Has Modernism Influenced the Visual Language of Science Fiction Cinema? Introduction The genre of Science Fiction is one that has a very specific visual culture attached to it. When considering the visual language used in science fiction cinema, it is littered with visual conventions, clichés and stereotypes that conform to what viewers expect from the genre. A quote from Katya Rogatchevskaia, curator of the British Library’s exhibition ‘Out of This World: Science Fiction but not as you know it.’, provides the most striking example: “[…] If you asked a selection of people to draw an extraterrestrial life form, it is highly likely that you would be presented with at least a few domed-headed, boggle-eyed beings. This representation of aliens is not based on any real science, but it has entered our visual culture and become iconic.” (Rogatchevskaia, 2011). The visual culture to which Rogatchevskaia refers, is one that has naturally evolved and has been reinforced, embedding itself into Western cinematic culture, after decades of science fiction literature and cinema. While the history of the genre explains the evolution of its visual language, it doesn’t do much when questioning the origins of it. Wherein lies the aesthetic origins of the ‘boggle eyed beings’, the sleek spaceships and the geometric utopian cities? The antecedents of Science Fiction don’t provide all the answers, however, the philosophical and artistic movements of the era in which it began, may provide further insight into the influences that informed its origin. Modernism This essay will focus on Modernism with specification to its potential influence upon Science Fiction, through an investigation of the evolution of the science fiction aesthetic and the modernist design principles of which may have contributed to it. The aim being to discover whether Modernism, and its sub-movements (Minimalism, Futurism, Expressionism, etc), played a part in forming the visual language and culture of present day science fiction cinema. In general terms, Modernism can be defined as ‘an international tendency’ that expressed itself in Western literature, theatre, music, visual arts and architecture in the latter half of the Nineteenth century and early Twentieth century. (Hermansen and Hvattum) To understand the relation between Modernism and Science Fiction, it is important to understand the philosophies of the Modernist movement. These philosophies were brought on by fundamental changes in social sciences, technology, science and the arts. There were numerous factors that contributed to this reformation. Dawtrey (1996) exemplified “the development of industrial capitalism such as the growth of cities and new methods of transport and communication. [...] increased democracy and the secularisation of modern society. Even conceptions of human subjectivity itself […], as a result ‘for example’ of modern ideas about the unconscious”. These changes resulted in a movement “characterised by a deliberate rejection of the styles of the past; emphasising instead innovation and experimentation in forms, materials and techniques in order to create artworks that better reflected modern society” (Tate.org.uk, n.d.). This evolution in societal thinking and the development in Modernism occurred during the late Nineteenth to early Twentieth century (Dawtrey, 1996), a time in which cinema, due to the industrialisation, was both created and then grew to become a sophisticated form of technology and entertainment. (Nowell-Smith, 1996). It can be said that the two, (Modernism and cinema), clearly became intertwined. Modernist design principles and movements informing many early films and the exploration of moving pictures, thus forming an intersection between art and cinema.
Kyle Prior – Illustration – Level 5 – OUIL501 Studio Brief 1
1
Avant-Garde Cinema Avant-Garde is a prime example of this intersection of Modernism and early cinema, and provides the first examples of how Modernism potentially influenced the visual language and aesthetic of science fiction cinema. Avant-Garde art is that which is concerned with new, unusual and/or experimental ideas. It is a term that is of extreme relevance when considering the Modernist emphasis on experimentation and innovation (tate.org.uk, n.d.). Early Avant-Garde cinema is extremely relevant to the discussion of Science Fiction’s visual language, particularly when focusing on Modernist movements such as Expressionism, Constructivism, Surrealism and Dadaism. These early cases of cinema were not simply inspired by these Modernist movements, but were produced by the artists of them. Cinema was a new form of art with which they could communicate their principles and ideas. Expressionist film was predominant throughout the 1920s, examples include The Golem (1920), Genuine (1920), Von margins bis mittewnachts (Ilag-Films, 1920) and Nosferatu (Prana-Film, 1922). However, the two most influential films of the era were Metropolis (Destination Films, 1927), by Fritz Lang, and The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (Decla, 1920), by Robert Wiene (Darsa). The latter of the two, The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, was the first large-scale expressionist exploration into film and used an “[…] overtly Expressionist pictorial style, in particular, the adoption of the kind of set-design that was typical of Expressionist theatre.” (Barron and Dube). While this example cannot be considered Science Fiction as far as the plot is concerned, the Expressionist constructs present in this film, such as the sharp shapes, the geometric buildings, the use of artificial light and the unconventional camera angles, are visual elements that are clearly still influencing science fiction filmmakers today. While there is some disagreement as to whether it is strictly Expressionist (Darsa), Metropolis (1927) is a much clearer example as far as Science fiction is concerned. With one of the first onscreen depictions of a robot, it is a genre-defining film which also draws from other Modernist movements such as Cubism, Futurism and Bauhaus. The visual language produced by a combination of influences only further emphasises the same visual constructs also present in Dr Caligari as mentioned above. . These visual constructs are what this essay proposes to be the origins of the iconic aesthetic that is now associated with Science Fiction. There are countless other examples of Avant-Garde cinema that share the aforementioned aesthetic: M (Fritz Lang, 1931), Der Letzte Mann (F. W. Murnau), La Folie du Docteur Tube (Abel Gance, 1915) & La Passion De Jeanne d'Arc (Carl Theodor Dreyer, 1928).
