allows all the services to be managed from the periphery. A large central outdoor open space has three service cores. Vertical structural members were places 33.3 ft apart centre to centre and horizontal structural members were placed 27 ft apart. Up to 3 pre-fabricated units would be placed within these

Colonizing Concepts 41

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

2.3. OCEANIX CITY-BIG Oceanix City, a self-sufficient floating city, designed by BIG Architects, was presented at the United Nations Habitat Conference of 2019. It is designed to incorporate UN sustainable development goals in an attempt to create a man-made ecosystem. Meant for a population of 10, 000 people, the city is designed to grow organically over time and scale indefinitely. Each neighbourhood is 2 hectares in area and has been designed to hold a capacity of 300 residents. It is proposed to modular, mobile such that it could be prefabricated and towed to site. Different process in the city, such as growing food, renewable and novel methods of harvesting energy, waste water management, rainwater collection will be integrated into a complex urban metabolism to form a base for planning the city.

Figure 40 Key Principles of Oceanix City (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/bigtheme/css/images/blank.gif) Figure 41 Aerial View of Oceanix City (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/ images/blank.gif)

42 Colonising Concepts

Figure 42 Cyclic Metabolism of Oceanix city (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images/blank.gif)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 44 Program Diversity (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images/blank.gif)

Figure 43 Biorock Reefs (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/ themes/big-theme/css/images/blank.gif)

Figure 45 Freshwater Autonomy (Source-https://img.big.dk/ wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images/blank.gif)

Every platform has structures that are 4- 7 stories tall with varied programs at the lower level and resedential untis at the upper level. The platform edge is designed to function as a communal space. The heart of the neighbourhoud is used for food production as well as a communal space.

The design encourages aqua farming bellow the sub structure. Seaweed, oyester, muller and clams beneath the platform will not only clean the water, but will also help in habitat regeneration. Bio – rock reefs will be arrayed underwater around the water to dissipate wave energy and encourge sea food production.

The substructure is functional with service areas such as water treatment plant, autmobile service centers, food production center by auqaponics and aeroponics, washing centers and energy storage.

Figure 46 Shared Surface Network for slow mobility (Source -https:// img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images/blank.gif)

Colonizing Concepts 43

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

2.4. SEA SCRAPER Sky scrapers are undoubtedly one of the most important innovations of the last century. They have become an important part of the skyline of most urban regions. Over the years, the definition of a skyscraper has altered as every new building soared higher than the previous one. Although these high rises are a solution to make room for more population in an urban area, the traditional sky scrapers have been proved to be extremely energy consuming and contribute to an unsustainable future. A Malaysian architect, Ar.Sarly Adre Bin Sarkum envisioned a floating sea scraper with different blue – green technologies to make it more sustainable than the traditional skyscraper .Sarkum’s design received an honourable mention in the eVolo’s Skyscraper competition conducted in 2010. The 250 (approx.) m deep structure remains stable using a system of ballast and balancing tanks. It is placed at the lowermost portion to keep the building upright. The bioluminescent tentacles also contribute towards structural stability The hO2+ water scraper is planned to be self-sustainable with different functions places in accordance to the depth of the structure. The uppermost level, just above the water surface hosts functions related to energy generation and resource production. It generates its own power through wave, wind, current, solar and bio etc and food through farming, aquaculture and hydroponics. The top of the structure also acts as a roof garden. The areas to live, work and play are located just below the water where they receive natural light. The balancing tanks and research laboratories are located one below the other at the lowermost part of the structure

Figure 47

(From left to right) Design of a Seascraper (Source -https://www.evolo.us/water-scraper-underwater)

44 Colonising Concepts

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

2.5. FREEDOM SHIP INTERNATIONAL Any cruise ship functions as if it were a city on sea. The Freedom Ship International is a based on a similar version of this idea. It is a flat-bottomed barge with a conventional high-rise built on top. The ship acts as a whole city in itself equipped with all the infrastructure a traditional city enjoys like schools, parks, malls, hospitals, etc. The floating city would continuously circle the world and would travel to most of Earth’s coastal regions. With a design length of 4,500 feet, a width of 750 feet, and a height of 350 feet, Freedom Ship would be as big as a mile long stretch of 25 storey tall buildings in New York. The ship would be constructed for a population of 100,000 people comprised of 40,000 residents, 20,000 full time crew, 30,000 daily visitors, and 10,000 overnight guests to the hotel and casino. Freedom Ship will be built on top of 520 airtight steel cells that will be bolted together to form a sturdy base. Each cell will be 80 feet (24 meters) tall, between 50 and 100 feet (15 and 30 m) wide and between 50 and 120 feet (15 and 37 m) long. These cells will be assembled to form larger units that are about 300 x 400 feet (91 x 122 m). These larger units will then be taken out to sea, where they will be put together to form the ship’s nearly mile-long base.

Figure 48 (From left to right A)-Elevation of Freedomship International, B- Airport located on the topmost deck, C&D- Atrium of the ship, E- Port at the rear end of the ship available for dry docking (Source -http://freedomship.com/freedom-ship-gallery)

Colonizing Concepts 45 SOURCE -http://freedomship.com/freedom-ship-gallery/

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

2.6. AEQUOREA Aequorea, the brain child of Vincent Callebaut Architects, is floating city concept of semi-submersible multi use ocean scrapers printed in 3D from garbage. The city is set up in 2065, where humanity is believed to have successfully urbanised the oceans in a sustainable manner, produces energy self-sufficiently, recycles all waste, and fights ocean acidification. The shift to water happened as nearly 250 million climate refugees saw their land being engulfed in water and get salinized. The ocean scrapers are built on the concept of biomimicry of a jellyfish. The structure is proposed to made out of a plastic collected from the ocean. It is mized with algae jelly to make filaments which would be used to 3D print the structure. The structure follows principles of biomimicry. Blue carbon wells shaped in the form of twisted towers 1000 m deep are used to fix calcium carbonate contained in water to form an external shell (calcification). Aragonite (which has a high carbon component) is used for the construction of transparent facades. Materials like mussel protein would be synthesised to make glue that remains effective underwater. Apartment partitions would be made from chitin synthesised from lobster shells.

LOCATION : The 5 Ocean Gyres and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil HOUSING SURFACE AREA : 1.375.000 m² DIMENSIONS : 500 meters width, 1000 meters depth, 250 floors (1/4 for permaculture and agro-ecology) PROGRAM : 10 000 housing (between 25 & 250m²), fab labs, offices, coworking spaces, workshops, scientific basis, sea farms, organic agriculture, community orchards and food gardens, phytopurification lagoons, coral gardens, etc.

Figure 49 Location of Ocean Gyres (Source -https://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/151223_aequorea/thumb/aequorea_pl002.jpg)

Figure 50 View of Aequorea above and below the surface of water (Source -https://vincent.callebaut.org/ static/projects/151223_aequorea/thumb/aequorea_pl002.jpg)

SOURCE -https://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/151223_aequorea/thumb/aequorea_pl047.jpg

46 Colonising Concepts

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 51 Aerial View of Aequorea (Source -https://vincent.callebaut. org/static/projects/151223_aequorea/thumb/aequorea_pl041.jpg)

Each Aequorea village can welcome up to 20,000 aquanauts. Their main access is on the water surface, through four marinas covered with a mangrove rooted on a floating dome 500 meters (1640 feet) in diameter. Modular living, co-working spaces, fab labs, recycling plants, science labs, educational hotels, sports fields, aquaponic farms and phyto-purification lagoons stack up layer by layer. The twisting of the towers is ultra-resistant to hydrostatic pressure. Its geometry allows it to fight marine whirlpools and thus reduce motion sickness. Its double shell accommodates the ballasting. Once filled with seawater, the ballasts lower the Aequorea’s center of gravity to counteract the Archimedean buoyancy. They guarantee stability in the event of a storm or an earthquake. The double shell’s thickness increases from the sea surface downwards, to compensate for the strain caused by the increase in pressure. (Vincent Callebaut

Food is produced by growing algae, plankton and mollusks rich in minerals, protein and vitamins. Coral is harvested on balconies. On the surface, the four large floating conch-like structures house community horticultural greenhouses, organic farming fields, orchards and vegetable gardens. Cleaning ship inspired by klein bottles Marinas Discs housing common amenities An Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion power plant is located in the central axis of the structures which uses the difference in temperature of water at different levels to continuously produce electrical energy. Potable and fresh water Air is renewed either naturally by convection through wind chimneys innervating the four branches of each tower’s twist, or by the oxygen station via seawater electrolysis. Scientific base A field of turbines which converts sea currents to energy Figure 52 Schematic section of a module(Source-https://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/151223_ aequorea/thumb/aequorea_pl063.jpg)

Colonizing Concepts 47

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

2.7. SEA STEADING CITY The Seasteading Institute is one of the pioneering organisations conducting research related to floating cities. They commissioned the Dutch aquatic architecture firm, Delta Sync to design and do a feasibility study for the future floating city. The main objectives identified by Delta Sync were: movability, dynamic geography, growth, seakeeping, safety, and water experience. A hollow box made of steel reinforced concrete measuring 50m X 50m would be used as a platform. A secondary pentagon shaped platform, with each side measuring 50 m would also be used. The size 25 selected provides enough space for one or two rows of three-story buildings, with the rest of the space reserved for terraces, walkways, and ground level gardens. The urban configuration was decided with the aim to make the arrangement flexible, adaptable, stable and such that it could be protected by a circular break water.Most suitable way to arrange these platforms would be as induvial island connected by a bridge or a jetty or multiple smaller islands in branched manner having a hinged connection. This allows the easy connection and disjunction of platforms from each other, thus offering flexibility. The city would be protected by a break water and moored the sea floor. (Mooring system is dependent on the local bathymetry). The city could be moved to a safer location with the help of tug boats or semi submersibles in case of storms or due to political reasons.

Figure 55 Multiple configuration of platforms (Source -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014)

48 Colonising Concepts

Figure 53 Design Considerations for a platform (Source -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014)

Figure 54 Structural Design of a floating Platform (Source-The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 56 Temporary Displacement of City in case of unfavourable conditions (Source -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014)

The floating city is planned to gradually grow into water. The first prototype would be located in the shallow coastal waters in bay (which acts a natural breakwater to protect the city) and would eventually expand into the sea, away from the coast. Semi submersibles and artificial breakwaters would be best suited for the later expansion. The city would initial be dependant on the nearest coastal city. Once it grows sizeably, it would produce its own fresh water by desalination and other resources. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) would be used to produce electricity and desalinate water. Other energy producing options could be solar cells, algae biofuel and osmotic power.

Figure 57 Proposed growth of an independent floating city (Source -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014)

Colonizing Concepts 49

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Worldwide, a vast amount of nutrients is discharged into the oceans. These nutrients can be used to produce food or algae. Part of the supply may be recycled from human waste, which at the same time would prevent pollution of the environment.

Figure 58 noaa.gov)

Level of chlorophyll around the world (Source -vos.

Present day urban centres have a linear metabolism. Raw materials, energy, nature is used by the people and converted into waste products which are disposed without any consideration of the environmental effects. The cyclicity however proposes a floating city with a circular metabolism.

The output of the growing land-based city becomes an input for the floating city. It uses nutrients from the sewage and agricultural waste to grow algae and produce food and bio fuel. Floating algae and seaweed farms could be constructed within the seastead. Food could also be produced by aquaponics.

Figure 59 Linear vs circular metabolism (SOURCE -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014)

Figure 60 Circular metabolism in a flaoting city and land based city(SOURCE -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014)

Floating algae and seaweed farms could be constructed within the seastead. Food could also be produced by aquaponics.

Figure 61 Services in a typical floating house (SOURCE -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014)

50 Colonising Concepts

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

2.8. OCEAN SPIRAL CITY The Ocean Spiral City visualised by Shimzu Corporation is a deep-sea future city concept. The main aim of the proposal is to sustainably unlock the full potential of the deep sea by establishing a connection between the air, surface of the water, deep sea and the sea floor. The deep sea city is proposed to solve five of the current crisis related to– food, water, energy, carbon dioxide and natural resources,Its proposed location is in the exclusive economic zone of countries or ocean of an ocean island nation or in the ocean of a desert region. The city is designed to be able to sustain in areas that are 3,000 to 5,000 m deep. The base camp of the city is a 500-meter diameter orb with controlled indoor conditions and can move along the vertical axis above and below the surface of water. It is proposed to be a safe city, unaffected by typhoons or earthquakes. Architectural variations for an orb that is 500 m in diameter as well 200 metres in diameter have been proposed.

Figure 62

Interior view of orb (SOURCE -https://www.shimz.co.jp/en/topics/dream/content01/pdf/oceanspiral.pdf)

Colonizing Concepts 51

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 63 Schematic section of Ocean Spiral City (SOURCE -https://www.shimz.co.jp/en/topics/dream/content01/pdf/oceanspiral.pdf)

52 Colonising Concepts

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 64 Materials used in a single panel (SOURCE -https://www. shimz.co.jp/en/topics/dream/content01/pdf/oceanspiral.pdf)

With an anticipated population of 5,000 (4000 permanent residents and 1000 residents), the central region hosts functions such as hotels, offices, apartments, research laboratories, etc. Resources and energy would be harvested from the deep sea itself. Electricity would be generated by the process of ocean thermal energy conversion. Food would be produced by using deep sea water to cultivate plants. Fresh water would be obtained by desalinating sea water. Deep sea submarines would be used for transportation. A new business model would emerge to include the opportunities that deep sea would provide. The infra spiral that lies below the orb would be used to transport people, store and transfer resources from the deep sea.

