Dissertation: Urban Wilderness by L.Treadwell

URBAN WILDERNESS L O U I S A T R E A D W E L L

THE SLOW GROWTH OF ECOLOGY IN THE CITY

ECOLOGICAL URBANISM IN AN URBAN CONTEXT HOW SUCCESSFUL CAN HUMAN INTERVENTION BE IN RECLAIMING AND ENABLING THE WILDERNESS TO TRANSFORM THE SPACE INTO A PLACE OF SIGNIFICANT TO IMPROVE HUMAN RELATIONS WITH THE ENVIRONMENT.

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DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE DEGREE OF

BA IN

ARCHITECTURE AT NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY, 2015.

NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY ARC3060 DISSERTATION IN ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES WRITTEN BY LOUISA TREADWELL -‐ 11018943

Fig. 1.

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ABSTRACT Anthropogenic actions are scarring the earth’s surface, and the longer we exist the more profound it becomes. As new infrastructure is constructed, older buildings are neglected and left to decay, leading to the formation of a tightly packed city. Recently, there has been a movement to repurpose those forgotten structures: Jacques Vergely and Phillippe Mathieux designed La Promenade Plantée, Paris — a pioneering urban ecology that brought about a change in the rules of urban ecosystems. Later, this inspired Joshua David and Robert Hammond to save the High Line in Manhatten, New York, transforming the rail tracks into a sensational ecological feature.

!In order to understand these rule changes, research into the

value of wildlife within the urban domain was carried out and analysed. It was found that, while ecology may exist within a city, large parts of these ecosystems remain unnoticed to the general public. Thus, human intervention is required not only to acknowledge these ecosystems and provide an environment which is characteristic of the original colonised wasteland, but also to design an aesthetically pleasing environment in order to stimulate the symbiotic relationship between the public and the urban ecology.

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CONTENTS

! INTRODUCTION

! CHAPTER 1 -‐ THE PRESENCE OF WILDERNESS

A WILD WORLD

THE CONCEPT OF URBAN WILDERNESS

ACHIEVING WILDERNESS THROUGH PLANTING THE THIRD LANDSCAPE

CHAPTER 2 -‐ IS HUMAN INTERVENTION NECESSARY?

TRANSITIONAL HUMAN INTERVENTION

THE PIONEERING COULÉE VERTE

WEST MANHATTAN, AN ECOLOGICAL REFORM ECONOMY OR ECOLOGY THE FUTURE IS NOT GREEN COMPETITION TIME FOR THE HIGH LINE COMPARING THE CORRIDORS

! ! CHAPTER 3 -‐ The High Line Improving Social Relations

A REQUIREMENT FOR A NEW RELATIONSHIP

THE INFLUENCE OF GREEN SPACES

THE FRIENDLY LINE A SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CORRIDOR A COMPLEMENTARY DESTINATION A LIFELONG FRIENDSHIP

CONCLUSION

! BIBLIOGRAPHY

! PICTURE REFERENCES

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“Our collective past can ably support the future of our cities, towns and rural economies and contribute towards the aims of other bodies to drive economic growth and prosperity”

Quote from: The use of historic buildings in regeneration. Available at: http://www.english-‐heritage.org.uk/publications/heritage-‐works/heritage-‐works-‐2013.pdf.

Fig. 2 & 3. Before and after shots of the High Line looking at 10th Avenue and 14th Street.

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INTRODUCTION

People’s ethos towards the highly dynamic urban environment that we live in is changing; we are encouraged to be more aware of our surroundings and to consider the consequences of our actions. Since the Industrial Revolution there has been an increase in human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels. Urban populations have rapidly increased as a result of accelerated economic development and pull factors that attracted people to these urban environments; currently 54% of the world's population live in urban areas1. The release of CO2 and other heat-‐trapping gases into the atmosphere has greatly aﬀected the global environment, increasing the greenhouse eﬀect and thus causing the Earth’s surface temperature to rise. In the past, actions were taken without the knowledge of the consequences to both society and the environment. Overtime, as a result of knowledge gained through experience and improvements in technology, we are now able to comprehend

1 ‘World’s Population Increasingly Urban with More than Half Living in Urban Areas’, the United Nations (United Nations Publications, 2014) <http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/world-‐urbanization-‐prospects-‐2014.html>

[accessed 5 December 2014].