Aelita: Queen of Mars. Soviet Union: Yakov Protazanov, 1924. DVD.
Another exceptional production of both Science Fiction and Modernism is that of Aelita: Queen of Mars (Yakov Protazanov, 1924). The only known film specifically from the Constructivist art Kyle Prior – Illustration – Level 5 – OUIL501 Studio Brief 1
2
movement (Hunt), Aelita is a science fiction film directed by Soviet director and screenwriter Yakov Protazanov. The plot is one of the first to feature space travel, telling the tale of an engineer who travels to Mars and instigates a revolution against the rulers of the planet. The theme is decidedly Modernist and reflects the ideas of drastic social upheaval present in post-revolutionary Soviet Union at the time (Erlich). With the Constructivists Isaac Rabinovich and Aleksandra Ekster creating and designing the sets and costumes featured in the film ("IMDB - Aelita: Queen Of Mars”), the visual language used is characterised by the Constructivist beliefs that buildings and objects should be freed from ornamentation and the accumulated traces of past art, industrial materials and the machine contained within themselves a special beauty of their own and that geometric forms and uniform areas of pure colour had an aura of rational order about them (Stangos, 1997). With Constructivists Isaac Rabinovich and Aleksandra Ekster playing a large part in creating the visuals of Aelita, comparisons between the film’s aesthetics and the aesthetics associated with Constructivist art are extremely easy to draw. As can be seen in the images below that compare a painting by Constructivist Umberto Boccioni to a scene from Aelita, the visual similarities are many. They both have angular geometry and line work, are modern and abstract, and are experimental in their use of shape.
Right: Horizontal Volumes. Umberto Boccioni. 1912, Milan, Italy Left: Aelita: Queen of Mars. Soviet Union: Yakov Protazanov, 1924. DVD.
Despite the political advocacy of the Constructivist movement being very present in this film, the visual themes have still gone on to influence the science fiction genre extensively. This is particularly clear in the Flash Gordon televised series, which shares a very similar creative design, but can also be seen in Metropolis, Star Trek and Star Wars to name a few more recent examples. Modernism in Current Science Fiction Cinema Modernism and its impact on the visual language of Science Fiction is not purely restricted to early Avant-Garde cinema or the films it has influenced. Examples of other Modernist design practices, informing the aesthetic decisions of more recent film creators, are prevalent throughout the history of science fiction films and television alike. The influence of Minimalism, of Futurism and of various principles of Modernist architecture, are just a few of the foremost examples. An instance of the influence upon more recent cinematic experiences, is that of one of the most iconic films within the genre, Star Wars. One of the most striking examples of the visual influence of Modernism within Star Wars can be seen when comparing Futurist sculpture to the characters, cityscapes and spaceships featured in the film. Pictured below is one example of work by Futurist Kyle Prior – Illustration – Level 5 – OUIL501 Studio Brief 1
3
Sir Jacob Epstein, Torso in Metal from 'The Rock Drill', which shares an extraordinary similar visual language to a character of the Star Wars universe.