Figure 65 Vertical movement of the orb(SOURCE -https://www.shimz. co.jp/en/topics/dream/content01/pdf/oceanspiral.pdf)

Figure 66 SOURCE -Zoning in the orb (Source - https://www.shimz.co.jp/en/ topics/dream/content01/pdf/oceanspiral.pdf)

Colonizing Concepts 53

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

TYPOLOGY Land Reclamation

PROS -

Settlement Near the Coast Offshore Floating Platform -

Ships

It is a practiced and technically and logistically developed method of expanding into the sea. Straightforward solution to problems like overpopulation in a city Adds more space to overcrowded cities A physical connection with water can be established

CONS -

Fixed in one position and will not be affected by movement of waves Physical connection with water can be established

Not resilient to hurricanes and sea level rise Requires a breakwater

Needs an additional breakwater. Natural growth of marine life can be found on the lowermost portion of the Physical connection with water can be established

Needs to be moored in a place Not resilient to hurricanes Needs an additional break water system to achieve calmer waves around the structure Weight distribution while planning the inner layout needs to be considered

Integrated wave protection

Semi Submersibles

Not resilient to perpetual sea level rise Disrupts native marine ecology Affects the wave pattern Risky in earthquake prone areas Land reclaimed by dredging is prone to sinking A reclaimed parcel of land is not resilient to increasing population and its growing needs Promotes marine urban sprawl Requires a breakwater

Does not necessarily require a breakwater as both the platform and the base remain less affected by wave action Defunct oil rigs could be used for the same

Higher energy consumption Needs regular maintenance A ship always needs to be motion to achieve protection Causes swell Difficult to establish a physical connection with water Offers less flexibilty Only visually connected to the sea Difficult to establish a physical connection with water

Sea scrapers

Physical connection with water can be established

Requires an additional breakwater system

Underwater Colony

Not affected by natural disasters such as tsunamis, hurricanes, earthquakes, landslides, etc which would be a threat to civilization on land Opportunity to conduct research and gain knowledge about the oceans bed Physical connection with water can be established Protected from wave action

More research and development is needed for a large population to survive under water in harmony with the existing marine ecosystem. Technical and logistical issues related to pressure differences, oxygen availability, light penetration, etc. need to be fully resolved Sense of isolation could cause psychological discomfort

Table1

Design typologies for expansion into water (Source - author)

54 Colonising Concepts

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

The primary focus is on possibility of designing independent settlements in the sea. Of all the typologies discussed, land reclamation and settlements on stilts would be unviable typologies. It would be highly unsustainable to dredge the sand and create more artificial islands which would not be resilient to rising sea levels. Settlements on stilts will be restricted to shallow waters. Hence a broader category can be derived from the above typologies: 1. Floating neighbourhood above the surface of water – This typology mainly consists of floating platforms and semi-submersible structures like oil rigs. The neighbourhoods are stationary and the city grows horizontally, above the surface of water. 2. Partially submerged floating neighbourhoods – This typology consists of sea scrapers that make up a neighbourhood which expands vertically, above as well as below the surface of water. Multiple such neighbourhoods make the floating city. The city has the potential to grow horizontally as well as vertically. 3. Moving city – This typology is more of a city on a ship idea. Scale of the city is much smaller compared to the other typologies as the dimensions of the structure are restricted. 4. Permutations and combinations of the abovementioned typologies

Colonizing Concepts 55

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 67

Water as a human habitat (Source - https://www.unchartedbackpacker.com/a-journey-into-bajau-laut-the-sea-gypsies-of-borneo/)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

WATER AS A HUMAN HABITAT

“

To some, the ideas of inhabiting the oceans did seem a little daunting at first. But as Albert Einstein had said, “If at first an idea isn’t absurd, there is no hope for it.” A fraction of humans had already made the sea their home. A few primitive communities had been living on water for hundreds of years. Living permanently on land seemed to be very strange for them. They had completely adapted their way of life to the sea. Experiments and research led to the emergence of floating neighbourhoods in Amsterdam, Seattle, Copenhagen and a few others which were a modern adaptation of life on water. A very small percentage of the population who worked at ships already had immense experience of living at sea. Several other island communities as well were socio- culturally and economically dependent on the sea.

”

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

3.1. BAJAUS Sometimes known as “sea nomads,” the Bajau have lived at sea for more than 1,000 years, on small houseboats that float in the waters off Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. Traditionally, they came ashore only to trade for supplies or to shelter from storms. They collect their food by free diving to depths of more than 230 feet. They have no wet suits or flippers, and use only wooden goggles and spearguns of their own making. Sometimes, they rupture their own eardrums at an early age to make diving easier.(The Atlantic, 2018) The traditional Bajaus were sea nomads. Over the years many groups of the tribe started to settle at the coast in search of better economic opportunities. The tribe has adapted its way of life to suit the sea. Their lifestyle, structures, habits are all meant to live with the sea and not against it. Over the years, their spleen has developed genetically which helps them hold their breath underwater for several mintures. The tribe has several groups located in the Indonesian islands. The case study is about a specific group located in the Omadal island.

Figure 68 Traditional Bajau tribesmen can hold their breath underwater for more than 13 minutes. (Source-https://miro.medium.com/max /1400/0*lXUPEaBtVpQCjlXe.jpg)

Figure 69 Location of the Bajau Tribe(SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditional_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses)

Figure 70

A typical Bajau village ( Source - https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/556a/0b35/e58e/ce37/8c00/008e/large_jpg/shutterstock_274477811.jpg?1433013041)

58 Water as a Human Habitat

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

THE DWELLING The Bajaus usually settle near the coast for a brief period of time. A traditional house is a semi - temporary structure on stilts built on the shallow seabed to suit their nomadic lifestyle. Materials easily available at the coast such as bamboo, wood, coconut tree trunk, etc. are used. The houses are designed in a minimalistic manner. Indoor space is a multifunctional open area without any partitions where sleeping and living areas combine. The use of this space changes with household needs. A smaller private area is often attached to this space. The kitchen is always placed at the back of the house. The most important part of any Bajau household is a veranda like open space which is formed by a platform that stretches out from the enclosed space. It is used to accommodate guests, wash clothes, socialise, store fishes and sometimes is also used as a sleeping area. A small ladder that arises from the water below is connected to this veranda and serves as the entrance to the house.

Figure 71

Components of Bajau House(SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditional_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses)

Water as a Human Habitat 59

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

THE NEIGHBOURHOOD The Bajaus settlements today can be found in various typologies. The different typologies were formed as the tribe started to settled permanently at the coast and their lifestyle became more sedentary.

Figure 72 House typology of the Bajaus (Source - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316451853_ Transformed_Seabed_of_the_Sama_Bajau)

The settlement is sustained largely by fishing activities with very little affiliation to the land based resources as it is only limited to the farming of cassava, turmeric, citrus and other small scale farming. They settle at a coast for a brief period of time and eventually venture into the sea. The coast is selected depending on the availability of resources and places to bury their dead. The Bajaus prefer communal living over privacy. In many of the Bajau clusters, a toilet or a kitchen space is often shared between multiple houses. A large veranda connects multiple houses to form a cluster. A house typically expands as the family grows or due to improvements in financial conditions or to store procurements from the sea.In some cases, the house simply extends in area, while in other cases units are added to the existing units to form clusters

Figure 75 A typical Bajau houseboat (SOURCE -https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/556a/0bc3/e58e/cea4/d100/0096/large_jpg/ shutterstock_198733568.jpg?1433013182)

Figure 76 A Bajau House on stilts (SOURCE -https://images.adsttc. com/media/images/556a/0bde/e58e/ce37/8c00/0091/large_jpg/ shutterstock_145349488.jpg?1433013210)

Figure 73 Evolution of a typical house into a cluster (SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditiontal_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses)

On the macro scale, there is no clear geometric order as the settlement grows organically. Instead, it is determined by the familial ties and the livelihood of the occupants.

Figure 77 A Bajau Neighborhood (SOURCE -https://images.adsttc. com/media/images/556a/0ff0/e58e/cea4/d100/0099/large_jpg/shutterstock_176985272.jpg?1433014252)

Figure 78 Verandah of a Bajau House (SOURCE -https://www.tfod. in/UserProfileImages/ArticleImage/VAw4SCXs3d31b5f3_2.jpg)

Figure 74 Plan of a Bajau neighbourhood (SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditional_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses)

60 Water as a Human Habitat

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

3.2. THE WORLD-RESIDENTIAL CRUISE

Figure 79 Living room in an apartment in The World (SOURCE https://aboardtheworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/studio-residence_528x371.jpg)

Figure 80 Bedroom in an apartment in The World (SOURCE - https:// aboardtheworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/studio-residence_528x371.jpg)

“The World: a floating city of millionaires” (CNN Traveller,2017,The World: a floating city of millionaires) is the world’s only fully residential cruise ship. The genesis of this idea emerged due to the concept of travelling without leaving home. As of 2017, the ship has visited 1,213 ports and sailed 641,000 nautical miles. The 644 feet has 165 luxury apartments and the vessel covers all basic needs and is equipped with luxurious amenities. Although luxurious, the size of each apartment does get limited. The residence though functions as good as any other apartment on land. Most residents are those who have retired and live on the ship for at least 6 months every year. Owing to the scale of the neighbourhood, the residential community is quite closely knit and every decision related to the route, food, etc. is collectively taken by the residents. A cruise ship can often be considered as a mini city at sea. It hosts a wide range of activites and hundreds of passengers and staff. Although often meant for luxurious living, ships are the earliest prototypes which make the idea of living at sea seem plausible. In the current scenario, cruise ships are not entirely independent. They are dependent on land for food, water, fuel, maintenance, waste disposal, etc. Fresh water is often obtained by using desalination during voyages. STPs, anaerobic and aerobic digestors deal with the solid waste. Grey water is treated and often discharged into the sea. Use of disposable items is avoided to generate lesser waste. One of the biggest criticism received by the cruise ship industry is the amount of crude oil consumed. In recent times, cleaner sources of energy are being opted for.

Figure 81 3bhk apartment in The World (SOURCE - https:// aboardtheworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/three-bedroom_528x371.jpg)

Figure 82 The World - Residential Cruise (SOURCE - https://www. falmouthpacket.co.uk/resources/images/11408673/)

Water as a Human Habitat 61

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

3.3. FLOATING COMMUNITIES IN AMSTERDAM Located in Amsterdam, lies the Ijburg, a residential neighbourhood currently under construction. It is being built by reclaiming land from the IJmeer lake and consists of multiple islands of which Haveneiland, Rieteilanden, Steigereiland and Centrumeiland are already inhabited as of 2004. Figure 83 Earth)

Satellite View of Floating Communities (SOURCE -Google

1.Haveneisland West The western jetty of Haveneiland is docked with 34 houseboats. Each of them has been converted from a barge and offers up to 200 sq m of living spaces.

Toilet Bedroom 1 Bedroom 2 Bedroom 3 Deck Area Lounge Kitchen and Dining Entrance Bedroom 4

Figure 84 Drawings of a Houseoat in Haveneisland(From left to right) A-Lower Level Plan of a houseboat, B-Upper Level Plan C- Section of a houseboat (SOURCE -https://www.ana.nl/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Woonschip-VC)

62 Water as a Human Habitat

Figure 85 Key plan (SOURCE -https://www.ana.nl/ wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Woonschip-VC)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

2.STEIGEREISLAND ISLAND FLOATING HOUSES – WATERBURT

Of all the islands Ijburg, Steigereisland is the one which has adopted a very experimental approach of living with water. It houses the floating community of Waterburt Waterburt itself has two types of developments – • Waterburt East – It consists of individual houses, designed and executed by individual private owners. Each house can have a maximum width of 7 m and maximum length of 10m. According to the rules, it could be as high as 7.5m above the water and 1.5 m deep. 20% of the plot has to be open water and cannot be covered. Each house provides a living space of 150 sq m. The base is made of concrete and filled with air which allows the structure to float. It is also occupational and acts as a semi storey.

Figure 86 Key plan of Waterburt East (SOURCE -Floating Amsterdam, Ontwikkelingscombinatie Waterbuurt West and Projectbureau IJburg of the Municipality of Amsterdam) Figure 87

• Waterburt West – It is a mixeduse development and consists of modular houses that have been designed by Dutch architect Marlies Rohmer. 3 houses are on stilts, 17 on dikes, 55 are floating. Water, dikes and jetties act as a public space and the building along the dikes hosts shops, offices and other essential services. The density is nearly 100 homes per hectare. A car park is located in a building that can be accessed from the main street. Similar to Waterburt East, houses have a concrete base which allows the structure to float and is occupational.

Figure 88 Waterburt West Site Plan and typical house (SOURCE -https://rohmer.nl/projects/ waterwoningen-ijburg/)

Water as a Human Habitat 63

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Each house of the Waterburt community gets access to its own services that run along the underside of the jetties. The jetties are the only direct connection to land and hence act as fire escape routes each with a width of 3m. They are free from vehicular access and also serve as a communal space.

Figure 89 Services in a floating house (SOURCE -https://www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/uploads/drijvend-wonen-stei-DSC_2548-950x372.jpg,Edited by author)

Figure 90

Jetty as a communal space (SOURCE -https://youtu.be/tEBQyg-vtqY,edited by author)

Figure 91 (From left to right) A-Houses moored to poles (SOURCE --https://rohmer.nl/projects/waterwoningen-ijburg/); B - Detail of connection (SOURCE - https://www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/uploads/ drijvend-wonen-stei-DSC_2548-950x372.jpg)

Figure 92

Waterburt West (https://youtu.be/tEBQyg-vtqY)

SOURCE -https://rohmer.nl/projects/waterwoningen-ijburg/

64 Water as a Human Habitat

The houses remain stable as they are attached to two steel pipes located at the opposite end of the building. This connection also allows them to move vertically. They are also located in calm waters protected by dikes. The houses were built in a shipyard 70 km away from the site and floated to site. The dimensions are restricted to be able to pass through the opening in the dikes.