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and anticipate to greater levels of accuracy, the consequences

of these anthropogenic actions will depend on how much is

of human activity on the natural environment. Climate change

done to oﬀset these changes. Nonetheless, any form of action

still remains one of the most demanding obstacles we face

that attempts to reverse our previous disregard for the natural

today, with regards to future development of the built

world will have an impact on our environment. Thus it is evident

environment, as it continues to aﬀect the natural environment

that the presence of natural forms in the ever increasing urban

and also the health of the human population.

environment is becoming a worryingly fragile one, as a result of

The built environment has transformed from primitive mud huts

rapid human development; however, there are still many opportunities for sustainable action to be taken.

as a basic form of shelter to buildings today made of hi-‐tech

smart materials and technology; the approach of designers is to

Natural species are highly adaptable. When an ecosystem

make the human experience as comfortable as possible. Rapid

becomes unbalanced, the organisms respond to the new

developments have been necessary to support the demands

climate and learn to adjust; within a dynamic urban context,

and requirements of the rising population. While the urban

nature responds to this new climate through the colonisation of

environment has continued to expand, the natural environment

wastelands — overgrown open spaces. The hardy primitive

has slowly seen a decrease in global biodiversity, an increase in

species are most suited to these areas of neglect, where rapid

species extinction, changing carbon and nitrogen cycles and

ecological succession is able to take place and human

irreversible changes to plant forms. It is therefore clear to see

interaction is minimal. Matthew Gandy argues that the

that the Earth is undergoing accelerated environmental change

emergence of urban ecologies is often dictated by the

as a result of human presence and activity; however, the extent

“presence of ‘weeds’ and other spontaneous manifestations”2.

2 Matthew Gandy, ‘Marginalia: Aesthetics, Ecology, and Urban Wastelands’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 103 (2013), 1301–16 (pp. 1301–1316) <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2013.832105>.

The natural life is attempting to regain the ecological territories

Through these actions of the natural world, it is coming to our

to prevent the dominance of urbanism. It must be considered

attention that these overgrown open spaces have great

that these areas of spontaneous ecologies are paramount in the

potential in supporting urban regeneration schemes in a very

acceptance that the presence of nature must increase within

positive manner: repurposing disused infrastructure into a place

the man made environment.

that becomes highly valued by the public. The natural environment can successfully exist in the company of built forms from the man-‐made environment and vice versa. People like bridging the gap between the old and the new; they want to feel connected, creating a sense of importance rather than neglect. Ecological regeneration projects help to achieve just that, while also promoting the need for sustainable development in an alternative way. With increasing pressure on the future use of derelict buildings, it is essential for renewal schemes to meet the public with a positive outlook.

Fig. 5. High Line: A Spring Evening, the Hudson, May 2001.

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This research intends to address these issues we face today. Studying the High Line, New York and La Promenade Plantée, Paris, we can acknowledge a greater understanding as to why we are seeing a rising trend in the transformation of wasteland spaces into attractive destinations for the residents of urban territories. In cities today there is a demand to construct new modern high-‐tech structures, rather than renovating the existing infrastructure; large areas of a city will lie forgotten to these new architectural forms, overtime becoming overgrown — and these spaces are increasing. Natural environments can successfully exist in the domain but, in order for these spaces to be viewed in a positive manner, a beautiﬁcation of the ‘wasteland’ must occur. This form of human intervention disguises the natural ecology in order to improve social perceptions and opinions of nature in a metropolitan setting; a focus on wastelands is being placed within the urban realm. Perhaps this new approach is in acknowledgement that human interference to the natural world has ruined these sensitive ecosystems and an eﬀort is being made to address and re-‐ balance this issue.

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THE PRESENCE OF WILDERNESS

! A WILD WORLD !