Right: Torso in Metal from ‘The Rock Drill’, Sir Jacob Epstein, 1913–4 Left: B1 Battle Droid, Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace, Lucasfilm, Ltd., 1999
Epstein’s body of work, along with other examples including Boccioni's ‘Unique Forms of Continuity in Space’, encompass Futurist visual values, such as an appreciation of the beauty of speed (Marinetti), using industrial shape, form and line to show futuristic forms moving forward with great momentum. This technique is echoed in the design of the Star Wars universe, the Futurist and Modernist fondness of innovation, experimentation and industrial design elements playing a key part throughout. While there are many other obvious examples of the influence of Futurism and Minimalism on the cityscapes and spaceships of Star Wars, a less obvious, yet extremely convincing observation, can be made when considering the design of the battle station, The Death Star, in relation to Modernist architectural principles. Namely, the axiom coined by architect Louis Sullivan in his article ‘The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered’: “form ever follows function” (Sullivan). This phrase describes a law of design that can be applied to the form of anything, organic or inorganic. However, it is also a design philosophy that can be applied to designing an object; its form must follow its function. Therefore, in true Modernist fashion, anything other than that which fulfils its function, is seen as unnecessary embellishment.
Death Star - Star Wars Episode VI: Return Of The Jedi. USA: Lucasfilm, 1983. DVD. Kyle Prior – Illustration – Level 5 – OUIL501 Studio Brief 1
4
When considering The Death Star, its design fulfils the criteria of form following function almost perfectly. The functions of The Death Star are: to serve as an impregnable battleship/fortress, to act as a symbol of the Emperor's inviolable rule, and to serve as the ultimate weapon (Wookieepedia, multiple contributors, n.d). When reviewing the design of the battleship, its spherical design is extremely minimal, yet large and domineering, which meets its function of it being a symbol of imposing power. The groove/ridge along the ship's equator acts as a docking port, providing its battleship function. The final obvious design feature, is the large concave dish which sits in the Northern hemisphere of the ship, which allows the ‘superlaser’ to fire, fulfilling its function as the ultimate weapon. The only design decisions that have been made are based on function. The Death Star is ultimately a simple sphere, a perfect example of form following function. Form following function as a design philosophy is one that can be found present in most science fiction films, potentially due to the influence that Modernist design, and Modernist architecture in particular, has had on the directors and artists involved in the filmmaking. As stated in an article on the Architectural Association website, aaschool.ac.uk, this influence can be seen particularly clearly in Christopher Nolan’s film Interstellar and in the design of its robots T.A.R.S and C.A.S.E (El-hashimi).
C.A.S.E. - Interstellar. USA/UK: Paramount Pictures, 2014. DVD.
Nolan himself states in numerous interviews that the robots and their design were inspired largely by modern architecture: “It also relates strongly to the architecture of Mies van der Rohe. As we homed in on the idea, I asked my designer [Nathan Crowley], who’s a very big fan of modern architecture: "What if we designed a robot as if Mies van der Rohe designed a robot?" I think he really nailed it.” (Associated Press, 2014). Nolan also remarks that “I didn’t even call them robots in the script. I referred to them as "articulated machines" because I wanted my crew and everybody to stop thinking of your standard idea of a robot […] it became a very minimalist appearance that disguises very complex functionality.” (Associated Press, 2014). This comment only further emphasises the use of Minimalism in his design process and hints at a rejection of the past when considering the design of stereotypical robots, instead wanting to approach the design of T.A.R.S from a new perspective. As the above examples reveal, there is an extraordinary amount of evidence showing Modernism's influence upon Science Fiction. However, this discussion would be incomplete without considering the effects of the movement’s successor, Postmodernism. Postmodernism Considering again the science fiction behemoth that is Star Wars, it could be argued that the visual design of the film, as well as the philosophies engrained in the plot, are more Postmodern than Modern. Kyle Prior – Illustration – Level 5 – OUIL501 Studio Brief 1
5
Deemed by many as a prime example of Postmodern cinema, Star Wars exhibits many Postmodern traits, the clearest being that it is a pastiche. As outlined by Slate’s Culture Editor, Forrest Wickman, “It’s a pastiche, as mashed-up and hyper-referential as any movie from Quentin Tarantino. It takes the blasters of Flash Gordon and puts them in the low-slung holsters of John Ford’s gunslingers. It takes Kurosawa’s samurai masters and sends them to Rick’s Café Américain from Casablanca. It takes the plot of The Hidden Fortress, pours it into Joseph Campbell’s mythological mold, and tops it all off with the climax from The Dam Busters. [...] Star Wars is pretty much the epitome of a postmodernist film.” (Wickman). This postmodern pastiche that forms the Star Wars visual language, also explains the presence of Modernist architectural design principles and Futurist design. The entirety of the film could be viewed as a battle between the Modern and the Postmodern. The protagonists being Postmodern, living in dystopia with ships cobbled together and cities full of diversity and culture. The antagonists being utopian Modernists, with Fascist architectural battleships and a Futurist tendency to glorify war (Marinetti).