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

3.4. CONCLUSION

Figure 93 Site plan of Waterburt Community (SOURCE -Floating Amsterdam, Ontwikkelingscombinatie Waterbuurt West and Projectbureau IJburg of the Municipality of Amsterdam)

Figure 94 Plan of a Bajau neighbourhood (SOURCE -https://www. researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_ Traditional_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses)

Figure 95 Plan of a Bajau House (SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditional_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses)

The Bajaus Community and the Waterburt community of Amsterdam have completely different lifestyles. While the former has a mostly nomadic and a more primal lifestyle, the latter is more developed and is a part of the urban society. The Bajau houses are more scattered. The water on which they live is more an integral part of their life. It is a source of their livelihood, acts a communal space and a playground for the kids. They are connected to the sea emotionally, visually, socio - culturally and in a very tangible manner. Their connection to land is quite minimal. The modern and urbanised Waterburt community on the other hand is less dependent on water. Their connection to water is limited to visual comfort and occasional recreational aspects. The lifestyle is such that a need for a defined direct connection to land arises. This difference can be seen in the neighbourhood. In the Waterburt community, each is house is connected to a jetty, which establishes a direct connection to land and to other houses. This jetty also serves as a communal space. In the Bajau community, a ladder from each house or cluster directly enters to the water below. Residents either climb on boat or walk through the water. The growth of the neighbourhood is also affected. While the Bajau will have a more organic growth, the Waterburt community will grow in a planned manner. The difference in lifestyle can also be seen in the basic formation of their dwelling. In the case of the Bajaus, their dwellings do not have partitions. It is an enclosed free flowing space, with a small private area. More attention is given to the open space outside the dwelling. This space has a multifunctional character. It is used as a resting space, communal space, washing, collecting and storing fishes,etc. and is preferred by them as it is more connected to the sea. In the case of the Waterburt community, more emphasis is given to the indoor quality of the space. The planning is similar to any other dwelling on land. It can be concluded that the lifestyle pattern and the degree of dependency and interaction with water dictates the planning of the neighbourhood and in some cases vice versa. This brings up the question - HOW WOULD MANKIND BE DEPENDENT ON WATER IN THE FUTURE AQUATIC NEIGHBOURHOODS?

Figure 96 Plan of a Waterburt House (SOURCE -SOURCE -https:// rohmer.nl/projects/waterwoningen-ijburg/)

Water as a Human Habitat 65

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 97

Oceanix City (SOURCE -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images/, Edited by author)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

10. CHANGING PARADIGMS

“

One of the biggest criticisms faced by the future water city proposals was, that in an attempt to design something for the future, the organic nature of the then cities had been often neglected. Cities built for the sake of progress without any consideration given to their humanistic nature would eventually end up into ghost towns. “One cannot make architecture without studying the condition of life in the city.” (Aldo Rossi). A city designed on land could not be exactly replicated on water. If they were designed in a similar manner, they would face the same fate that the land-based cities were facing. Accepting water as an alternative habitat of the human society would call for a lot of changes. Humans have been pragmatic enough to adapt to change. It was therefore important to study the manner in which this change would be accepted and to study its future consequences.

”

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

4.1. INNOVATION AND TECHNOLOGY Although colonization of the oceans does seem like a probable future, mankind would face challenges right from the beginning. To be able to function as a self-sustainable and independent aquatic community, innovative solutions for fulfilling fundamental needs such as food, energy, fresh water, etc. would be required. Present day conventional systems might either not be practical or might not be sufficient and sustainable options. In the case of Oceanix City by BIG Architects, energy is harvested from conventional renewable sources such as the wind and the sun as well-advanced methods that involve harvesting energy from waves, or the difference in temperature at varying depths in the ocean (OTEC), algae bioreactors and aeroponics. Closed loop processes, turn waste into energy, food, recycles material, harvest water and reuse water. Bio rock is used to make artificial coral reefs which aids in habitat regeneration. Biorock applies safe extremely low voltage direct current trickle charge to steel structures of any size or shape which prevents corrosion and grows solid limestone rock in seawater that is two to three times stronger than ordinary concrete. Coral reefs made of biorock survive severe bleaching events, and rapidly regenerate reefs and fisheries. Floating Biorock reefs filter and clean polluted coastal waters. This provides with an opportunity for ocean farming as well. Advancement in the field of research and technology and changes in the way basic needs are managed would bring about functional, spatial, economic and cultural alterations in the lifestyle.

Figure 98

Oceanix City Section (SOURCE -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images/blank.gif)

68 Changing Paradigm

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 99 Resource management systems (Top to Bottom) A-Energy Systems, B- Closed Loop Water System, C-Food System, D-Waste System (SOURCE -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images/blank.gif)

Changing Paradigm 69

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

4.2. TRANSPORT Transport is an essential part of any city’s infrastructure. A city’s growth is directly related to the efficiency of its transportation system. Although a broader classification of the modes of transport remains similar, the means of transport could often be city specific. Be it gondolas in the canals of Venice, trams in Europe or aerial tramways in mountain cities, the means of transport selected are a result of the city’s character. Owing to the difference in the physical nature of the future water cities, current transportation systems cannot be completely replicated. Hence a need for analysing the availability of means of transportation for the floating city arises. Since the floating cities will have an organic growth and will be flexible, construction of a permanent physical connection (such as a roadway or tram) between two neighbourhoods could be avoided. Hence, use of automobiles and trams remains limited to use within the neighbourhood. In case of partially submerged neighbourhoods use of submersibles and new means of transport for vertical circulation could be developed. Therefore, a developed version of the current transportation systems incorporating new modes of transportation could be used in the future water cities.

Figure 100 Aerial tramway used in hilly regions to avoid construction of a roadway that connects to the hill top. (SOURCEhttps://media.tacdn. com/media/attractions-splice-spp-674x446/0b/27/89/b8.jpg)

Figure 101 Ice boats are used in one of Wisconsin’s islands when the ice isn’t too thick to act as a driveway but thick enough to not let ferries pass through.(SOURCEhttps://d36tnp772eyphs.cloudfront.net/ blogs/1/2019/05/Ashland-Fire-Department.jpg)

From the case studies discussed previously, three categories were considered for the study. 1. Floating neighbourhood above the surface of water 2. Partially submerged floating neighbourhoods 3. Moving city

Figure 102 Colour box)

70 Changing Paradigm

Gondolas are used in the narrow canals in Venice.(Source-

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Floating Neighbourhoods that above the surface of water

Partially submerged floating neighbourhoods

City on a ship

Conceptual Plan

Conceptual section

Means of transport within a neighbourhood

Personal:

• • • • •

• • •

•

Private boats Bicycle Hydrofoil Bicycles On foot Limited use of automobiles

Public: • • • •

Trams Sail boats Water taxis Electric automobiles

Private boats Bicycle Hydrofoil Bicycles On foot Limited use of automobiles

• •

Personal:

• •

• • •

Boats Private Jets

Public: • • • •

Trams Ferries Water taxis Regional Aircrafts/ Helicopters

Public: • • Table2

Considering the size of the ship, public transport won’t be required

Boats Private Jets Submersibles

Public: • • • • •

Means of Personal: transport between • Limited use of neighbourhoods boats on water and cities • Limited use of on land private jets

•

Trams Sail boats Water taxis Limited use of cabs Elevators for vertical transportation

•

Means of transport within multiple neighbourhoods

Public:

Public: • • • •

On foot

Trams Ferries Water taxis Regional Aircrafts/ Helicopters Submersibles

Personal: • •

Limited use of boats Limited use of private jets

•

The structure itself is mobile and will travel to land

Public: Ferries Aircrafts

• • •

Ferries Aircrafts Submersibles

Transportation systems in an aquatic neighborood (Source - author)

Changing Paradigm 71

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Sustainability in transportation usually refers to the contribution to the sustainable development of a community that has and uses a certain system (Jha et al., 2014; Martins et al., 2019). Sustainable mobility in floating cities could be achieved through a mixed-mode of electric-shared and connected transportation systems. The city could be connected through different loops where different approaches of mobility can be adopted. For instance, the neighbourhood loops and village loops that may have a distance of 500–1000 m could be travelled through walking. Similarly, the bicycle could be used to travel on civic loops that may have a total distance of up to 3 km. Electric boats may be utilised in the water loops of certain distances. Electric boats, electric cars and even drones could be utilised for deliveries (Umar T (2020) Making future floating cities sustainable: a wayforward) Similar loops have been proposed in the Oceanix City propsal by BIG Architects.

Figure 103 Mixed modes of electric shared and connected mobility (SOURCE -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images)

Figure 105

Mobility Network (SOURCE -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images)

72 Changing Paradigm

Figure 104 Floating Resident’s mode share(SOURCE -https://img.big. dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

4.3. TRADE AND COMMERCE The origin of trade dates back to the prehistoric times when goods were exchanged and modern-day currency was not invented. Since then, the manner in which trade happens has constantly evolved and would continue to do so in the future. Due to numerous innovations in technology and multiple resources that aquatic cities would offer, they could hold a significant position in trade and commerce. A symbiotic relationship between cities on land and aquatic cities could exist. The ‘Cyclic City’ proposal by Delta Sync explores this symbiotic relationship between the two, where goods are not the only things exchanged. Nutrient rich waste from the current land-based cities, that is currently drained into the sea would be reused as a raw material by the cyclic city to make algae i.e., produce food and bio fuel. A majority of today’s megacities originated near rivers or harbours and initially developed as a port city. These cities were located strategically at the junction of trade routes. Even today global trade largely happens through sea routes. The aquatic cities could therefore be located strategically, such that they offer an interim halt in the current trading routes. They could also replace the current land-based cities which may not be able to sustain sea level rise and develop as new trading centres. Trade and commerce would also play a huge role in the growth of the aquatic cities. A report on floating cities by Delta Sync, states that the commercial and tourism sector would be responsible for attracting early citizens to large scale floating developments.

Figure 106

Cyclic City (SOURCE -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014)

Changing Paradigm 73

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

4.4. PUBLIC SPACES Public spaces are of utmost importance in the city’s fabric, especially a new aquatic city that would be separated from the other land-based cities. The manner in which a public space is shaped, affects the sense of security and sense of community. It is therefore important to interpret the new public spaces. While some public places are consciously designed to serve a function, most are often formed organically as a result of the social fabric of a neighbourhood. Public spaces in a city take various spatial forms. Their nature varies with scale, function, time, location, etc. It is therefore important to understand the changes encountered in public spaces of different types and at different stages in the urban fabric. For the study, the current innovations in marine public spaces and possible public spaces have been analysed at three different levels – local, neighbourhood and at the city level.

Figure 111 Geithoorn - The Village with no roads (Source - https:// static.boredpanda.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/water-village-no-roads-canals-giethoorn-netherlands-3.jpg)

In the case of Typology 1 – Neighbourhoods above the surface of water, two scenarios can be formed Figure 112 Amphawa Floating market(SOURCE - https://www. outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/public/uploads/filemanager/images/ Amphawa-market-canal.jpg)

Figure 107 Scenario 1- Neighbourhood is planned on smaller platforms and consists of smaller blocks connected through bridges and divided by a network of water bodies. (Source - Author)

Figure 108 Scenario 2- Neighbourhood is planned on a larger platform (Source - author)

Figure 113

Canal Edge (SOURCE - istock)

In Scenario 1, the city would essentially function as a current day canal city. A network of water bodies could function as streets. Activities knit along this network could resemble the public spaces that today are formed along the streets.

Figure 109

Typical current day street (Source - author)

74 Changing Paradigm

Figure 110

Typical water street in the aquatic city.(SOURCE - author)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 114

Activities along the street – A market (Source - author)

Figure 115

Activities along the water street– A floating market (Source - Author)

The structures connecting two or more floating parcels of land would be significant. For example, bridges connecting the floating platforms could be multi-functional and serves as parks, event spaces, etc.

Figure 116

Mur Island, Graz (Source-https://i.imgur.com/DxFA0bl.jpg)

Figure 120

Figure 117 Copenhagen harbour bath, Bjarke Ingles Architects -( Source arch daily, https://www.theacademybydhi.com/-/media/shared%20content/ global/news/2018/06/visit%20copenhagen.jpg?h=394&w=700&la=en)

Liminal Spaces betwee two platforms as a communal space (Source -Author)

Aquatic cities would also allow the public spaces to be more flexible. They could be towed and moored to different neighbourhoods as required. Individual platforms could each serve a different function or fit into each other to host a larger function. The concept of pop-up public spaces could become more common.

Figure 118 Parkipelago (Source - https://sportsmatik.com/uploads/ wiki-venues/the-float-marina-bay_1579157694.jpg)

Figure 121

Figure 119 The Float, Singapore (Source -https://sportsmatik.com/ uploads/wiki-venues/the-float-marina-bay_1579157694.jpg)

Flexibility of Public Spaces (Source -Author)

Harbours would achieve social economic importance. They would not only be significant for trade, but also serve as prime recreational areas. This idea is already gaining prominence in the Netherlands where waterside public baths, promenades, amphitheatres, etc have been integrated with the harbour.

Changing Paradigm 75

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

In the case of Typology 2 – Neighbourhoods below the surface of water, the perception of public spaces could change. The public spaces would be integrated vertically as well as horizontally. The circulation spaces and the open spaces that are above the surface of water would be the focal point and function as town squares for the underwater city.

Figure 127

Section of a Partially Submerged Neighbourhood (Source -Author)

Figure 122 Ocean Spiral City (Source-https:// www.shimz.co.jp/en/topics/dream/content01/images/img_index_07.jpg)

Figure 123 Aqueora - Underwater Parks (Sourcehttps://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/151223_ aequorea/hr/aequorea_pl030.jpg)

In the case of Typology 3 – Mobile structures Public spaces could mobile or could be integrated with transportation.

Figure 124 Swale, NY City, (Source - https://media. cntraveler.com/photos/5b493ad54b1b564ac0e61e6c/ master/w_1920%2Cc_limit/SWALE_Swale-Aerial-Skyline-2_Courtesy-of-Cloud-Factory.jpg)

Figure 125 OFF Paris Seine, Floating Hotel (Source - https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/ images?q=tbn:ANd9GcS8_FG3iEmXeMY03bdKjsgdPrrOUDIdLRErGkDlGc_dChzmA1otI2F536G94Pv1ujcib1Y&usqp=CAU)

Figure 126 OFF Paris Seine, Floating Hotel (Source -https://divisare-res.cloudinary.com/images/c_limit,f_auto,h_2000,q_auto,w_3000/v1478689103/qezte5qmgrfeq9akihyf/seine-design-sergio-grazia-off-paris-seine.jpg)

76 Changing Paradigm

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

4.5. BUILT STRUCTURES

Figure 128 Good Hotel being transported from Amsterdam (Source - https://www.thetravelmagazine.net/wp-content/uploads/Good-Hotel696x464.jpg)

Figure 129 Good Hotel docked at London (Soucre : https://www. thetravelmagazine.net/wp-content/uploads/Good-Hotel-696x464.jpg)

Although the society shifts from land to water, it would still require spaces to live, work, study, receive medical attention, etc. A structure that is built on a parcel of land, could be similarly built on a parcel of land floating on water. The interior spatial quality could be modified as required by the function the space is supposed to host. The spatial quality would be affected by the location (above or below the surface of water) and would be restricted due to technical constraints. But, the core functioning of these typologies would largely remain unaffected. What would change is their flexibility, ease of adaptation and movability simply because they are built on fluid ground and do not have a fixed foundation that holds them in one place. The ‘Good Hotel’ in London is a floating hotel moored in the Royal Docks. It was earlier used to function as a jail to hold illegal immigrants. Having built in Amsterdam, it was hoisted onto a submersible barge and brought to London through the English Channel. The floating houses in Ijburg are constructed in a shipyard and are towed to site. Each structure is meant to pass through an existing opening in the dikes. The maximum dimensions of the structure are thus restricted to be able to pass through the dikes.

