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CONTENTS 1.0 Abstract 2.0 Thesis Statement 3.0 Research 3.1 Area of Focus Summary 3.2 Literature Review 3.3 Questions/Theoretical Issues Raised 3.4 Architectural Issues 3.5 Architectural Precedents 4.0 Site and Context Analysis 4.1 Annotated Aerial Photos of Maps of Site 4.2 Site Documentation 4.3 Site Studies 4.4 Site Parameters 5.0 Program 5.1 Program Type, Description, and Assessment 5.2 Programmatic Elements and Interrelationships 5.3 Graphic Representation of Program 6.0 Conceptual / Preliminary Design Studies 6.1 Studies/Devices Revealing Architectonic Ideas 7.0 Conclusion 8.0 Bibliography
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Abstract An exponential increase in the popularity of mountaineering indicates that there is great interest in preserving the unaltered environment. Nepal’s Khumbu region, home of Mt. Everest, invites thousand of outdoor enthusiasts into the highest valleys on the planet. However, the activity in this area is mostly unregulated and heavy use results in the contamination of the natural environment.
Presently, mountaineering is incompatible with environmental sustainability. These expeditions are the source of an endless amount of trash left on the mountain. A lifethreatening environment is often cited as the justification for the abandonment of gear like oxygen bottles and plastic containers. Additionally, human excrement is accumulating in areas of heavy use. Without adequate waste management, bacteria often find their way into water sources and affects the health of the local population. Furthermore, worldwide climate change is reshaping the natural features of the local terrain. The receding Imja glacier is an accurate representation of global temperature increase. Its potential energy, frozen for millennia, becomes available for harvest in the form of glacial lakes. Both deadly and powerful, these lakes have the capacity to change the lifestyles of the local population and to improve the sustainability of outdoor recreation with the responsible use of its immense natural energy.
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Thesis
To support sustainable mountaineering, an unprecedented resource must be made available to mountaineers to intercept the waste they produce on the mountain and produce the energy needed to power a clean expedition. Glacial lakes in the upper Himalayas have the measurable potential to power a permeable membrane for the purpose of preventing the negative side effects of outdoor human exploration while encouraging the responsible use of beautiful natural environments.
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An Introduction to Mountaineering Mountaineering in the Himalayas is absurd. There are only 14 mountain peaks on Earth that reach 8.000 meters above sea level, all of which are found in the Himalaya mountain range. Above the 8.000-meter mark, there isn’t enough oxygen to sustain human life for more than a couple of days, [1] and high-altitude sickness may claim a person’s life well before then. Climbers must plan a short visit to the “death zone” to reach the summit, following weeks of acclimatization in the lower valleys. However, an avalanche, exhaustion or altitude sickness may cause death well before considering a summit attempt. Mt. Everest is the permanent resting place for over 250 climbers who have succumbed to the mountain’s deadly challenge. [2] Most of which are in too dangerous a place to be recovered for an appropriate burial. So, what’s the point of climbing mountains? Why get anywhere near this killer peak? A logical reason for climbing in the Himalayas is illusive, yet the popularity of mountaineering in this region is increasing exponentially. From 1979 to 2010, the number of tourists visiting the Sagarmatha National Park, home of Mt. Everest, increased from 3,600 to over 25,000 [3] people! Before Mt. Everest was conquered, George Mallory, an English pioneer who would later die attempting the first summit of this savage mountain, was asked why he wanted to stand on top its chilling peak. Mallory answered, “Because it’s there… Everest is the highest mountain in the world, and no man has reached its summit. Its existence is a challenge. The answer is instinctive, a part, I suppose, of Man’s desire to conquer the universe.” [4] This destructive justification has been the driving force behind mountaineering for the last six decades.