The world exists as a giant ecosystem, an increasingly sensitive biosphere that has evolved over 4.5 billion years3. As a result of human life this delicate entity is in a constant state of ﬂux. Nature is very well established within the global ecosystem: plants constantly adapt to the seasonal changes throughout the year. Past and current human activity, however, has caused such a disruption to the global biosphere’s equilibrium that many species are unable to keep up with these changes, resulting in habitat destruction. Rapid urbanisation and a previous disregard for the natural environment have triggered a growing requirement to look after the natural life that remains — to prevent a world in which artiﬁcial landscapes are the norm.

3 Felix Guattari, Ian Pindar and Paul Sutton, The Three Ecologies (United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014), p. 3.

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As contributors to the artiﬁcial environment, we are encouraged to know that our placement within this unstable

THE CONCEPT OF URBAN WILDERNESS

ecosystem is invasive and that we should show a greater

Wilderness can be deﬁned as "an uncultivated, uninhabited, and

sensitivity towards reconnecting to the natural environment. It

inhospitable region”5, an area that has not been greatly

has long been known that the people who have greater

aﬀected by human activity, and is left undisturbed in its natural

exposure to the natural environment have a more positive

form. It is becoming increasingly uncommon. The scientiﬁc and

approach to their lifestyle, bringing psychological beneﬁts

technological advances made in the past century have nearly

through physical activity and reduced stress. Understanding this

exhausted all natural resources and challenged this giant

relationship between urban life and culture4 is necessary to

ecosystem to the point of no return; very little remains

ensure that the presence of mankind will not weaken the

untouched. The concept of urban wilderness is topical given the

quality and diversity of the fragile natural environment.

rapid rates of urbanisation. Management of the urban

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wilderness may exist in the form of conservation after human intervention has happened, but to what extent can this region exist as a wilderness, or has it become a man-‐made ecosystem. This chapter seeks to understand the extent of wilderness management. If a managed wilderness can provide the beneﬁts of a natural ecosystem to the urban population, understanding the positive outcomes achieved by ‘an uncultivated,

4 Michael Bennett and David Teague, The Nature of Cities: Ecocriticism and Urban Environments (United States: Tucson : University of Arizona Press, c1999., 1999), p. 4. 5 ‘Wilderness’, by Oxford Dictionary, Oxford Dictionary Press <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/deﬁnition/english/wilderness> [accessed 24 December 2014].

uninhabited, and inhospitable region’ in an urban context is

Matthew Gandy stated “Wastelands are a characteristic feature

important for future ecological developments.

of many urban landscapes”6. Seen as an unused area that has become overgrown, the High Line for example became colonised by plants, although daily management prevents it from being considered wholly as a typical wildlife environment. Previously, the High Line was never considered essential to the New York landscape, and its limited access and crumbling infrastructure did not help in the self-‐promotion of this wasteland to become an iconic landmark. However, it has become a highly important feature of the landscape, achieved by human involvement; repurposing this overgrown space and creating a ‘wilderness in the city’ has brought the city dweller closer to nature7. A typical wasteland is seen as an ecological wealth of biodiversity; however, in social terms this overgrown open space is seen as an eyesore — a derelict unused space.

Fig. 8. High Line: Grape Hyacinth, April 2000.

Consequently, we are able to conclude that the term wasteland

6 Gandy, ‘Marginalia: Aesthetics, Ecology, and Urban Wastelands’. 7 Rico Emmrich and Dieter Rink, ‘Surrogate Nature or Wilderness? Social Perceptions and Notions of Nature in an Urban Context’, in Wild urban woodlands, by Ingo Kowarik and Stefan Korner, ed. by Ingo Kowarik (Germany: Springer-‐Verlag Berlin

and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K, 2009), pp. 67–80.

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is very much a people-‐centred perspective and must not be assumed.

! ACHIEVING WILDERNESS THROUGH PLANTING !