Figure 130 gov)

Level of chlorophyll around the world (Source -vos.noaa.

Figure 131

Waternet office towed to site (Soucre : Archdaily)

Figure 132

Waternet office building towed to site (Soucre : Archdaily)

The Waternet office building in Amsterdam, designed by Attika Architekten practice, is a floating structure moored in the northern part of the old city harbour. Waternet is Dutch company that deals with water supply, sewage and water management. The office is located amidst boats that set out to clean the canals of the city. The structure in 2010 was designed with the intention to be relocated to a different place once the northern part of the harbour would be inhabited by residents.

Changing Paradigm 77

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 133 Visualisation of a Seastead designed by The Seasteading Institute (Source -Artwork by Chad Lewis, https://www.hakaimagazine.com/features/the-quest-for-a-floating-utopia,)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

11. CHALLENGES AND RESOLUTION

“

The new environment would call for a lot of technical changes. Mankind would have to resolve various problems to be able to survive as a self sufficient community, independent of the land based cities. During the early 21st century, tremendous research went underway to solve these problems. With a multidisciplinary approach, experts from various fields related to earth science, architecture, urban planning,economics, etc. came together to solve the problems. 79

”

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

5.1. WAVE ACTION Centre of Bouyancy

Centre of Gravity

Figure 134

Wave Behaviour (Soucre : The Seasteading Institute, 2014)

As a wave approaches the shore, it becomes shorter in length but with a greater height. As a thumb rule the depth of the wave is usually half the wavelength. When the wave approaches to the coast, more and more energy is pushed upward and the wave becomes steeper and less stable until it breaks, at wave height greater than 80 percent of the water depth. It is important to understand the wave characteristics as they affect the dimension of the floating surface. ( The Seasteading Institute, 2014) The environment at sea is as diverse as that on land. Just like land has some places that are more favourable than the others for human habitation, Ocean Builders calculates that there is 3 times more area in hurricane-free ocean than there is habitable land in the world. The first affordable singlefamily seastead was built in the Andaman Sea, because it’s the most benign ocean environment close to a thriving tourist destination. The environmental conditions are also very favourable. The earth has miles of oceans with a similar favourable environment. With this idea colonization of the oceans seems more probable. (The Seasteading Institute, 2019)

Figure 135 Weight of the structure (essentially gravitational froce) is balanced by bouyant force which allows the object to float (Image Soucre : Author)

Centre of Bouyancy

Centre of Gravity

Figure 136 Weight of the structure (essentially gravitational froce) is not balanced by bouyant force as the centre of bouyancy is displaced due to wave action. This causes the object to tilt. (Image Soucre : Author)

Line of Wave Action Figure 137 Structure remains stable by increasing depth. Centre of bouyancy is unaffected by waves as it lies below the line of wave action. (Image Soucre : Author)

Platform Design When a wave hits an iceberg, seals sleeping on it rarely feel it move. Floating oil rigs operate on the same principle. The submerged pontoons that support these floating societies are so heavy, workers often play ping pong on the high seas. Buckminster Fuller specified this deep-ballast design for his floating city a half century ago, later writing that floating city will hold “their centers of buoyancy 100 feet below the ocean’s surface. Structural columns rise from the submarine pontoons…to support the floating city high above the crests of the greatest waves, which thus pass innocuously below the city’s lowest flooring, as rivers flow under great bridges.” Critical Path (1981), Buckminster Fuller Stability on the sea can be secured not just by building deep, but wide. Kelvin Ko, an engineer at Blue21, has calculated that if floating platforms are interlinked to be wider than the

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Figure 138 Structure remains stable by increasing width of the platform (Image Soucre : Author)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

length of the waves, residents won’t feel any disturbance. The oldest Japanese construction company, Shimizu, calculated that their future floating city will be wide enough to dampen waves of any size.If oil rig workers play ping pong in the North Sea and cruise ship passengers play mini-golf all over the world, Seasteads can provide comfort for their residents, especially since they’ll be built in the ocean’s calmest waters. (The Seasteading Institute, 2019) Platform Connections

Figure 139

Platform Connections (Source -K.K.M. Ko,2015)

As described in the Seasteading Engineering Report (Hoogendoorn, 2011), a structure that is less than half a wavelength in size will tend to mostly follow that wave; if the structure is more than twice the wavelength, its response will tend toward zero. It is also indicated in the report that in case of waves with length more than 100 m, a huge platform would be needed in order to minimize wave-induced motion for all types of waves. But if the length is increased the structure may sag or hog. In order to combat such forces, the structural height can be increased. Whether a size of half the wavelength results in acceptable levels of acceleration (the main cause of motion sickness), will depend on many factors. The wave response time of the structure will depend on the total mass and distribution of mass in the structure. Secondly, research indicates that altering the shape of the platform may reduce acceleration considerably. Finally, several platforms will need to be connected. This may further reduce negative effects of waves. (K.K.M. Ko,2015) The connections without intermediate distance between the platforms tend to be very rigid compared to connections with intermediate distance between the platforms. For a floating city concept a rigid connection is the most suitable. But the drawback in this situation is that the platforms are no more detachable. A puzzle type connection is most suitable in this case.

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Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

These connections are different shaped edges of the platforms which fit on the opposite platform and then pinned together through a bolt/pin. In situations where platforms need not be detachable, they could be cast - in-situ in concrete in combination with a prestressed cable/rod. (K.K.M. Ko,2015) Mooring System The offshore industry serves as an inspiration for many of the mooring systems and construction types. The dolphin-frame guide and the pier/quay wall method both are preferable to withstand horizontal and vertical displacements/loads from the floating structure. The chain/cable and tension leg method on the other hand can handle horizontal forces and displacements very well, while they perform less good when there is a lot of vertical movement. In order to resist the vertical loads, the moorings have to be anchored very deep into the seafloor. Selection of a mooring system becomes very crucial in deep waters as it is difficult to execute. (K.K.M. Ko,2015). Different types of mooring systems are as follows:

Figure 140

Types of Mooring Systems (Soucre : The Seasteading Institute, 2014)

Breakwater A breakwater provides a shelter for the seastead by breaking or reflecting large waves. Breakwaters create and environment behind them where the effect of large waves is minimized. This allows smaller structures to be constructed that have a better water experience and allow for a more dynamic urban structure. While the concept of a breakwater seems simple, it is quite a challenge to neutralize the enormous power of ocean waves (The Seasteading Institute, 2014)

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Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Natural Breakwater

Figure 141 Atoll (Image Soucre : https://newsroomantigua.com/ wp-content/uploads/2021/03/HMB_Web_Home_HMBA.jpg)

Figure 142 Bay (Image Soucre : https://newsroomantigua.com/ wp-content/uploads/2021/03/HMB_Web_Home_HMBA.jpg)

Figure 143 Reefs (Image Soucre : https://newsroomantigua.com/ wp-content/uploads/2021/03/HMB_Web_Home_HMBA.jpg)

Any landmass which reaches close to or above sea level acts as a natural breakwater. Rock is tough stuff, and it takes quite a while for the ocean to grind it into sand. Smaller breakwaters include atolls, reefs, and seamounts. An atoll is a special class of island that is formed when the ocean has worn a volcanic peak down to a roughly circular shape. As a result, they basically consist of a breakwater surrounding a calm lagoon. Because so many islands are volcanic in origin, atolls are quite common, and many are uninhabited. These submerged reefs and rocks, formerly only known as hazards to navigation, can be used to protect our new way of life from the elements. Unfortunately, suitable geographic features are likely to be rare. An additional advantage to such natural is that they provide for cheap and easy anchoring. Also, they are likely to have pretty underwater scenery. A disadvantage is that the colony is tied to one physical location. An alternative to finding a submerged breakwater is to be close enough to some appropriate landmass that it can be used for shelter during severe storms. (Patri Friedman, Wayne Gramlich. 2009) A bay acts a natural breakwater. In situation where an aquatic settlement is located in a bay, it receives natural protection from the waves in addition to its own breakwater system. Near the coast, the depth of the sea bed is lesser than that at high sea. In such situations, the length to anchor the structures reduces. Artificial Breakwater Artificial breakwaters have always been used to protect harbours, marinas, and coastlines. Most are in the form of big pieces of concrete, although there are many alternative methods. In the case of shallow waters most breakwaters are tethered to the sea floor. A floating breakwater is required for greater depths. Any non-anchored breakwater will be steadily pushed by the waves towards the centre colony, so the two must be strongly connected. Many breakwater designs such as the simple concrete wall, the aikido breakwater, and the PSP could be used in such a configuration (Patri Friedman, Wayne Gramlich. 2009).

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Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

‘Fixing’ a breakwater in the middle of the ocean would require extremely taut mooring and a high amount of buoyancy to compensate the downward force. At the same time the structure and mooring system will be under additional stress from the waves and tidal influences. Such a system, which requires the elements to be fixed to one spot, is also very inflexible and would present many challenges when the seastead is to be relocated. Perhaps there are alternative strategies to create downward force, other than using taut mooring systems. One possibility is to use the water mass itself to push down the breakwater, by creating a ramp-like structure. This structure may act as an artificial shore. Waves that approach it will ‘feel bottom’, slow down as they climb the ramp, build up until they become too steep and eventually break. At the same time the water creates a downward force that prevents the structure from rolling or drifting up. In this scenario the breakwater will not be exposed to the full strength of the waves. (The Seasteading Institute, 2014)

Figure 144

Types of Artificial Breakwaters (Image Soucre : The Seasteading Institue, 2014)

5.2. WIND It can be observed that wind velocity at open seas is comparatively higher due to the absence of any obstruction. Such an environment has the lowest roughness factor. A lower roughness length implies less exchange between the surface and the atmosphere, but also stronger wind near the ground.

Figure 145 Mean wind profile for different terrains (Image Soucre : Puttakhun Vongsingha,2015, Wind Adaptive Building EnvelopeFor Reducing Wind Effect on High-rise)

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Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 146 Wind Characteristics of an object (Image Soucre : Puttakhun Vongsingha,2015, Wind Adaptive Building EnvelopeFor Reducing Wind Effect on High-rise)

Through experiments and simulations it was observed that in order to protect the structures from strong winds, the separation factor which is directly related to drag force should be reduced

Figure 147 Vortex shedding behavior according to building shape (Image Soucre : Puttakhun Vongsingha,2015, Wind Adaptive Building EnvelopeFor Reducing Wind Effect on High-rise)

The vortex shedding occurring due to the obstruction offered to the wind could be minimized. Circular shape building shows the biggest movement according to the vortices. However, if the structure is located in areas where the direction of the wind is presumed to be unpredictable, circular shape building might perform the most suitable result.

Figure 148 Different in drag coefficient in different building surface(Image Soucre : Puttakhun Vongsingha,2015, Wind Adaptive Building EnvelopeFor Reducing Wind Effect on High-rise)

It was also understood that a rougher surface reduced the separation area and a hybrid surface reduced the separation area upto 68%. Based on these insights 6 design typologies

Figure 149 Design Typologies(Image Soucre : Puttakhun Vongsingha,2015, Wind Adaptive Building EnvelopeFor Reducing Wind Effect on High-rise, Edited by author)

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Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

5.3. NATURAL HAZARDS There is more hurricane-free space on the ocean than there is land in all of Asia and North America. An entire sailing route which is hurricane free has been recorded from South America East and West to Africa. There are virtually no hurricanes in the South Atlantic Ocean and hardly any in an area just as large in the South Pacific Ocean. The best place to establish a Seastead is on the equator, where tropical seas are warm, waves low, and winds so rare that sailboats used to get stranded for weeks. (Carly Jackson, 2018, The Seasteading Institute) Tsunamis are usually harmless on the deep sea and get destructive when they reach land. In 2004, when a tsunami struck Thailand, scuba divers a quarter mile from shore didn’t even notice as it passed through them and demolished the hotel, they’d eaten breakfast in that morning. A tsunami wave is often more than a hundred miles long. Passengers on boats can’t detect a tsunami because it slowly raises the elevation of the boat a few feet over the course of twenty or thirty minutes. It’s not until the virtually invisible wave strikes a continental shelf that it begins to tumble and roll. Buildings fixed to the edge of continents are sitting ducks in a tsunami. Some MIT scientists argue that nuclear power plants should float at sea to protect against tsunamis. Since the sea steads would not be permanently fixed at one place, they could be towed away to safer locations with advanced weather forecasts related to cyclones and tsunamis. (Carly Jackson, 2018, The Seasteading Institute)

Figure 150

Temporary Displacement Strategy (Image Soucre : Seasteading Institute)

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Figure 151 World map of Natural Hazards (Image Soucre : https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/ images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTjoc-FOJPUnhpxEsZtRXVWhUi2RS1yYQ8HG6q7G0dyIdkRP5G4iMxDqfqTkek5L6Zjj8g&usqp=CAU)

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Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

5.4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Small Scale Floating Structures Research was conducted to observe the impact of smallscale floating structures in Netherlands. Apart from minute variations in water quality, no significant negative impact was observed. On the contrary the structures were considered to be opportunities for building with nature as marine growth was observed on the submerged part of the structures. The detected differences in the concentration of the measured water quality parameters (e.g. dissolved oxygen) between open water and under/near the structures parameters are low, and most parameters remain at acceptable levels. Regarding the ecology, underwater footage from the video camera revealed a multitude of aquatic organisms attached to these structures (e.g. mussels) and fish swimming underneath them. This shows that, if designed correctly, floating constructions can stimulate aquatic life and biodiversity in the surroundings of these structures, by creating new habitats and by providing shelter for smaller and juvenile fish, thus having a positive impact in the environment. The information and finding from this work are of great value for many (mega) cities (such as London, New York, Manila), where plans are made to build floating structures in the near future. (Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & De Graaf, Rutger & Dionisio Pires, Miguel & Sazonov, V. 2015)

Figure 152 Dissolved Oxygen Level (Image Soucre : Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & De Graaf, Rutger & Dionisio Pires, Miguel & Sazonov, V. (2015). MONITORING THE IMPACTS OF FLOATING STRUCTURES ON THE WATER QUALITY AND ECOLOGY USING AN UNDERWATER DRONE.)