Today, climbing an 8.000-meter peak is undoubtedly a selfish act. Contemporary studies in the area indicate that these expeditions are the cause of adverse impacts on the local environment and native population. But, these damaging effects do not align with the environmentally conscious attitude of the typical outdoor enthusiast. The majority of Western backpackers, trekkers, and climbers subscribe to a “Leave No Trace” policy; an ethical doctrine that aims at reducing human impact in heavily used natural recreational areas. [5] However, the ideas in this document do not translate well to mountaineering in extreme environments like the Himalayas. The challenging logistics of highaltitude trekking and the higher exposure to deadly weather and natural disasters often leads to desperate survival situations that result in the inadvertent destruction of the environment. The way expeditions are carried out today is not sustainable. Summit attempts are modeled after outdated cultural ideas intent on dominating the landscape. Mallory attributes his lust for climbing mountains to, “Man’s desire to conquer the universe.” [4] Now that Man has scraped clean the Earth’s surface, mountaineering can serve a more noble purpose. The dramatic increase in outdoor activity in the Himalayas can be supported with an intervention that manages and eliminates the negative impact of mountaineering. By encouraging the responsible use of beautiful natural areas, mountaineers are more inclined to try to understand how their lifestyles at home have an effect on the global environment. Once this appreciation for nature is fully welcomed by a larger population, a cultural shift can be made towards environmentally friendly recreation.
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Documented Waste At the foot of the world’s tallest mountain sits Mt. Everest base camp, a temporary collection of primitive tents scattered along the Khumbu glacier. This community only exists for two months in the spring to support the mountaineers who hope to conquer Everest. Over the last 62 years, more than 4,000 climbers have made this site their home. [8] And for the last 62 years, these climbers and their support teams have inadvertently laid waste to the local Himalayan valleys. On the way to the peak, people often leave oxygen bottles, fuel canisters, broken climbing equipment, human waste and even dead bodies in their wake, transforming the once pristine peak into the world’s highest garbage dump in the short span of 50 years. “The two standard routes, the Northeast Ridge and the Southeast Ridge, are not only dangerously crowded but also disgustingly polluted, with garbage leaking out of the glaciers and pyramids of human excrement befouling the high camps,” mountaineer Mark Jenkins wrote in a 2013 National Geographic article on Everest. [9] Ang Tshering, president of the Nepal Mountaineering Association, warned that, “pollution, particularly human waste, has reached critical levels and threatens to spread disease on the world’s highest peak.” [10] At base camp, climbers have the luxury of toilet tents with drums that are eventually carried to lower areas. When base camp’s outhouse barrels are full, porters haul them to open pits near Gorak Shep, the closest village, where sickening bacteria is dangerously close to the local water source. Meanwhile, above base camp, most
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climbers straddle small crevasses to relieve themselves. As a result, the peak has been described as a fecal time bomb, and the mess creeps closer to base camp as the Khumbu glacier slides down the valley. Some climbers refuse to boil the snow for drinking water at camps higher on the mountain, because the lower boiling temperature at this extreme altitude may not kill all the germs. [10] It is estimated that as much as 26,500 pounds of human excrement is produced each season. [11] Most of it is bagged and carried by native Sherpas to open pits near Gorak Shep, the closest seasonal village. But the pile grows bigger each season, and fecal coliform bacteria threaten the nearby Khumbu Glacier watershed. Nepal officials have begun to understand this problem, now requiring each climber to pack out 8 kg. of garbage, which is the estimated amount of waste produced per climber. [11] But this regulation is not commonly enforced, and only addresses visible trash, overlooking the danger of coliform bacteria.
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Water Pollution Recent tests of water sources in the Sagarmatha National Park indicate a presence of health-threatening levels of coliform bacteria. Poorly managed solid waste disposal and open defecation have resulted in the contamination of the major rivers. Sewage waste is often directly discharged into nearby streams and rivers. The trek from Lukla airport to Mt. Everest base camp passes dozens of teashops and tourist hotels that dump their solid waste into nearby streams. Even though the surface water is polluted, it is still used as a potable water supply by the native Sherpa population. [12] Natives drink out of local springs that they believe to be clean, but risk intestinal infection as coliform bacteria’s presence is higher near these seasonal villages. Western climbers pay thousands of dollars and plan for years to make this trek, so naturally most won’t risk getting sick on the way there. They may boil their water or buy bottled water in villages along the trail. This, of course, leads to in increase in the amount of plastic bottles discarded along the trekking path, rivers and streams. This also means that climbers must carry more fuel and fuel canisters to boil water, often with no intention to carry them back out.