Piet Oudolf, a leading landscape designer in the New Perennials’ landscape movement8, was chosen to design the vegetation display along the High Line; through careful consideration, Oudolf has created an ecological atmosphere representative of the species that colonised the rail tracks, preventing a park that is too refined and artificial. Seeds were harvested from the plants along the High Line before construction took place, so they could return to their original ecosystem. Some species were so hardy that during the renovation work mounds would often become colonised by the plants again, the poor quality of the soil creating ideal conditions for wildflowers to grow9. Fig. 9 & 10. Ailanthus Trees 25th Street and blooming wildflower amongst the greenery by the Falcone Flyover. 8 Jared Green, ‘Piet Oudolf, Leader of the New Perennials’, The Dirt (American Society of Landscape Architects, 2010) <http://dirt.asla.org/2010/05/11/piet-‐oudolf-‐leader-‐of-‐the-‐new-‐perennials/> [accessed 11 January 2015]. 9 Piet Oudolf and Henk Gerritsen, Planting the Natural Garden (Portland : Timber Press, 2003., 2003), p. 7.

Piet Oudolf wanted to ensure that the public experienced the true High Line; the introduction of new grasses and perennials would help support the poor soil structure securing the longevity of the landscape whilst also creating a landscape that was honest to the previous wilderness. He selected plants that varied in height and were rich in texture, focusing more on the ﬂowering season rather than the colour of the plant and thus guaranteeing the High Line would be a scene of bloom all year round. Bold species would occasionally exist to make a powerful impact, while in other locations loose grasses would be planted to create a more casual atmosphere. Oudolf focused on achieving a harmonious landscape; he selected species that inspired him rather than just copying a natural habitat. Thus he is able to establish environments that create a sensation of moving through a meadow or a forest — an extremely important feature in establishing a natural garden. Despite the extensive work seemingly done to this wilderness, the intention by Piet Oudolf was to create a naturalised look in which minimal Fig. 11. A collection of species found along the diverse green walkway.

maintenance would be required; the gardeners would simply

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‘edit' the landscape not control or manage it. The ecology along the High Line has been so selectively and sensibly ‘edited’, it is

THE THIRD LANDSCAPE

gradually becoming more like the original conditions of the

A natural region, that has not been signiﬁcantly modiﬁed by

wildlife that existed in the derelict space. It was discovered in

civilisation, has greater levels of biodiversity in comparison to a

2009 that a species, ‘Symphyotrichum ericoides' which colonised

controlled habitat; these high levels of biodiversity identiﬁed as

the High Line’s Rail Yards long before any human involvement,

“ecological refugia”11 are most suited in wasteland areas. The

was found to be growing two locations along the high line near

pioneer species are weeds or hardy plants, rapidly colonising

West 30th Street and on the Northern Spur Preserve near West

the derelict land and they change the appearance in an

15th Street10.

unexpected, spontaneous way. A unique natural succession forms from these ‘uncultivated, uninhabited, and inhospitable regions’ and we must recognise the important role these habitats play within the ‘ecological infrastructure’ to produce an established wilderness ecosystem. Despite human involvement in the urban wilderness, these ecosystems will become less complex; however, it is still possible for these habitats to exist in a representative wild form, for example the High Line.

Fig. 12. Symphyotrichum ericoides (heath aster).

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10 Andi Pettis, ‘How the High Line Gardeners Keep It WIld’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line, 2014) <https://www.thehighline.org/blog/2014/06/10/how-‐the-‐high-‐line-‐gardeners-‐keep-‐it-‐wild> [accessed 7 January 2015]. 11 Gandy, ‘Marginalia: Aesthetics, Ecology, and Urban Wastelands’.

Limited areas have been left in the urban environment for natural evolution. Giles Clément sees the areas where potential remains for a biological diversity to evolve and exist without the interference of humans as the ‘third landscape’12, thus creating a romanticised form of nature. Despite this, we must engage with the natural habitat in order to secure not only the value of the spaces within the densely built domain but also their survival within this dynamic urban environment. To ensure these landscapes can become successfully established, it is necessary to have the involvement and support of the human population. A lack of interest in the ecology in the past meant inadequate action took place, but today we see a greater percentage of the population expressing an interest including gardeners, landscape architects, communities and individuals.

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Fig. 13. High Line: Looking South at 27th Street, September 2000. 12 Gilles Clement, ‘The Third Landscape’, Gilles Clement (The Third Landscape) <http://www.gillesclement.com/art-‐454-‐tit-‐The-‐Third-‐Landscape> [accessed 6 December 2014].