Figure 153 Comparision between the averages of the concentration of dissolved oxygen under/near floating structures at varying depth range (Image Soucre : Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & De Graaf, Rutger & Dionisio Pires, Miguel & Sazonov, V. (2015). MONITORING THE IMPACTS OF FLOATING STRUCTURES ON THE WATER QUALITY AND ECOLOGY USING AN UNDERWATER DRONE.)

Figure 154 Drone Footage of aquatic growth below the structure (Image Soucre : Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & De Graaf, Rutger & Dionisio Pires, Miguel & Sazonov, V. (2015). MONITORING THE IMPACTS OF FLOATING STRUCTURES ON THE WATER QUALITY AND ECOLOGY USING AN UNDERWATER DRONE. )

Near the structure

Open water

Below the structure

Figure 155 Potential Changes to ecosystem due to large scale floating structures (Image Soucre : Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & De Graaf, Rutger & Dionisio Pires, Miguel & Sazonov, V. (2015). MONITORING THE IMPACTS OF FLOATING STRUCTURES ON THE WATER QUALITY AND ECOLOGY USING AN UNDERWATER DRONE.)

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Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Large Scale Floating Structures “In order to ensure that bigger scale projects continue not to have an adverse impact in the environment, further research is necessary to infer about recommendations and best practices for the development of larger scale floating urbanization. Aspects such as determining the acceptable platform density ranges, acceptable coverage ratio of the water body, how to minimize the blockage of sunlight (e.g. best positioning of constructions), evaluation of the best materials to use in these structures (ecological/chemical point of view), or how to improve water movement/circulation (prevent water to remain for long periods in the same place) should be taking into future plans and design for the floating development. By integrating floating wetlands or other designs/solutions that enhance the development of underwater habitats, floating projects could potentially improve water quality and biodiversity, be an opportunity for the implementation of green solutions, and contribute to enhance the connection of the cities with the nature, and in particular, the water.” (Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & sazonov, vladislav. 2020).

Table3 Potential Changes to ecosystem due to large scale floating structures (Image Soucre : Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & De Graaf, Rutger & Dionisio Pires, Miguel & Sazonov, V. (2015). MONITORING THE IMPACTS OF FLOATING STRUCTURES ON THE WATER QUALITY AND ECOLOGY USING AN UNDERWATER DRONE.)

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Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

5.5. RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Food Production The concepts of aquaponics and multi-trophic aquaculture could be applied within the seastead, producing local fresh food that can be directly consumed by the city or exported Worldwide, a vast amount of nutrients is discharged into the oceans. These nutrients can be used to produce food or algae. Part of the supply may be recycled from human waste, which at the same time would prevent pollution of the environment. The figure shows the level of chlorophyll, which is an indicator for the nutrient concentration. The largest concentrations occur at the edge of continental shelves where the currents cause upwelling. (The Seasteading Institue, 2014) These nutrients can increase algae growth and have a negative impact on their surroundings. However, under well controlled circumstances algae can have many beneficial applications. Algae are made up of proteins, carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids, which vary in percentage according to the type of algae. For this reason, algae can be used for: • bio fuel production • food production • organic fertilizers The negative characteristics of this by-product of nutrient effluent will be turned into organic fertilizer used for fish farming and crop farming on the mainland. Combining this organic fertilizer with the exhibiting artificial fertilizer can lead to higher crop yields while it causes less deterioration of the soil. A second application is biofuel. Algae yield the highest quantity of oil, compared to other biofuels (Leong, et al, 2012). Water Management Rainwater can be treated and used for cooking, drinking, showering and bathing. After use, water could be collected in another tank for grey water. Grey water is not suitable for drinking use but, with adequate treatment, can be used for washing machines and toilets. While water used for the washing machine goes back to the grey water tank, wastewater from toilets could be used as a free source of nutrients for algae When wastewater is pumped in OMEGA floating bioreactors, algae extract nutrients and clean water is slowly released in the sea. ( The Seasteading Institue, 2014) Potable and non-potable arrangements may include roof collection, dehumidifier, atmospheric water collector, renewable desalination facility, wastewater treatment facility, grey water treatment facility, water storage, deployable water bladder and public realm collection (Hamlyn-Harris et al., 2019; Ray and Shaw, 2019)

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Figure 156 gov)

Level of chlorophyll around the world (Source -vos.noaa.

Figure 157 Combinations of algae cultures, aquacultures and crops production (Soucre : Deltasync, 2012)

Table4

Resource management (Source - BIG Architects, Edited by Author)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

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Energy Production In the seasteading project there may be ample opportunities to combine wind turbines with other functions, such as breakwaters Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) uses the temperature difference between deep and shallow ocean water to produce electricity and, as a by-product, desalinated fresh water. The feasibility depends on the temperature difference, which is relatively high in tropical areas. Other energy producing options could be solar cells, algae biofuel and osmotic power.( The Seasteading Institue, 2014) Overall, the sustainable floating cities would use solar panels, wind turbines, wave energy converters, algae bioreactors, tidal generators, flywheel energy storage, heat exchange, compressed air and underwater pump energy storage (Umar T 2020) Waste Management Recycling and reusing of waste will be one of the main methods to make the floating cities sustainable in relation to waste generation and its disposal. To effectively treat and recycle the waste generated in a sustainable floating city, the following arrangement should be incorporated in such cities (Lewandowska and Szyman ska, 2019; Talip et al., 2019; Yeo et al., 2019; ZWDG, 2019): waste collection system & exchange hub & community compost garden & treatment swale & anaerobic digester & washing centre & algae filtration

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

5.6. MATERIAL SELECTION Roman harbors around the Mediterranean were made with an ancient concrete that has survived in continual contact with the sea for over 2,000 years now, without any concrete degradation. Modern concrete breaks down within about 75 - 100 years of contact with the ocean even in the best circumstances. Its modern alternative is geopolymer concrete, a material capable of replicating this feat of engineering by the Roman concrete masters. Geopolymer concrete, like Roman concrete, could last for hundreds of years in contact with the sea but is also as strong as modern concrete. (Michael Eliot,2015) So great is the threat of water boring into concrete and rusting the steel inside that bridge overpasses in every modern city are built with far, far more concrete than they actually need in terms of strength. They make the concrete thick to forestall water seeping in and rusting the rebar skeleton. The rule is that each inch of additional concrete forestalls water reaching the steel reinforcement and rusting it by another 10 years, and most highway project use an extra 7 inches of concrete, giving them an effective lifespan of 70+ years. By contrast, ferrocement boats typically used a mere 2 inches of concrete. (Michael Eliot,2015) Geopolymer cement is made up of four inexpensive and widely-available components: - Flyash - Fresh water Waterglass (sodium-silicate) - Lye (sodium-hydroxide) (Michael Eliot,2015)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Figure 158

Gulf of Mannar (Source -Google Earth, Edited by author)

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

12. SITE SELECTION

“

Earth’s continental crust has multiple terrains each of which differ in physical characteristics and environmental conditions, thus making some places more habitable than others. Similarly, some stretches of the oceans that cover the earths crust are more favourable to human habitation than others. Before the Blue Revolution, the vast oceans were majorly inhabited by transitory enterprises. In order to determine locations suitable for permanent habitats, the selection criteria were largely similar to the selection of a habitable parcel of land. It included factors such as proximity to resources, easy communication and transport, safety and security, environmental conditions. ( Shanee Stopnitzky1 , James Hogan2 , George Petrie 3 , Elie Amar 4 , Dario Mutabdzija5 , Max Marty6 , Rafa Gutierrez7,2011). Selection Criteria was also be affected by nature of the settlements and their growth patterns.

”

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

The early sea steads, two scenarios could be possible. Scenario 1 – A large community (50,000 people or more) engaged in a wide range of enterprises; representing the long-term vision of sea steading, a complete city-at-sea. The floating city would start as a smaller community, closer to a land based urban setup and would be dependent on the land-based city for its functioning. It would eventually expand and establish itself as an independent, self-sufficient offshore neighbourhood.

Figure 159

Proposed growth of an independent floating city (Source -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014)

Scenario 2 – A small community (between 100 to 1,000 people) devoted to a single enterprise or business model; representing an early sea steading community

Figure 160 Offshore Economic Activities (Source -From Left to Right-https://divcomplatformstaging.s3.amazonaws.com/workboat.divcomstaging.com/images/Offshore-platforms-BOEM.jpg. large.1024x1024.jpeg, https://live.staticflickr.com/4209/35652644446_1339e363ea_b.jpg, https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/, https://media.architecturaldigest.com/photos/6032b337b526975f5405e0a0/16:9/w_2560%2Cc_limit/Hero_Soneva%2520Jani%2520Chapter%2520Two%2520by%2520Aksham%2520Abdul%2520Ghadir.jpg, https://totalenergies.com/ sites/g/files/nytnzq121/files/styles/crop_landscape_ratio_2_1/public/images/2020-12/Lift-of-Tyra-West.jpg?itok=eabSYFiq), https://www.evwind.es/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/turbinesunder-construction-block-island-103792-599x372.jpg, https://images.indianexpress.com/2021/01/Pixabay_Maldives-resorts_1200.jpg, https://images.indianexpress.com/2021/01/Pixabay_ Maldives-resorts_1200.jpg)

Living permanently at water, physically cut off from the mainland could be daunting for many of the initial sea steaders . Accepting life on water would be a drastic change and would be accepted gradually. Early sea steads would be largely dependent on land. Hence, the aquatic cities would start of from the coast and gradually progress towards the high sea. This would also help to alleviate scepticism associated with aquatic habitats. Therefore, the second scenario is preferred. With the innovative technologies that floating cities would have to offer, new industries like aquaculture, energy, seabed resource extraction would be set up. Such industries would offer employment opportunities to its future residents. This system would also act as an incentive for the initial residents.

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Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

6.1. ENVIRONMENTAL CRITEAccording to the Seasteading Institute factors affecting selection of the location : PARAMETER

IMPACT Wind Speed: Affects the design of mooring system , height and design of the structure.

Air Temperature: Has an impact on energy consumed in order to achieve temperature suitable for human comfort.

Bathymetry: Affects the design of mooring system and breakwater

Current Speed: Affects the design of mooring system and breakwater

Figure 161

Environmental parameters for site selection (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

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Significant Wave Height: Affects the design of mooring system, breakwater, platform type and its dimensions

Figure 162

Environmental parameters for site selection (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

Environmental Aggregation Layer:

Figure 163

Environmental aggregation layer (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

“Protection from extreme waves is of paramount concern. Even if effective floating breakwaters can be made affordable, it will be highly desirable to locate in an area where wave heights tend to be relatively moderate. Wind speed is also an element of concern, not only because strong winds are often associated with large waves, but also because there are no natural features at sea that can offer any protection; the massive seastead will have to take the full brunt of any storm that occurs. Water depth and current speed are given a minimal weighting, reflecting the fact that they bear on the difficulty of keeping the seastead on station, but do not directly affect safety or survivability. Air temperature is given a minimal weighting in this scenario, on the assumption that interior spaces will be climate-controlled. Residents will acclimate to temperatures outdoors in much the same way they do on land.” ( Shanee Stopnitzky , James Hogan , George Petrie , Elie Amar , Dario Mutabdzija, Max Marty , Rafa Gutierrez,Seasteading Location Sudy,2011).

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6.2. ECONOMIC CRITERIA: According to the Seasteading Institute factors affecting selection of the location : PARAMETER

IMPACT Proximity to consumers with disposable GDP: Determines economic success of Seastead

Proximity to active data line: Affects cost of communication

Degree of Regulatory Burden: Affects trade, commerce and attract businesses and investors

Proximity to land based data availability: Ensures connectivity

Figure 164

Economic parameters for site selection (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

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Proximity to urban economic tree Affects the design of mooring system, breakwater, platform type and its dimensions

Figure 165

Economic parameters for site selection (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

Economic Aggregation Layer:

Figure 166

Economic aggregration layer (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

“Future developments in technology could affect the weightage of each criteria. For example, if the cost of satellite communication decreases significantly, or if other technologies facilitate the implementation of high-speed, low-cost data links, then the weighting associated with those criteria might conceivably be reduced to zero” ( Shanee Stopnitzky , James Hogan , George Petrie , Elie Amar , Dario Mutabdzija, Max Marty , Rafa Gutierrez,Seasteading Location Sudy,2011).

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6.3. LEGAL CRITERIA: According to the Seasteading Institute factors affecting selection of the location : PARAMETER

IMPACT Dangerous Regions: Ensure safety by reducing proximity to areas notoriously known for piracy.

Legal Status: Ensures legal independence

Figure 167

Legal Parameters for site selection (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

Legal Aggregation Layer:

Figure 168

Economic aggregration layer (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

“For the legal domain, a different weighted average calculation method was used. The overall layer presented below comes from the superposition of the red regions from the “Dangerous Regions” layer on the top of the legal status layer.” ( Shanee Stopnitzky , James Hogan , George Petrie , Elie Amar , Dario Mutabdzija, Max Marty , Rafa Gutierrez,Seasteading Location Sudy,2011).

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Overall Results:

Figure 169

Favourable Sites for sea steading (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

It can be concluded that the coastline of India falls in the category of sites suitable for the early seateads. Considering the wind speeds, the west coast of India would be more favourable for the early seasteads. The selected region lies between the coast of Kerala and the Lakshadweep islands with stable wind speed, calmer currents and lower depth of the seabed. The selected site also lies within a distance of 300km from major urban centres. With the Lakshadweep islands located in such proximity, this city could also act as a refugee city to the sinking islands in the future.