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Ecology The ecology of the Himalaya mountain range changes abruptly, from tropical at the base of the mountains to perpetual ice and snow at the top. These complex and diverse ecoregions are interconnected: an ecological threat to one is ultimately a threat to all. Alpine tundra dominates the terrain above tree line, where most mountaineering activity occurs. Western alpine shrubs and meadows can be found between 3.000 and 5.000 meters. These areas tend to have cold winters and mild summers that allow for plant growth. Rhododendron plants cover the lower shrublands, while the alpine meadows, directly above, host a range of flora in the warmer months. Animals found in this region include the snow leopard, Himalayan tahr, musk deer, and pikas. [6] In the northeast, temperate sub-alpine conifer forests are found at elevations of 2.500 to 4.500 meters. Located in the inner valley area, these forests are protected from the harsh monsoon conditions by surrounding mountain ranges. The dominant tree types are pine, hemlock, spruce, and fir. Animals found in this region include red pandas, takins, and musk deer. [6]
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Hydrology In addition to flora and fauna, the Himalayas are the source Asia’s most important rivers. Precipitation and melt water from this mountain range feeds the Ganges, Indus, Yarlung, Yangtze, Yellow, Mekong, and Nujiang rivers. [6] Summer monsoons and winter precipitation are important in generating lean flow for agriculture. Most of the winter precipitation falls as snow and nourishes snowfields and glaciers, generating melt water in the dry season between February and April. Lower temperatures results in less evaporation and rain of lesser intensity can have a higher rate of percolation that nourishes the root zone of the soil. [7] The summer monsoon is economically the most important season. The average precipitation in the country is 1.768 mm, [7] but it varies greatly from place to place owing to sharp topographical variation. As the rain bearing winds approach Nepal from the southeast in the summer monsoon season, heavy rainfall occurs in the foothills of the Churia range. While monsoon precipitation occupies 70 to 85 percent of the total precipitation, the storage of winter precipitation in the upper Himalayas is extremely important for low flow irrigation during the dry season. [7]
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Imja Glacier Imja Lake
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Glaciers Climatic changes and its impacts on the fluctuation of glaciers are natural phenomenon that have been occurring in the Earth’s five billionyear-old history. But the last two decades have seen an alarming acceleration of glacier and ice field melt. [7] Snow, glaciers and permafrost are especially sensitive to changes in atmospheric conditions because of their proximity to melting conditions. Glacier retreat is among the most directly visible signals of global warming. This is the primary reason why glacier observations have been used for climate system monitoring for many years. [13] This is also the reason why glaciers need to be studied closely and consistently, to establish a reliable database of environmental records for use by the scientific community. The majority of glacier observation is done with remote sensing and satellite imagery. This method of studying glaciers has illustrated the rapid shrinking of glaciers in the Himalayas. But aerial photography is not enough to understand all the effects of climate change on glacier activity. Field study is crucial for examining the complete volume and composition of ice and reveals the presence of glacial lakes, some of which pose a threat to villages downriver. Researches must have access to these remote Himalayan areas in order to assess the risk of glacial lake outburst floods. Currently, scientific endeavors to Himalayan glaciers are rare, expensive and dangerous. Only a few of the regions 159 glaciers are examined on-site, focusing on melting glaciers that supply glacial lakes.