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The existence of the High Line in the 1980s was true to the belief of Giles Clément; it remains today an example of the third

WILDERNESS BENEFITS

landscape despite the human involvement that has taken place

The presence of wilderness can create many positive outcomes,

overtime. A former wasteland, the High Line was a prime

beneﬁtting the region environmentally, culturally and

location for accumulating biodiversity, and thus exists as an

economically. The High Line’s ecology has been hugely popular

important urban wilderness area. The transformation in the

to tourists and New Yorkers alike and this attention has

1990s sought to renew the structure and adapt the overgrown

triggered further consideration of the extended natural

open space into a linear parkway for the public, promoting this

environment. Culturally, we have seen a diﬀerent lifestyle

wasteland as a space but also encouraging the development of

approach taken by those aﬀected by the High Line, engendering

wildlife. A managed wilderness can therefore provide the

a reconsideration of the importance of natural wildlife within

beneﬁts of a natural ecosystem to the urban population

the urban domain. The High Line has aﬀected the residents

through careful change.

greatly; their initial argument against the development of the

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rail track has turned into one of its greatest successes, the areas having been ﬂooded with investment and development proposals since the opening of the sky-‐park. Concerns over lifestyle habits and the health of the population are greatly reduced when interaction with nature is high; but, most remarkably, we see the transformation of a derelict space that once was considered an eye sore to one which has become an area in the city with the greatest economic investment and

return. Economically, the presence of a contemporary ecology has been phenomenal; no one was able to predict how much of a financial impact a development such as the High Line would make to the area. The local Chelsea district was retreating into the city’s shadows and never would high fashion companies desire to locate their headquarters around these crumbling industrial buildings, nor would this neighbourhood become an attractive location. It had however become home to famous galleries, and Paula Cooper13 was one of the first to sign her support of the High Line along with Lucas Schoormans, a gallery owner where the first fund raiser was held in December 200014.

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Fig. 14. Visitors on a sunny summer day between 17th and 18th Street, a view that shows the ‘HL23' by architect Neil Denari which cantilevers over the High Line. 13 Joshua David and Robert Hammond, High Line: The Inside Story of New York City’s Park in the Sky (United States: Farrar, Straus &; Giroux Inc, 2011), p. 15. 14 ibid., p. 26.

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IS HUMAN INTERVENTION NECESSARY?

! A TRANSITIONAL HUMAN INTERVENTION !

Changes to the urban dynamic are aﬀecting the way humans experience the built environment. Increases in the urban population, stronger demands towards the sensitivity of the natural world and a greater understanding of the impact the natural world has on humans are all factors aﬀecting the urban dynamic. Consequently, there has been increasing pressure to focus on reintroducing the wealth of biodiversity, that previously existed, back into the highly urbanised territories in which we live. To allow for natural process to exist, the territory must contain the necessary conditions; however, as most of these urban habitats are contained and managed, the natural environment will exist in its natural form to a limited degree. Very few undeveloped areas remain globally, in which complete dedication to the natural habitat can occur; adapting and working, particularly in urban regions, with what already exists

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is the best possible solution to ensure that planned development is supportive of the future environment.

A successful transition of a disused space into a place of signiﬁcance is aided by the use of existing structures. La Promenade Plantée and the High Line are both examples of historically rich structures that have been transformed into a exciting contemporary ecological environment. This chapter seeks to understand to what extent human intervention was necessary in order to establish a unique synthesis between infrastructure and natural life within the modern urban context, building upon the ideas of the previous chapter which sought to understand the extent of wilderness in a natural or managed form.

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Fig. 16 & 17. Elevated walkways: The High Line & La Promenade

THE PIONEERING COULÉE VERTE

it has been estimated that along the 4.6km route, 80 derelict structures19 have been restored as a result of its successful

Situated in the XII arrondissement in East Paris is the green

repurposing. Its monumental impact is due to its vast length;

parkway La Promenade Plantée, sometimes known as the

passing through 20 city blocks, intersecting buildings and

Coulée Verte15, the green ﬂow, or course. Opened to the public

opening into new gardens, La Promenade Plantée is able to

in 1993, this 4.6km ecological parkway follows the abandoned

inﬂuence the developments and improvements throughout and

railway path that links the Place de La Bastille with Bois de

beyond its territory.