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6.4. OPTION 1 - OFFSHORE CITY PART 1 Since most of the initial aquatic cities would grow off the urban centres, part 1 of the design would aim at developing prototype of a flexible neighbourhoods in a phase wise manner. Phase 1 Expected population of each neighbourhood 350 -1000 Dependent on land based city for its functioning

Figure 170

Phase 1 of an aquatic neighbourhood (Source -author)

Phase 2 Expected population of each neighbourhood 3500 Semi - dependent on land based city for its functioning

Figure 171

Phase 2 of an aquatic neighbourhood (Source -author)

Phase 3 Expected population of each neighbourhood 35000 Independent neighbourhood

Figure 172

Phase 3 of an aquatic neighbourhood (Source -author)

PART 2 Trade and commerce would play an important role in developing the aquatic cities. Due to new industries, a symbiotic relationship could be expected with the landbased city. Sea routes would be the most prominent form of connection to mainland as well as other aquatic communities. In this scenario, a water transit hub that forms the first experience and establishes a primary connection that defines the perception of the aquatic neighbourhood would be important. The design would thus intend to imagine a transit hub as an integral part of the city’s public space. Figure 173

Transit hub (Source -author)

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Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

Wind Speed

Bathymetry

Figure 174

Figure 175

Wind Speed (Source -Global Wind Atlas)

Bathymetry (Source -Global Wind Atlas)

Ocean Currents

Proximity to ports

Figure 176

Figure 177

Ocean Currents (Source -https://earth.nullschool.net/)

Proximity to ports (Source -Google Earth, Edited by author)

Considering the wind speeds, the west coast of India woud be more favourable for the early seasteads. The selected region lies between the coast of kerala and the lakshadweep islands with stable wind speed, calmer currents and lower depth of the seabed. The selected site also lies within a distance of 300km from major urban centres. With the lakshadweep islands located in such proximity, this city could also act as a refugee city to the sinking islands in the future.

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6.5. OPTION 2 - VADHAVAN PORT CITY

Figure 178 Sagarmala Project (Source -https://infralive.com/web/ wp-content/uploads/2016/08/28-Sagarmala-Action-Begins.jpgauthor)

Figure 179 Proposed location of the port (Source -Techno-Economic Feasibility Report for Development of Port at Vadhavan,2015)

The Sagarmala Project Approximately 95 % of India’s merchandise trade (by volume) passes through sea ports. Many ports in India are evolving into specialized centres of economic activities and services and are vital to sustain future economic growth of the country such as JNPT, Mundra Port, Sikka Port, Hazira Port etc. The Sagarmala Programme is an initiative by the government of India to enhance the performance of the country’s logistics sector. The programme envisages unlocking the potential of waterways and the coastline to minimize infrastructural investments required to meet these targets. This port led developement project aims to develop 13 of India’s major ports. Vadhavan Port Project The Vadhavan Port is located in the state of Maharashtra , in the Dahanu region and is one of the 13 major ports in the country. While other major ports involve capacity expansion and developing the infrastructure of an existing port, Vadhavan Port is a greenfield port essentially being constructed as a satellite port to the JNPT port in Mumbai. A master plan layout has been developed to cater 200,000 DWT design vessels (18.3m draft) and 18,000 TEU vessels to be called anytime without tidal restrictions. The proposal involves dredging and an estimated quantity of 30 Mcum of land reclamation. The Problem In 1991, the Central government had declared Dahanu taluka as environmentally sensitive, by Dahanu Taluka Environmental Protection Committee formed by the SC, stopping construction of any new industry in the area. This environmentally sensitive area is home to many local fisherman. With an estimated reclamation of 30 Mcum, and potential urbanisation as a result of the port, the fishermen fear loss of livelihood and damage to the environment. Hence, protests were held by the locals to oppose construction of the port.

Figure 180 Site context (Source -Techno-Economic Feasibility Report for Development of Port at Vadhavan,2015)

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The Proposal Construction of the Vadhavan port could potentially damage the environment. Instead of reclaiming the land, the port could be built offshore as a floating structure in the sea. Floating structures potentially cause lesser damage to the environement as there is no reclamation involved. An offshore port would not require the fishermen to be displaced. It would infact provide more opportunities to the local community. As the port would attract a huge population, the developing town could expand seaward thus, protecting the biodiversity in the Dahanu region.

Figure 181 Proposed location of the offshore port (Source -Techno-Economic Feasibility Report for Development of Port at Vadhavan,2015, Edited by author)

The current proposal for the Vadhavn port relys on electricity and water on Boisar substation 20km away and Sakhre Dam respectively. In case of the floating neighbourhood, it could generate its own power by utilizing renewable sources of energy such as wind, sun, Otec, etc. This energy can not only be used by the floating neighbourhood but can also be used by the nearby land based cities.

Figure 182 Current proposal for resource management (Source -Techno-Economic Feasibility Report for Development of Port at Vadhavan,2015)

106 Location Study

Figure 183 Fowind)

Areas suitable for harvesting wind energy (Source -

Kimaya Kulkarni|L.S.Raheja School of Architecture

6.6. OPTION 3 - SEAWEED FARMING

Figure 184 Global Scenario of seaweed production (Up) Seaweed Cultivation, (Below) Wild Capture(Source -https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Javier-Infante-Rosselot/publication/320306944/ figure/fig2/AS:548032920985602@1507672638783/Seaweed-production-in-the-year-2014-a-Aquaculture-and-b-Fisheries-Colour-scale-in-wet.png)

Seaweed

Figure 185 Seaweed raft(Source -Scroll youtube)

Figure 186 Seaweed uses(Source -PMSSY)

Figure 187 Seaweed market for the future (Source -https://www. maximizemarketresearch.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Seaweed-Extract-Market-by-Region.png)

Often known as a “wonder crop”, seaweed is a collective name for the various species of marine plants that grow in several water bodies. While some species such as the phytoplankton are microscopic, some such as Kappaphycus are metres long and are harvested in many countries. The different species have immense uses. They are renewable sources of food with immense nutritional value and a potential source of energy. They hold great importance in the chemical industry, agricultural industry, Pharmaceutical industry, etc. Seaweeds are also termed as the ‘Medical Food of the 21st Century’ as they are being used as laxatives, for making pharmaceutical capsules, in treatment of goiter, cancer, bone-replacement therapy and in cardiovascular surgeries. Seaweed also absorbs carbon dioxide in the ocean, thus reducing ocean acidification. Globally, the seaweed industry has gained immense popularity in the last few decades. Several countries have strongly promoted seaweed cultivation.Seaweed farming is dominated by countries in East and Southeast Asia with China being the largest producer followed by Indonesia, S. Korea and Philippines. Production of seaweed, has tripled, up from 10.6 million tonnes in 2000 to 32.4 million tonnes in 2018.(Dr Rajeev Ranjan IAS Secretary, 2021) In India, the production went upto 5300 tonnes in the year 2018.(Dr Rajeev Ranjan IAS Secretary, 2021).

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Seaweed Production in India In India seaweed cultiation is on the verge of undergoing sudden growth. Cultivatio is extremely profitable to the seaweed farmers as it is a highly remunerative activity involving simple, low cost, low maintenance technology with short grow-out cycle. There are 46 seaweed-based industries, 21 for Agar and 25 for Alginate production, but hey do not function to their best capacity due to lack of an adequate infrastructure. The Government is conciously promoting seaweed cultivation in India. Various institues such CMFRI, CSMCRI, NIOT are involved in research related to seaweed cultivation. Grants, incentives and training is provided to the locals. A seaweed park in the state of Tamil Nadu has also been proposed. Need to go offshore The current methods of seaweed cultivation in India are at a much local level and remain restricted to areas near the coast. In order to increase the production, a need to expand the seaweed farms away from the coast arises. Apart from this, one of the biggest problems in India is tackling mass mortality of seaweed which happens due to climate change and changed virility. 20 years ago 2000 tonnes per year was produced and it is currently at 300 tonnes per year. Experts believe seaweed should be cultivated deeper in the ocean where depth of water is 3-4 metres so that production could increase and the previous output can be matched. This is also extremely helpful during the hotter months of March, April , May and June. The seaweed industry is labor intensive industry. A better infrastructure would create more opportunities for the coastal community and provide employment to more people. Majority of the industry is located along the coast as it allows for more production. The coastal areas face a constant threat by sea level rise. Hence, the industry should be designed such that it is resilient to threats in the future. An offshore floating industry would not only be resilient to SLR, but would also provide immense opportunities.

Figure 188 Raft Culture of seaweed harvesting (Source -PMSSY)

Figure 189 Monoline Culture of seaweed harvesting (Source -PMSSY)

Figure 190 Tube net method of seaweed harvesting (Source -PMSSY)

Figure 191 Seaweed post harvesting (Source -PMSSY)

Figure 192 Seaweed harvesting (Source -PMSSY)

Figure 193 Coastline threatened by Sea Level Rise (Source https:// indiaclimatedialogue.net/2015/07/10/global-sea-levels-may-riseby-over-6-metres-study/sea-level-rise-south-asia-vulnerability-map/)

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Favourble sites

Figure 194 Sites favourable for seaweed cultivation (Source Google Earth, Edited by author)

Suitable sites for seaweed cultivation will be selected based on the following criteria: • Stable seawater with not less than 30 ppt salinity • Sandy/ rocky bottom with transparent water • Ideal temperature 26-30 oC. • The area should have minimum 1.0 m water depth during low tide. • Area with mild water currents are preferred. In India, seaweeds are abundant along the Tamil Nadu and Gujarat coasts and around Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Rich seaweed beds occur around Mumbai, Ratnagiri, Goa, Karwar, Varkala, Vizhinjam and Pulicat in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Chilka in Orissa. One of the most favourable sites is the Tamil Nadu Region. With multiple hotspots located along this belt, the people of this region have already taken to seaweed farming and have adapted their lifestyle to it. This ecologically sensitive area faes a threat by overhaversting of not just seaweed but also unsustainable fishing practices. It is therefore important to establish a more sustainable way fishing and seaweed cultivation.

Figure 195 Map of south-east coast of India showing the study area for seaweed cultivation (Source R. NARAYANAKUMAR AND M. KRISHNAN,2013, Socio-economic assessment of seaweed farmers in Tamil Nadu - A case study in Ramanathapuram District)

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Figure 196 Seaweed Cultivation in Tamil Nadu (From left to right)A,B- Aerial view of seaweed farms in Sambai, Tamil Nadu, C,D-Raft preparation, E-Tying of seedling to the ropes F,G-Setting up the raft, ,H,I,J- Collection of seaweed post harvest period ( Source - Scroll youtube)

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The Proposal

It can be understood that as the industry expands offshore, it will give opportunities to a number of people and lead to migration of a large population to these villages. This expanding offshore infrastructure could thus be beginning of colonization of the oceans. In the future, an entire offshore floating neighborhood could be visualized. Hence, phase wise development of an offshore floating neighborhood is proposed beginning with seaweed cultivation and later expanding into other industries as well.

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LIST OF TABLES Pg No.

Description

Chapter 2 52 Table1 Design typologies for expansion into water (Source - author)

Chapter 4 69 Table2 Transportation systems in an aquatic neighborood (Source - author)

Chapter 5 87 Table3 Potential Changes to ecosystem due to large scale floating structures (Image Soucre : Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & De Graaf, Rutger & Dionisio Pires, Miguel & Sazonov, V. (2015). MONITORING THE IMPACTS OF FLOATING STRUCTURES ON THE WATER QUALITY AND ECOLOGY USING AN UNDERWATER DRONE.) 89 Table4 Resource management (Source - BIG Architects, Edited by Author)

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LIST OF FIGURES Pg No.

Description

12 Figure 1The World in 2099, (Source - https://i.pinimg.com/originals/4f/76/18/ 4f761820782a858460a05bbf88f91e1.jpg, Edited by author) 14 Figure 2 The First Seastead by The Seasteading Institue and Ocean Builders(Source:https://thethaiger. com/wpcontent/uploads/2019/04/received_361720224413363-1.jpeg, Edited by author) 16 Figure 3Sea steading (Source - https://www.hakaimagazine.com/features/the-quest-for-a-floatingutopia, Artwork by Chad Lewis)

Chapter 1 Pg No.

Description

22 Figure 4 (Source - Google Earth, Edited by author) 24 Figure 5World Population Prediction (Soucre : https://jul.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/postcard.jpg) 24 Figure 6Urbanisation over the past 500 years.(Source: OWID based on UN World Urbanisation Prospects 2018) 24 Figure 7Global Land Use(Source: OurWorldinData.org) 25 Figure 8Male - Capital of Maldives(Source - BBC) 26 Figure 9Floating Solar farm (Soucre : https://global.kyocera.com/news/2018/0301_wvfh.html) 26 Figure 10 Floating Windmill(Soucre : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Agucadoura_WindFloat_Prototype.jpg) 26 Figure 11 Floating dairy in Rotterdam (Soucre : https://static.dezeen.com/uploads/2019/05/ floating-farm-rotterdam-goldsmith_dezeen_2364_col_5-852x609.jpg) 26 Figure 12

Salt and Sill Hotel, Sweden(Soucre :flickr)

27 Figure 13

Principality of Sealand (Soucre :BBC)

27 Figure 14 Helipad at principality of Sealand (Soucre :https://ychef.files.bbci.co.uk/976x549/ p02p4xn1.jpg) 27 Figure 15

Principality of Sealand (Soucre :https://ychef.files.bbci.co.uk/976x549/p08j9t35.jpg)

28 Figure 20 Principality of Sealand (Soucre :https://africaclimatereports.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Signs-predicting-sea-level-rise-at-Cottesloe-Beach-in-Perth-Australia.-Image-creditJulie-G-.jpg) 28 Figure 16

Increase in atmospheric CO2 (Soucre :NASA)

28 Figure 17

Increase in global temperatures over the years (Soucre :NASA)

28 Figure 18

Increase in sea level (Soucre :NASA)

28 Figure 19

Cities threatened by Sea Level Rise (Soucre :Climate Central)

29 Figure 21 (From top to bottom)Nasa Imges of Change, A. Melting Sea ice, B. Disappearing Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, C.Flooding in Bangladesh, D.Flooding in Kerala (Source - NASA) 30 Figure 22 Methods to deal with rising sea levels (Soucre :https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/10/IPCC-SROCC-CH_4_Box_4_3_figure_1-3000x1124.jpg)

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31 Figure 23 NEEMO training at the bottom of the sea(Source - https://www.ecomagazine.com/ images/Newsletter/0_2016/I33) 33 Figure 24 First Seastead by the Seasteading Institute and Ocean Builders (Source - https://youtu.be/8bceePdFruU) 33 Figure 25 First Seastead by the Seasteading Institute and Ocean Builders(Source - https://youtu. be/8bceePdFruU) 33 Figure 26