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Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) As glaciers retreat, melt water fills the depression left by the receding ice. Occasionally, the natural dams that holds back these lakes may fail when triggered by an external event like an earthquake or an avalanche. A huge amount of water is quickly released, devastating settlements lower in the valley. Since 1935, more than 16 glacial lake outburst floods have been reported in Nepal, some with deadly consequences. The most notable glacial lake outburst flood occurred in 1985, within the Sagarmatha National Park, where thousands of trekkers visit each year. The Dig Tsho glacial lake outburst flood was triggered by a large avalanche, sending a wall of water towards seasonal and permanent villages, heavily populated during climbing season. Luckily, the event occurred following the high-traffic season, sparing many people their lives. The event did, however, destroyed a hydroelectricity project, 14 bridges, 30 houses and farmlands worth $4 million. [13] The economic destruction is immense for the landlocked Nepal, the poorest country in South Asia. Imja Tsho is a glacial lake, in the Sagarmatha National Park, which has garnered the attention of many researchers. This glacial lake is labeled as potentially dangerous due to the structural instability of its natural dam as well as its proximity to the most popular trekking route in the Himalayas. The closeness to a heavily trafficked trail means that researches have easier access to study the glacier and lake on site, making Imja Tsho the most studied glacial lake in the Himalayas.
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Sherpa Culture Sherpa belong to a tribe of Tibetan origin who have settled in the highest Himalayan valleys of northeastern Nepal. Once a nomadic people, their permanent location has transformed them into a highly respected group of mountaineers. Known internationally for their climbing skills, Sherpa also have a unique genetic makeup that allows them to use oxygen in the environment more efficiently, allowing them to survive without supplemental oxygen at heights any normal climber would struggle to simply breathe at. With this special physical ability and a culture molded by the world’s most imposing landscape, they have earned their reputation as master climbers. The incredible skill of the Sherpa are what make mountaineering in this area possible. Expeditions are very often led by a local Sherpa who has knowledge and climbing experience on the target summit. In addition to this guide service, many high-altitude porters are employed to carry the large amount of food and gear that is needed to sustain a multi-month trip. Without the help of these people and the yak as well, the logistics of an expedition would prevent most climbers from entering the valley. The remaining population either serves in the tourism industry or in agriculture. There are many tea houses and hotels scattered up the valley that would not exist without the thousands of trekkers and climbers that visit in the spring. The local Sherpa and the foreign mountaineer are dependent on the other. Their existence is threatened by the increasing damage of occupying these polluted valleys. If either global climate change or the local mountaineering impact is left unchanged, both will be left with nothing.
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Architectural Precedents The Monte Rosa Hut (left) is the most progressive example of responsible alpine architecture today. Found in the Swiss Alps, this tightly-sealed thermos has achieved 90% selfsufficiency. This building, operated by the Swiss Alpine Club, invites trekkers to stay the night perched on top a glacier, overlooking Switzerland’s iconic Matterhorn. Energy is produced on-site, using photovoltaic panels to collect the immense solar energy found at this altitude. Solar tubes make warm showers possible, and reliable, reducing the energy needed to provide certain comforts expected from tourists today. An underground cistern collects meltwater to be used during the high season, eliminating the need to carry bottled water to the hut, and further, eliminating the energy required to remove and recycle that waste. The building even manages feces and urine on site, reducing the cost and environmental impact of transporting this waste to a remote waste management center. The completion of this hut marks the begining of the shift of mountaineering towards a more sustainable and autonomous practice. With objects like the Monte Rosa Hut strategically scattered through high-altitude environments, hikers and adventurers may experience these natural areas guilt-free, knowing that the energy that they need and waste that they produce will have as little impact on the landscape as possible. Of course, the final result can always be improved. The Monte Rosa Hut still uses an unhealthy amount of energy transporting and cooking food. The solutions to these problems exist and must be utilized in Himalayan architecture.