Vincennes16. La Promenade Plantée was the ﬁrst elevated park in the world, until the High Line; it was used as a precedent in the proposal put forward by ‘Friends of the High Line’ when the High Line was starting to be conceived17. The transformation project taken on by landscape architect Jacques Vergely and architect Philippe Mathieux18 has been the driving force behind the successful revitalisation of the surrounding area. The presence of the crumbling railway structure labelled the XII arrondissement as one of the poorest areas in the city; however

Fig. 18. Map of La Promenade Plantée.

15 Valentina Ferrari, ‘The Urban Revitalisation That Inspired New York City’s High Line Park’, Landscape Architects (Landscape Architects Network, 2014) <http://landarchs.com/urban-‐revitalisation-‐inspired-‐new-‐york-‐citys-‐high-‐line-‐park/> [accessed 27

December 2014]. 16 ibid. 17 archibald, ‘Promenade Plantée’, architectuul, 2011 <http://architectuul.com/architecture/promenade-‐plantee> [accessed 27 December 2014]. 18 Ferrari, ‘The Urban Revitalisation That Inspired New York City’s High Line Park’. 19 ibid.

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Connected to the Viaduc des Arts project, the parkway’s ﬁrst segment is located near the Bastille, existing 10m above the ground and along a 1.5km stretch of viaduct. This project saw the delicate restoration of the original 67 arches by architect Patrick Berger20, transforming these spaces into small high-‐ quality independent art galleries, artisan shops, furniture showrooms and cafés. The combination of these shops and the parkway exhibit the area’s rich history and its sophisticated yet simple presence encourages people to become involved in the future growth of the area.

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Fig. 19 & 20. Viaduc des Arts Craft Shops & Reuilly Bridge & Garden. 20 ‘Viaduc Arts’, Patrick Berger (Patrick Berger Architects) <http://www.patrickberger.fr/projets/150_viaduc/viaduc_03.html>

[accessed 10 January 2015].

La Promenade Plantée continues; weaving through modern apartment buildings until it merges into the metal Reuilly Bridge, temporarily moving into the present to overlook the modern and highly popular Reuilly Garden, before disappearing underground to display a series of hidden waterfalls and historic tunnels. The exhibition of these diverse views of Paris established a new language of how people value and visualise urban spaces, encouraging the recognition of the city as a multitude of contemporary ecosystems and habitats rather than the city as an entity. This modiﬁed take on the city is crucial in understanding that the presence of each individual ecology is equally important in creating a successful environment in which the built forms can support the natural forms. It is therefore apparent that human intervention has been paramount in this exciting rediscovery of the city and its places of importance.

Fig. 21 & 22. An elevated crossing over a Parisian road & The Green tunnel with its waterfalls.

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This Parisian corridor of biodiversity oﬀers residents and tourists a raised platform, a view that encourages a sympathetic take on the urban landscape, that once was avoided. The

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densely packed plants along La Promenade Plantée create a romantic setting and a wonderful illusion of being within a rich and diverse natural ecosystem. The irregular breaks in the natural life are particularly important; revealing and framing the details of the surrounding built environment, they provide panoramic views of Paris — aspects that would never be acknowledged at ground level. Human intervention has therefore been a great success in reinforcing the importance of ecology within an environment that has been heavily inﬂuenced by man made structures for a long time, but it is also a reminder that plant life and human life can exist in harmony within a modern context.

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Fig. 23. The Jardin de Reuilly at the end of La Promenade Plantée is a popular destination, particularly on sunny days where people come to have picnics and lie on the circular, layered lawns.

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WEST MANHATTAN, AN ECOLOGICAL REFORM

Taking inspiration from the pioneering repurposing and restoration project in Paris, New York can also offer its own La Promenade Plantée. Situated in the west of Manhattan, New York, is the High Line which runs from Gansevoort Street to 34th Street21 — twenty-‐two blocks of abandoned rail track that lay crumbling in ruins. Joshua David and Robert Hammond had the ingenious idea, (with the help of landscape architecture firm Field Operations and architects Diller Scofidio + Renfro, with planting design from Piet Oudolf, lighting design from L'Observatoire International, and engineering design by Buro Happold22) to transform these rail tracks into a skyline park, 30m above the ground.