Seastead Floating Mechanism (Source - https://youtu.be/8bceePdFruU)

33 Figure 27

Seastead Interiors (Source - https://youtu.be/8bceePdFruU)

Chapter 2 34 Figure 28 Sea Skeyscraper from “The future: An image of the world of tomorrow”,(SourceGunther Radtke) 36 Figure 31 Aerial VIew of Palm Island (Source -https://curlytales.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/palm.jpg) 36 Figure 29 Palm Jumeirah Island Plan (Source- https://sites.google.com/site/palmislandsimpact/_/rsrc/1260061285109/general-information/construction-of-the-islands/Picture%201.pngarchitecture) 36 Figure 30 Land Fill for Palm Island (Source - https://www.iadc-dredging.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/article-case-study-design-of-palm-island-no-1-dubai-96-05.pdf) 37 Figure 32 (From top to bottom) -Assembly of Lilypad (Source - https://vincent.callebaut.org/ static/projects/080523_lilypad/hr/lilypad_pl046.jpg) 37 Figure 33 Lilypad Section (Source- https://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/080523_ lilypad/hr/lilypad_pl046.jpg/) 38 Figure 35

Proposed Growth of Triton City (Source- Author)

38 Figure 36 View of Triton City Module (SOURCE -https://mir-s3-cdn-cf.behance.net/project_ modules/1400_opt_1/81dcca23085683.560475409343e.jpg) 39 Figure 37

Triton City Master Plan (Source : behance)

39 Figure 38 Section of a module (Source -https://megaestructuras.tumblr.com/ post/189330086413) 39 Figure 39 (From left to right)A-Ground Floor Plan of a module, B- Plan of Commercial Sector (Source -https://megaestructuras.tumblr.com/post/189330086413) 40 Figure 40 Key Principles of Oceanix City (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/bigtheme/css/images/blank.gif) 40 Figure 41 Aerial View of Oceanix City (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/bigtheme/css/images/blank.gif) 40 Figure 42 Cyclic Metabolism of Oceanix city (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/ big-theme/css/images/blank.gif) 41 Figure 44 Program Diversity (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images/blank.gif) 41 Figure 43 blank.gif)

Biorock Reefs (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images/

41 Figure 45 Freshwater Autonomy (Source-https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/ images/blank.gif)

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41 Figure 46 Shared Surface Network for slow mobility (Source -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/ themes/big-theme/css/images/blank.gif) 42 Figure 47 (From left to right) Design of a Seascraper (Source -https://www.evolo.us/water-scraper-underwater) 43 Figure 48 (From left to right A)-Elevation of Freedomship International, B- Airport located on the topmost deck, C&D- Atrium of the ship, E- Port at the rear end of the ship available for dry docking (Source -http://freedomship.com/freedom-ship-gallery) 44 Figure 50 View of Aequorea above and below the surface of water (Source -https://vincent. callebaut.org/static/projects/151223_aequorea/thumb/aequorea_pl002.jpg) 44 Figure 49 Location of Ocean Gyres (Source -https://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/151223_aequorea/thumb/aequorea_pl002.jpg) 45 Figure 51 Aerial View of Aequorea (Source -https://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/151223_aequorea/thumb/aequorea_pl041.jpg) 45 Figure 52 Schematic section of a module(Source-https://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/151223_aequorea/thumb/aequorea_pl063.jpg) 46 Figure 55 Multiple configuration of platforms (Source -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014) 46 Figure 53 Design Considerations for a platform (Source -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014) 46 Figure 54 Structural Design of a floating Platform (Source-The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014) 47 Figure 56 Temporary Displacement of City in case of unfavourable conditions (Source -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014) 47 Figure 57 Proposed growth of an independent floating city (Source -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014) 48 Figure 58

Level of chlorophyll around the world (Source -vos.noaa.gov)

48 Figure 59 Linear vs circular metabolism (SOURCE -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014) 48 Figure 60 Circular metabolism in a flaoting city and land based city(SOURCE -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014) 48 Figure 61 Services in a typical floating house (SOURCE -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014) 49 Figure 62 Interior view of orb (SOURCE -https://www.shimz.co.jp/en/topics/dream/content01/ pdf/oceanspiral.pdf) 50 Figure 63 Schematic section of Ocean Spiral City (SOURCE -https://www.shimz.co.jp/en/topics/dream/content01/pdf/oceanspiral.pdf) 51 Figure 64 Materials used in a single panel (SOURCE -https://www.shimz.co.jp/en/topics/ dream/content01/pdf/oceanspiral.pdf) 51 Figure 65 Vertical movement of the orb(SOURCE -https://www.shimz.co.jp/en/topics/dream/ content01/pdf/oceanspiral.pdf) 51 Figure 66 SOURCE -Zoning in the orb (Source - https://www.shimz.co.jp/en/topics/dream/content01/pdf/oceanspiral.pdf)

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Chapter 3 54 Figure 67 Water as a human habitat (Source - https://www.unchartedbackpacker.com/a-journey-into-bajau-laut-the-sea-gypsies-of-borneo/) 56 Figure 70 A typical Bajau village ( Source - https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/556a/0b35/e58e/ce37/8c00/008e/large_jpg/shutterstock_274477811.jpg?1433013041) 56 Figure 68 Traditional Bajau tribesmen can hold their breath underwater for more than 13 minutes. (Source-https://miro.medium.com/max/1400/0*lXUPEaBtVpQCjlXe.jpg) 56 Figure 69 Location of the Bajau Tribe(SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditional_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses) 57 Figure 71 Components of Bajau House(SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditional_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses) 58 Figure 72 House typology of the Bajaus (Source - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316451853_Transformed_Seabed_of_the_Sama_Bajau) 58 Figure 73 Evolution of a typical house into a cluster (SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditiontal_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses) 58 Figure 74 Plan of a Bajau neighbourhood (SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditional_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses) 58 Figure 75 A typical Bajau houseboat (SOURCE -https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/556a/0bc3/e58e/cea4/d100/0096/large_jpg/shutterstock_198733568.jpg?1433013182) 58 Figure 76 A Bajau House on stilts (SOURCE -https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/556a/0bde/e58e/ce37/8c00/0091/large_jpg/shutterstock_145349488.jpg?1433013210) 58 Figure 77 A Bajau Neighborhood (SOURCE -https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/556a/0ff0/e58e/cea4/d100/0099/large_jpg/shutterstock_176985272.jpg?1433014252) 58 Figure 78 Verandah of a Bajau House (SOURCE -https://www.tfod.in/UserProfileImages/ArticleImage/VAw4SCXs3d31b5f3_2.jpg) 59 Figure 79 Living room in an apartment in The World (SOURCE - https://aboardtheworld.com/ wp-content/uploads/2020/03/studio-residence_528x371.jpg) 59 Figure 80 Bedroom in an apartment in The World (SOURCE - https://aboardtheworld.com/ wp-content/uploads/2020/03/studio-residence_528x371.jpg) 59 Figure 81 3bhk apartment in The World (SOURCE - https://aboardtheworld.com/wp-content/ uploads/2020/03/three-bedroom_528x371.jpg) 59 Figure 82 The World - Residential Cruise (SOURCE - https://www.falmouthpacket.co.uk/resources/images/11408673/) 60 Figure 84 Drawings of a Houseoat in Haveneisland(From left to right) A-Lower Level Plan of a houseboat, B-Upper Level Plan C- Section of a houseboat (SOURCE -https://www.ana.nl/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Woonschip-VC) 60 Figure 83

Satellite View of Floating Communities (SOURCE -Google Earth)

60 Figure 85 chip-VC)

Key plan (SOURCE -https://www.ana.nl/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Woons-

61 Figure 88 Waterburt West Site Plan and typical house (SOURCE -https://rohmer.nl/projects/waterwoningen-ijburg/) 61 Figure 86 Key plan of Waterburt East (SOURCE -Floating Amsterdam, Ontwikkelingscombinatie Waterbuurt West and Projectbureau IJburg of the Municipality of Amsterdam)

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62 Figure 89 Services in a floating house (SOURCE -https://www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/uploads/drijvend-wonen-stei-DSC_2548-950x372.jpg,Edited by author) 62 Figure 90 thor)

Jetty as a communal space (SOURCE -https://youtu.be/tEBQyg-vtqY,edited by au-

62 Figure 91 (From left to right) A-Houses moored to poles (SOURCE --https://rohmer.nl/projects/ waterwoningen-ijburg/); B - Detail of connection (SOURCE - https://www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/ uploads/drijvend-wonen-stei-DSC_2548-950x372.jpg) 62 Figure 92

Waterburt West (https://youtu.be/tEBQyg-vtqY)

62 Figure 93 Site plan of Waterburt Community (SOURCE -Floating Amsterdam, Ontwikkelingscombinatie Waterbuurt West and Projectbureau IJburg of the Municipality of Amsterdam) 63 Figure 94 Plan of a Bajau neighbourhood (SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditional_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses) 63 Figure 95 Plan of a Bajau House (SOURCE -https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342232453_The_Spatial_Extensions_of_Traditional_Coastal_Sama-Bajau_Houses) 63 Figure 96 Plan of a Waterburt House (SOURCE -SOURCE -https://rohmer.nl/projects/waterwoningen-ijburg/)

Chapter 4 64 Figure 97 Oceanix City (SOURCE -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images/, Edited by author) 66 Figure 98 Oceanix City Section (SOURCE -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/ css/images/blank.gif) 67 Figure 99 Resource management systems (Top to Bottom) A-Energy Systems, B- Closed Loop Water System, C-Food System, D-Waste System (SOURCE -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/ big-theme/css/images/blank.gif) 68 Figure 100 Aerial tramway used in hilly regions to avoid construction of a roadway that connects to the hill top. (SOURCEhttps://media.tacdn.com/media/attractions-splice-spp-674x446/0b/27/89/ b8.jpg) 68 Figure 101 Ice boats are used in one of Wisconsin’s islands when the ice isn’t too thick to act as a driveway but thick enough to not let ferries pass through.(SOURCEhttps://d36tnp772eyphs.cloudfront.net/blogs/1/2019/05/Ashland-Fire-Department.jpg) 68 Figure 102

Gondolas are used in the narrow canals in Venice.(Source- Colour box)

70 Figure 103 Mixed modes of electric shared and connected mobility (SOURCE -https://img.big. dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/images) 70 Figure 105 images)

Mobility Network (SOURCE -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/big-theme/css/

70 Figure 104 Floating Resident’s mode share(SOURCE -https://img.big.dk/wp-content/themes/ big-theme/css/images) 71 Figure 106 2014)

Cyclic City (SOURCE -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-

72 Figure 107 Scenario 1- Neighbourhood is planned on smaller platforms and consists of smaller blocks connected through bridges and divided by a network of water bodies. (Source - Author) 72 Figure 109

Typical current day street (Source - author)

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72 Figure 108

Scenario 2- Neighbourhood is planned on a larger platform (Source - author)

72 Figure 110

Typical water street in the aquatic city.(SOURCE - author)

72 Figure 111 Geithoorn - The Village with no roads (Source - https://static.boredpanda.com/blog/ wp-content/uploads/2016/05/water-village-no-roads-canals-giethoorn-netherlands-3.jpg) 72 Figure 112 Amphawa Floating market(SOURCE - https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/public/uploads/filemanager/images/Amphawa-market-canal.jpg) 72 Figure 113

Canal Edge (SOURCE - istock)

73 Figure 114

Activities along the street – A market (Source - author)

73 Figure 116

Mur Island, Graz (Source-https://i.imgur.com/DxFA0bl.jpg)

73 Figure 117 Copenhagen harbour bath, Bjarke Ingles Architects -( Source arch daily, https://www. theacademybydhi.com/-/media/shared%20content/global/news/2018/06/visit%20copenhagen. jpg?h=394&w=700&la=en) 73 Figure 118 Parkipelago (Source - https://sportsmatik.com/uploads/wiki-venues/the-float-marinabay_1579157694.jpg) 73 Figure 119 The Float, Singapore (Source -https://sportsmatik.com/uploads/wiki-venues/thefloat-marina-bay_1579157694.jpg) 73 Figure 115

Activities along the water street– A floating market (Source - Author)

73 Figure 120

Liminal Spaces betwee two platforms as a communal space (Source -Author)

73 Figure 121

Flexibility of Public Spaces (Source -Author)

74 Figure 127

Section of a Partially Submerged Neighbourhood (Source -Author)

74 Figure 122 Ocean Spiral City (Source-https://www.shimz.co.jp/en/topics/dream/content01/images/img_index_07.jpg) 74 Figure 124 Swale, NY City, (Source - https://media.cntraveler.com/photos/5b493ad54b1b564ac0e61e6c/master/w_1920%2Cc_limit/SWALE_Swale-Aerial-Skyline-2_Courtesy-of-Cloud-Factory.jpg) 74 Figure 126 OFF Paris Seine, Floating Hotel (Source -https://divisare-res.cloudinary.com/images/c_limit,f_auto,h_2000,q_auto,w_3000/v1478689103/qezte5qmgrfeq9akihyf/seine-design-sergio-grazia-off-paris-seine.jpg) 74 Figure 123 Aqueora - Underwater Parks (Source-https://vincent.callebaut.org/static/projects/151223_aequorea/hr/aequorea_pl030.jpg) 74 Figure 125 OFF Paris Seine, Floating Hotel (Source - https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcS8_FG3iEmXeMY03bdKjsgdPrrOUDIdLRErGkDlGc_dChzmA1otI2F536G94Pv1ujcib1Y&usqp=CAU) 75 Figure 128 Good Hotel being transported from Amsterdam (Source - https://www.thetravelmagazine.net/wp-content/uploads/Good-Hotel-696x464.jpg) 75 Figure 129 Good Hotel docked at London (Soucre : https://www.thetravelmagazine.net/wp-content/uploads/Good-Hotel-696x464.jpg) 75 Figure 130

Level of chlorophyll around the world (Source -vos.noaa.gov)

75 Figure 131

Waternet office towed to site (Soucre : Archdaily)

75 Figure 132

Waternet office building towed to site (Soucre : Archdaily)

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Chapter 5 76 Figure 133 Visualisation of a Seastead designed by The Seasteading Institute (Source -Artwork by Chad Lewis, https://www.hakaimagazine.com/features/the-quest-for-a-floating-utopia,) 78 Figure 134