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Site The site for this permeable membrane lies at the edge of the Imja Tsho, a glacial lake, within Sagarmatha National Park, the most heavily trafficed area in the Himalayas. The glacier and accompanying lake are only a few kilometers from the peak of Mt. Everest and its often visited by trekkers on their way to Mt. Everest base camp. Imja Tsho has been identified as one of two potentially dangerous lakes within the park boundaries. Due to the popularity of this valley, an intervention at this location that can mitigate the risk of a glacial lake outburst flood will be valuable to the permanent residents as well as the transient population of climbers that flood this region every spring season. The potential for economic disaster is very serious for this valley. A natural disaster in this region has the potential to dramatically reduce the scale of the local tourism industry, which is the main course of employment in the area. The Imja Glacier is the most frequently studied glacier in the Himalaya mountain range, do to its accessability as well as its potential for destruction. By encouraging the study of this glacier and glacial lake, risk assessment for glacial lake outburst floods can be refined and implemented throughout the Himalayas, maybe providing solutions for potentially dangerous lakes. Introducing alpine architecure on this site will allow it to serve multiple populations. During the spring, it may act as a base camp for mountaineers attempting to summit the adjacent Island Peak. In the winter it may enable researches to access the dangerous Imja glacier. And year round it may serve the local population, reducing the local impact of mountaineering and mitigating the potential of a devastating glacial lake outburst flood.
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Area of Focus
The mountainous setting for this project demands a thorough understanding of the powerful natural forces found in high-altitude environments. Precipitation, temperature and elevation in this region are all life-threatening factors. Nepal’s Sagarmatha National Park, home of Mt. Everest, is a planet of its own. Glaciers and glacial lakes contain huge amounts of energy, lingering above populated Himalayan valleys. Their frozen potential can be slowly released for human consumption or their natural dam structures may fail catastrophically, releasing devastating floodwaters. This research concerns the Sherpa people of Eastern Nepal and concerns the thousands of international mountaineers who explore this breathtaking region.
Growth of Imja Tsho Only sixty years ago this glacial lake did not exist. The size of this lake is a direct representation of increasing average temperatures in the region. Mountainous regions are safest when they are covered in perpetual snow and ice. The thawing of this valley is a bad omen for the safety of climbers and local inhabitants. A sustainable base camp can not reverse global warming, but it can reduce the risk of visiting these valleys. By draining the lake and using its energy to produce electricity, the valley will have one less natural disaster to worry about. Additionaly, it should increase the interest in studying and publicizing the changes of the Imja glacier and its dependent glacial lake, as it indicates global climate change affecting everyone.
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Afternoon solar heating
Morning solar heating
Gabion wall Heat Sink Hydroelectric power Water from Imja Tsho Fertilizer to Dingboche
Biogas Digester Bathroom
Sleeping Space Bamboo structure Bagroom Earthquake-absorbing foundation
Kitchen / Lounge Gravity-fed water source Biogas fuel stove
Expedition Plan
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1m
Group lounge
Program
Recycled Biogas Digester
The site serves two purposes: to intercept various types of waste resulting from an expedition and to produce energy in the form of electricity and fuel using renewable sources of energy. A successful basecamp packages the systems required to achieve this on a selfcontained site. Each expedition team occupies one unit of the larger site. The unit’s structure is composed of a gabion wall heat sink, filled with stone and plastic found on-site. Supported by the rock wall, a tectonic bamboo structure, transported and assembled in sticks similar to a tent, creates the shelter for the guest room, kitchen and bathroom. This bamboo structure works in tension, increasing its resistance of earthquakes. In combination with the gabion wall, built on top a dry stone foundation, earthquakes should have little effect on the base camp, making it one of the few safe places for a mountaineer. The guest room’s only feature is a raised floor, lifting people in their sleeping bags away from the cold ground at night. The kitchen is a small community space, where food is cooked and served and downtime is passed with close friends and partners. Lastly, the bathroom is home to the biogas digester, a system which converts human waste to methane gas, which is piped shortly to the kitchen. The remaining solid waste is transported by a hired porter to the local village of Dingboche to be used as a nutrient-rich fertilizer.