Image by Slate. Right: Star Wars: Episode IV: A New Hope, Lucasfilm, 1977 Left: Guardians of the Galaxy, Marvel, 2014
With Star Wars being such a hugely influential film within the genre, this Postmodern approach and use of pastiche went on to inform many of other directors of Science Fiction. Postmodernism and Science Fiction have almost become synonymous, with countless examples including Blade Runner (1982), The Matrix (1999), Donnie Darko (2001), Inception (2010), Her (2013) and Guardians of the Galaxy (2014). Speaking of the film Blade Runner, in her book ‘Postmodernism in the Cinema’, Christina Degli Espoti states that “[Ridley] Scott’s film is undoubtedly the supreme example of the postmodern vision in film; it is saturated with successive layers of urban history through juxtaposition, the imaginative landscape of Blade Runner is primarily one of bricolage - but a bricolage that is practiced as a stylistic code. […] Consequently, we may imagine Scott’s application of bricolage as an attempt to represent postmodern cultural production […]” (Degli-Esposti). This claim could be Kyle Prior – Illustration – Level 5 – OUIL501 Studio Brief 1
6
referencing any number of films within the genre, all containing Postmodern elements such as pastiche, intertextuality, irony, metafiction and temporal distortion. Visual Investigation/Conclusion The visual investigation carried out alongside this essay has further highlighted the relationship between the visual language used in Modernist design practices and the visual language associated with the science fiction genre. Split into two parts, the first half of the visual journal explores the history of Science Fiction, highlighting and magnifying the influence of Modernism by focusing on shape and form. Allowing a further exploration of the visual influence of Modernism within the films discussed, Aelita: Queen of Mars, The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, Metropolis and Star Wars.
Selected example images from the first half of the visual journal, exploring the history of science fiction through shape
The second half focuses in on a much more specific idea explored within this essay, which is the influence of Modernist Architecture on the design of spaceships in film. Taking the form of buildings and objects created by Modernist Architects, and transforming them into spacecraft that fit perfectly within the visual culture of Science Fiction. The visual culture of ‘the spaceship’ is one that is entwined with Modern architectural design principles. This is something that is previously discussed in relation to The Death Star and spaceship design within Star Wars, but exploring it further in the visual journal has allowed for a much more in-depth evaluation of the concept. The overall practical investigation has helped magnify and solidify the conclusions that have been arrived at throughout.
Kyle Prior – Illustration – Level 5 – OUIL501 Studio Brief 1
7
Selected example images from the second half of the visual journal, exploring the visual influence of Modernist Architecture on Science Fiction
Even when considering the countermovement, Postmodernism, it is clear that Modernist design principles and visual language is present throughout the history of science fiction cinema. Modernist Architecture, Minimalism, Expressionism, Futurism, Constructivism and Surrealism have all been researched and explored and have clearly influenced some form of science fiction cinema, whether it’s an early Avant Garde film like Aelita being created by Constructivists, or a more modern example such as Christopher Nolan being informed by Modernist architectural design during the creation of Interstellar. Regarding the aesthetic origins of the ‘boggle eyed beings’, the sleek spaceships and the geometric utopian cities of Science Fiction, this conclusion implies that this visual culture is a result of Modern and Postmodern influences, often combining both to create a pastiche of Utopian and Dystopian futures featuring many of the sci-fi clichés that have become a part of popular cinematic culture. Returning to the question of which this essay intends to find the answer to, ‘Has Modernism Influenced the Visual Language of Science Fiction Cinema?’, the conclusion and answer, based on the discussed evidence, is that Modernism has most definitely influenced Science Fiction and the visual culture associated with it.