Wave Behaviour (Soucre : The Seasteading Institute, 2014)

78 Figure 135 Weight of the structure (essentially gravitational froce) is balanced by bouyant force which allows the object to float (Image Soucre : Author) 78 Figure 136 Weight of the structure (essentially gravitational froce) is not balanced by bouyant force as the centre of bouyancy is displaced due to wave action. This causes the object to tilt. (Image Soucre : Author) 78 Figure 137 Structure remains stable by increasing depth. Centre of bouyancy is unaffected by waves as it lies below the line of wave action. (Image Soucre : Author) 78 Figure 138

Structure remains stable by increasing width of the platform (Image Soucre : Author)

79 Figure 139

Platform Connections (Source -K.K.M. Ko,2015)

80 Figure 140

Types of Mooring Systems (Soucre : The Seasteading Institute, 2014)

81 Figure 141 Atoll (Image Soucre : https://newsroomantigua.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/ HMB_Web_Home_HMBA.jpg) 81 Figure 142 Bay (Image Soucre : https://newsroomantigua.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/ HMB_Web_Home_HMBA.jpg) 81 Figure 143 Reefs (Image Soucre : https://newsroomantigua.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/ HMB_Web_Home_HMBA.jpg) 82 Figure 144

Types of Artificial Breakwaters (Image Soucre : The Seasteading Institue, 2014)

82 Figure 145 Mean wind profile for different terrains (Image Soucre : Puttakhun Vongsingha,2015, Wind Adaptive Building EnvelopeFor Reducing Wind Effect on High-rise) 83 Figure 146 Wind Characteristics of an object (Image Soucre : Puttakhun Vongsingha,2015, Wind Adaptive Building EnvelopeFor Reducing Wind Effect on High-rise) 83 Figure 147 Vortex shedding behavior according to building shape (Image Soucre : Puttakhun Vongsingha,2015, Wind Adaptive Building EnvelopeFor Reducing Wind Effect on High-rise) 83 Figure 148 Different in drag coefficient in different building surface(Image Soucre : Puttakhun Vongsingha,2015, Wind Adaptive Building EnvelopeFor Reducing Wind Effect on High-rise) 83 Figure 149 Design Typologies(Image Soucre : Puttakhun Vongsingha,2015, Wind Adaptive Building EnvelopeFor Reducing Wind Effect on High-rise, Edited by author) 84 Figure 150

Temporary Displacement Strategy (Image Soucre : Seasteading Institute)

85 Figure 151 World map of Natural Hazards (Image Soucre : https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/ images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTjoc-FOJPUnhpxEsZtRXVWhUi2RS1yYQ8HG6q7G0dyIdkRP5G4iMxDqfqTkek5L6Zjj8g&usqp=CAU) 86 Figure 154 Drone Footage of aquatic growth below the structure (Image Soucre : Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & De Graaf, Rutger & Dionisio Pires, Miguel & Sazonov, V. (2015). MONITORING THE IMPACTS OF FLOATING STRUCTURES ON THE WATER QUALITY AND ECOLOGY USING AN UNDERWATER DRONE. ) 86 Figure 152 Dissolved Oxygen Level (Image Soucre : Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & De Graaf, Rutger & Dionisio Pires, Miguel & Sazonov, V. (2015). MONITORING THE IMPACTS OF FLOATING STRUCTURES ON THE WATER QUALITY AND ECOLOGY USING AN UNDERWATER DRONE.)

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86 Figure 153 Comparision between the averages of the concentration of dissolved oxygen under/ near floating structures at varying depth range (Image Soucre : Lima, Rui & Boogaard, Floris & De Graaf, Rutger & Dionisio Pires, Miguel & Sazonov, V. (2015). MONITORING THE IMPACTS OF FLOATING STRUCTURES ON THE WATER QUALITY AND ECOLOGY USING AN UNDERWATER DRONE.) 88 Figure 155

Level of chlorophyll around the world (Source -vos.noaa.gov)

88 Figure 156 sync, 2012)

Combinations of algae cultures, aquacultures and crops production (Soucre : Delta-

Chapter 6 92 Figure 157

Gulf of Mannar (Source -Google Earth, Edited by author)

94 Figure 158 Proposed growth of an independent floating city (Source -The Seasteading Institue, Floating City Project Report, 2013-2014) 94 Figure 159 Offshore Economic Activities (Source -From Left to Right-https://divcomplatformstaging.s3.amazonaws.com/workboat.divcomstaging.com/images/) 95 Figure 160 2014)

Environmental parameters for site selection (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-

96 Figure 161 2014)

Environmental parameters for site selection (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-

96 Figure 162

Environmental aggregation layer (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

97 Figure 163 2014)

Economic parameters for site selection (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-

98 Figure 164 2014)

Economic parameters for site selection (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-

98 Figure 165

Economic aggregration layer (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

99 Figure 166

Legal Parameters for site selection (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

99 Figure 167

Economic aggregration layer (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

100Figure 168

Favourable Sites for sea steading (Source -The Seasteading Institue, 2013-2014)

101Figure 169

Phase 1 of an aquatic neighbourhood (Source -author)

101Figure 170

Phase 2 of an aquatic neighbourhood (Source -author)

101Figure 171

Phase 3 of an aquatic neighbourhood (Source -author)

101Figure 172

Transit hub (Source -author)

102Figure 173

Wind Speed (Source -Global Wind Atlas)

102Figure 175

Ocean Currents (Source -https://earth.nullschool.net/)

102Figure 174

Bathymetry (Source -Global Wind Atlas)

102Figure 176

Proximity to ports (Source -Google Earth, Edited by author)

103Figure 177 Sagarmala Project (Source -https://infralive.com/web/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/28-Sagarmala-Action-Begins.jpgauthor) 103Figure 178 Proposed location of the port (Source -Techno-Economic Feasibility Report for Development of Port at Vadhavan,2015)

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103Figure 179 Site context (Source -Techno-Economic Feasibility Report for Development of Port at Vadhavan,2015) 104Figure 180 Proposed location of the offshore port (Source -Techno-Economic Feasibility Report for Development of Port at Vadhavan,2015, Edited by author) 104Figure 181 Current proposal for resource management (Source -Techno-Economic Feasibility Report for Development of Port at Vadhavan,2015) 104Figure 182

Areas suitable for harvesting wind energy (Source - Fowind)

105Figure 184

Seaweed raft(Source -Scroll youtube)

105Figure 185

Seaweed uses(Source -PMSSY)

105Figure 186 Seaweed market for the future (Source -https://www.maximizemarketresearch.com/ wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Seaweed-Extract-Market-by-Region.png) 105Figure 183 Global Scenario of seaweed production (Up) Seaweed Cultivation, (Below) Wild Capture(Source -https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Javier-Infante-Rosselot/publication/320306944/figure/fig2/AS:548032920985602@1507672638783/Seaweed-production-inthe-year-2014-a-Aquaculture-and-b-Fisheries-Colour-scale-in-wet.png) 106Figure 187

Raft Culture of seaweed harvesting (Source -PMSSY)

106Figure 188

Monoline Culture of seaweed harvesting (Source -PMSSY)

106Figure 189

Tube net method of seaweed harvesting (Source -PMSSY)

106Figure 190

Seaweed post harvesting (Source -PMSSY)

106Figure 191

Seaweed harvesting (Source -PMSSY)

106Figure 192 Coastline threatened by Sea Level Rise (Source https://indiaclimatedialogue. net/2015/07/10/global-sea-levels-may-rise-by-over-6-metres-study/sea-level-rise-south-asia-vulnerability-map/) 107Figure 193

Sites favourable for seaweed cultivation (Source Google Earth, Edited by author)

107Figure 194 Map of south-east coast of India showing the study area for seaweed cultivation (Source R. NARAYANAKUMAR AND M. KRISHNAN,2013, Socio-economic assessment of seaweed farmers in Tamil Nadu - A case study in Ramanathapuram District) 108Figure 195 Seaweed Cultivation in Tamil Nadu (From left to right)A,B- Aerial view of seaweed farms in Sambai, Tamil Nadu, C,D-Raft preparation, E-Tying of seedling to the ropes F,G-Setting up the raft, ,H,I,J- Collection of seaweed post harvest period ( Source - Scroll youtube)

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Michielinsinger (2015, July 18). Floating Lilypad City. Aquatic Urbanism. https://aquaticurbanism.com/ floating-lilypad-city/ Bello, S. (2020, June 17). Building An Underwater City: The Future of Humanity. EDGY_ Labs. https:// edgy.app/underwater-city-challenges Bonsor, K. (2021, June 11). How Floating Cities Will Work. HowStuffWorks. https://science.howstuffworks.com/engineering/structural/floating-city.html City At Sea: Plans For The World’s Largest Ship. (2004, December 7). Popular Mechanics. https://www. popularmechanics.com/technology/infrastructure/a5385/1289186/ A. (2019, June 26). How floating architecture could help save cities from rising seas. Waterstudio. https://www.waterstudio.nl/how-floating-architecture-could-help-save-cities-from-rising-seas/ Mecking, O. (2017, August 21). Are the Floating Houses of the Netherlands a Solution Against the Rising Seas? Pacific Standard. https://psmag.com/environment/are-the-floating-houses-of-the-netherlandsa-solution-against-the-rising-seas The Doomsday Datavisualizations. (2021, May 26). Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. https://thebulletin. org/doomsday-clock/datavisualizations/#climate McKie, R. (2021, August 25). When Antarctica was a tropical paradise. The Guardian. https://www. theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/17/antarctica-tropical-climate-co2-research Think, B. (2017, September 29). Seasteading 101: How to Build the World’s First Society-at-Sea | Marc Collins | Big Think [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCTXGC_ylF4&feature=youtu.be Next 30, T. (2018, April 1). Should We Colonize The Oceans? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=mAe82D53VjU&feature=youtu.be Marsh, B. (2017, June 15). Overpopulated and Underfed: Countries Near a Breaking Point. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/15/sunday-review/overpopulated-and-underfed-countries-near-a-breaking-point.html?mtrref=undefined&gwh=8A32AE0351491B06CCC1B2E5B8D564FE&gwt=pay&assetType=PAYWALL Bartels, M. (2016, August 17). Before we colonize space, we may want to colonize our own oceans first. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.in/science/space/before-we-colonize-space-we-maywant-to-colonize-our-own-oceans-first/articleshow/53743502.cms Wang, B. T. (2019, June 2). Floating cities: the future or a washed-up idea? The Conversation. https:// theconversation.com/floating-cities-the-future-or-a-washed-up-idea-116511 Zebra, T. P. (2021, July 8). The world’s first floating ocean colony is on track to being completed by 2020. The Plaid Zebra. https://theplaidzebra.com/the-worlds-first-floating-ocean-colony-is-on-trackto-being-completed-by-2020/ Urbina, I. (2019, August 16). A Visit to Sealand, the World’s Tiniest Nation. The Atlantic. https://www. theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/08/sealand-outlaw-ocean-tiniest-nation/596074/ Baldwin, E. (2021, February 21). Colonizing the Ocean Floor: Is it Actually Possible? Ocean Info. https:// oceaninfo.com/ocean/colonizing-the-ocean-floor/ NASA Astronauts Train Deep Undersea For Deep Space Missions. (2016). NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/ feature/nasa-astronauts-train-deep-undersea-for-deep-space-missions/ Huebner, S. (2021). Earth’s Amphibious Transformation: Tange Kenzo, Buckminster Fuller, and marine urbanization in global environmental thought (1950s–present). Modern Asian Studies, 1-30. doi:10.1017/S0026749X21000251 Seaty –. (2011, January 12). IAAC Blog. https://www.iaacblog.com/programs/seaty/

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C. (2017, September 4). The Palm Jumeirah Development in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Design Build Network. https://www.designbuild-network.com/projects/palm-jumeirah/ A. (2020a, June 2). Living on Water. Sustainable Housing in Amsterdam (2/2) [Video]. YouTube. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=zEEgjSdUr4c&feature=youtu.be Thomas, W. (2021, April 24). Afternoon Walk in IJburg - Amsterdam 🌞 | Steigereiland | The Netherlands 4K [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tEBQyg-vtqY&feature=youtu.be Jacobson, J. (2017, September 14). 5 Architectural Secrets of the Badjao: 21st Century Sea People. ArchDaily. https://www.archdaily.com/638523/5-architectural-secrets-of-the-badjao-21st-centurysea-people Schulz, D. (2016, March 30). POLL: Are Floating Parks the Future of Public Space in NYC? 6sqft. https:// www.6sqft.com/poll-are-floating-parks-the-future-of-public-space-in-nyc/ Penning-Rowsell, E. (2019). Floating architecture in the landscape: climate change adaptation ideas, opportunities and challenges. Landscape Research, 45(4), 395–411. doi:10.1080/01426397.2019 .1694881 Marius, M. (2021, May 20). An “Invitation to Dream” at Little Island, New York’s Newest Park. Vogue. https://www.vogue.com/article/little-island-park Hernández, D. (2021, April 28). Aarhus Harbor Bath / BIG. ArchDaily. https://www.archdaily. com/900107/aarhus-harbor-bath-big Copenhagen’s New Public Spaces Are Modular and Can Float. (2020, March 4). Pop-Up City. https:// popupcity.net/observations/copenhagens-new-public-spaces-are-modular-and-can-float/ Spurrell, M. (2018, July 20). 6 Floating Parks Around the World. CondÃ© Nast Traveler. https://www. cntraveler.com/gallery/floating-parks-around-the-world Yong, E. (2018, April 20). How the Bajau ‘Sea Nomads’ Evolved for a Life of Diving. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/04/bajau-sea-nomads-diving-evolution-spleen/558359/ Gollan, S. (2021, November 13). A Journey into Bajau Laut, The Sea Gypsies of Borneo. Uncharted Backpacker. https://www.unchartedbackpacker.com/a-journey-into-bajau-laut-the-sea-gypsies-ofborneo/ Jeffries, S. (2020, September 23). How to build a city from scratch: the handy step-by-step DIY guide. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/jun/30/how-build-city-step-by-step-diyguide Quirk, J., P., Jackson, C., W., W., Jackson, C., & Jackson, C. (2021, November 30). Flexible Floating: Marine Urbanisation with FlexBase. The Seasteading Institute. https://www.seasteading.org/flexbase/

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