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Site Plan Several expedition teams occupy the same base camp as they prepare for a chance to summit, waiting for a short break in the weather. Most groups make these camps their home for weeks or months at a time. These teams are connected through the on-site shared systems as well as a community tent. Two forces drive the interactions between international climbers at base camp: socializing and leader communications. Firstly, the leaders of each expedition, often a native Sherpa, has the responsibility of deciding when it is safest to make a summit attempt. To be successful, leaders need reliable communication to a weather station and need a meeting place to work together and share the immense amount of information and climbing experience between all the leaders. Secondly, with weeks of downtime, a place for socializing will be the most heavily used space at base camp. In addition to social interactions, all expeditions are connected to a stream, originating from Imja Tsho, providing clean drinking water. Output from each expedition, mainly fertilizer from each biogas digester, must be carried by a hired porter several kilometers down the valley to the closest permanent village, Dingboche. Here, it will be used as a free nutrient-rich fertilizer for their farmland. These connections between individual expeditions and the climbing community, including local villages, create a self-contained base camp that produces a manageable amount of waste and reduces the load that mountaineers and highaltitude porters need to carry in. The site is as easily deconstructed as it is easy to assemble. With care, this base camp will leave no trace.
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Hydroelectric power Water from Imja Tsho Fertilizer to Dingboche
Exp. 1
Hydroelectricity generator
Exp. 2 Exp. 3
Electricity Water Fertilizer
Exp. 4
Exp. 5
Site System Organization
Fertilizer to Dingboche
8km/5mi
Communication/ First aid/ Group tent
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Works Cited [1] Popoviciu, Ciprian. “The Death Zone.” Learn NC. Accessed October 5, 2016. http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/mount-everest/5237. [2] “Everest Age, Success and Fatalities.” Adventure Stats. Accessed October 5, 2016. http://www.adventurestats.com/tables/EverestAgeFat.shtml. [3] “Sagarmatha National Park.” UNESCO. Accessed October 5, 2016. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/120. [4] “”Because It’s There” the Quotable George Mallory.” The Clymb. Accessed October 5, 2016. http://blog.theclymb.com/passions/explore/becauseits-there-the-quotable-george-mallory/. [5] “The Leave No Trace Seven Principles.” Leave No Trace. Accessed October 5, 2016. https://lnt.org/learn/7-principles. [6] “Himalayas Facts.” PBS. February 11, 2011. Accessed October 5, 2016. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/the-himalayas-himalayas-facts/6341/. [7] Thomas, Joe K., and Sandeep Rai Chamling. An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat, and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India and China. [8] “Everest by the Numbers: The Latest Summit Stats.” The Blog on Alanarnette.com. February 20, 2014. Accessed October 5, 2016. http://www. alanarnette.com/blog/2014/02/20/everest-numbers-latest-summit-stats/. [9] Jenkins, Mark. “Everest Maxed Out.” National Geographic. June 2013. Accessed October 5, 2016. http://ngm.nationalgeographic. com/2013/06/125-everest-maxed-out/jenkins-text. [10] Holly, Peter. “Decades of Human Waste Have Made Mount Everest a ‘fecal Time Bomb’.” The Washington Post. March 23, 2015. Accessed October 5, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/03/03/decades-of-human-waste-have-made-mount-everest-a-fecal-timebomb/. [11] “Converting Waste on Mount Everest.” Grinnell College. July 16, 2014. Accessed October 6, 2016. https://www.grinnell.edu/news/convertingwaste-mount-everest. [12] Nicholson, K., Hayes, E., Neumann, K., Dowling, C. and Sharma, S. (2016) Drinking Water Quality in the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 4, 43-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/gep.2016.44007 [13] Haeberli,W.,1990.Glacierandpermafrostsignalsof20thcenturywarming.AnnalsofGlaciology,14,p99 [14] “Beautifully Efficient: The New Monte Rosa Hut.” Swiss Alpine Club SAC. Accessed October 6, 2016. http://www.solaripedia.com/files/354.pdf.
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