Kyle Prior – Illustration – Level 5 – OUIL501 Studio Brief 1
8
Bibliography: Books Barron, Stephanie and Wolf Dieter Dube. German Expressionism. 1st ed. England: Thames and Hudson, 1997. Print. Cornea, Christine. Science Fiction Cinema. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007. Print. Dawtrey, L. (1996). Investigating modern art. 1st ed. [New Haven]: Yale University Press in association with the Open University, the Arts Council of England, and the Tate Gallery, p.6. Degli-Esposti, Cristina. Postmodernism In The Cinema. 1st ed. New York: Berghahn Books, 1998. Print. Donald, James, Anne Friedberg, and Laura Marcus. Close Up, 1927-33. 1st ed. London: Cassell, 1998. Print. Erlich, Victor. Modernism And Revolution. 1st ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994. Print. Hermansen, Christian and Mari Hvattum. Tracing Modernity. 1st ed. London: Routledge, 2004. Print. Marinetti, F. T. Manifesto Of Futurism. 1st ed. [New Haven]: Yale Library Associates, 1983. Print. Nowell-Smith, G. (1996). The Oxford history of world cinema. 15th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.3-15. Stangos, Nikos. Concepts Of Modern Art. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997. Print. Sullivan, Louis H. The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered. 1st ed. Minneapolis: N.p., 1896. Print. Trotter, David. Cinema And Modernism. 1st ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2008. Print. Webpages Associated Press. "Interstellar Director Christopher Nolan Says He Had A Very Particular Vision For The Robots | The National". Thenational.ae. N.p., 2014. Web. [Accessed 28 Jan. 2017]. Darsa, Alissa. "An Introduction To German Expressionist Films - Artnet News". [online] artnet News. N.p., 2013. Web. [Accessed 27 Jan. 2017]. El-hashimi, Ali. "FILM’S OBSESSION WITH MODERNISM". Conversations.aaschool.ac.uk. N.p., 2015. Web. [Accessed 28 Jan. 2017]. Fischer, L. (2015). Modernism and Film - Cinema and Media Studies - Oxford Bibliographies obo. [online] Oxfordbibliographies.com. Available at: http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199791286/obo-97801997912860162.xml [Accessed 27 Jan. 2017]. Hunt, Matthew. "Cinema [Matthewhunt.Com]". [online] Matthewhunt.com. Web. [Accessed 27 Jan. 2017]. Kyle Prior – Illustration – Level 5 – OUIL501 Studio Brief 1
9
IMDb. "IMDB - Aelita: Queen Of Mars". [online] [Accessed 27 Jan. 2017]. Oxford Dictionaries | English. (2017). avant-garde - definition of avant-garde in English | Oxford Dictionaries. [online] Available at: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/avant-garde [Accessed 27 Jan. 2017]. Rogatchevskaia, K. (2011). Out of space. [Blog] Eye Magazine. Available at: http://www.eyemagazine.com/blog/post/out-of-space [Accessed 26 Jan. 2017]. Tate.org.uk. (n.d.). Modernism. [online] Available at: http://www.tate.org.uk/learn/onlineresources/glossary/m/Modernism [Accessed 27 Jan. 2017]. Wickman, Forrest. "Yes, Star Wars Is The Original Action Blockbuster. It’S Also A Postmodern Masterpiece.". Slate Magazine. N.p., 2017. Web. 1 Apr. 2017. Wookieepedia (Multiple Contributors). "Death Star". Wookieepedia. Web. [Accessed 28 Jan. 2017]. Films Aelita: Queen Of Mars. Soviet Union: Yakov Protazanov, 1924. DVD. Das Cabinet Des Dr. Caligari. Bologna: Robert Wiene, 1920. DVD. Interstellar. USA/UK: Paramount Pictures, 2014. DVD. Metropolis. Germany: Fritz Lang, 1927. DVD. Nosferatu. Bologna: F.W. Murnau, 1920. DVD. Star Wars Episode VI: Return Of The Jedi. USA: Lucasfilm, 1983. DVD. The Golem. Bologna: Paul Wegner & Carl Boese, 1920. DVD. Von Morgens Bis Mitternachts. Bologna: Karl Heinz Martin, 1920. DVD.
Kyle Prior – Illustration – Level 5 – OUIL501 Studio Brief 1
10