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Fig. 24. A map of the High Line. 21 David and Hammond, p. 272. 22 ibid., p. 78.

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Prior to the ribbon cutting in June 2009, the people of New York

an urban regeneration project that hoped to support the wealth

“never paid it much attention”23. It had become classiﬁed as an

of ecological systems, which had originally colonised the

eyesore and was perceived to be an example of the economic

disused rail tracks. Their vision was to reengage the public with

downfall to their district which prevented further economic

a natural ecosystem located in the concrete jungle of New York,

development; its Art Deco style was no longer appreciated.

transforming a part of the city that was once forgotten into a

Passers by were never encouraged or intrigued to look above to

charming location and thriving ecology.

the heavy infrastructure that surrounded them. Since the mid 1980’s, some property owners had grouped together to encourage the demolition of the entire High Line. It was not until a community meeting mid-‐August in 1999, when Joshua David and Robert Hammond met24, that the idea to save the High Line was conceived. They faced strong opposition for many years until the 8th June 200925 when the ﬁrst section was opened to the public. The non-‐proﬁt organisation ‘Friends of the High Line’ was established in the Autumn of 1999 to create

Fig. 25. Joel Sternfeld’s photographs helped to generate the interest ‘Friends of the High Line’ needed to encourage public involvement. 23 ibid., p. 4. 24 ibid., p. 7. 25 ibid., p. 125.

In August 1999, a community board meeting was held about the

future of the High Line. Doug Sarini declared that the structure was “holding up the economic development of the area”26, creating a dark and dangerous environment, while another property owner voiced his concern about how the development of a park on the High Line would be great for property values, “but this will never happen; it is just too far fetched. These people are dreamers”27. Since ‘Friends of the High Line’ was founded and the sky park was opened, over 30 residential, commercial and cultural development projects are in planning or have been completed in Chelsea and the Meatpacking District28. The neighbourhoods have slowly been transforming into a glamorous commercial area; the term ‘Architects Row’ has been adopted, attracting the likes of Lord Norman Foster, Zaha Hadid and Frank Gehry.

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Fig. 26, 27 & 28: Foster + Partners: 551 West 21st Street, 2012. Zaha Hadid Architects: 520 West 28th Street, 2016 and Gehry Partners: IAC Building, 2007.

26 ibid., p. 7. 27 ibid., p. 32. 28 ‘The High Line’, HR&A Advisors (HR&A Advisors) <http://www.hraadvisors.com/featured/the-‐high-‐line/#> [accessed 31 October 2014].

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Property owners who once were concerned that the presence of the High Line would hinder further development are now

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concerned that its presence has caused the development to spiral out of control. A major change was happening to the area; large businesses and well-‐known brands swept in and transformed the area into a modern location, erasing what once was an historical industrial district. This was the turning point. Long term residents now feel out of touch with their once loved district. Amanda Burden, the planning director for the city, said “the price of apartments had doubled since the park opened, to about $2,000 a square foot”29. This commercial construction inevitably drove out the well established working-‐class residents and the light–industrial businesses, as rates rose to match the value of the demand; the property prices and rents have become too high, and the once-‐thriving local restaurants now battle to break even. The district’s once popular automobile services were forced to close.

Fig. 29. An old meatpacking building converted into a boutique.

29 Patrick McGeehan, ‘With Next Phase Ready, Area Around High Line Is Flourishing’, The New York Times (The New York Times Company, 5 June 2011) <http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/06/nyregion/with-‐next-‐phase-‐ready-‐area-‐around-‐high-‐line-‐is-‐

ﬂourishing.html> [accessed 31 October 2014].

ECONOMY OR ECOLOGY

Therefore we must consider, to what extent is the presence of an urban wilderness in today’s environment more significant than the economic complications that have arisen as a result of development. The presence of human activity will not disqualify a region from being considered a wilderness area; the action in the case of the High Line has been in the spirit of the natural ecosystem, and thus a wilderness form exists in the city. In the effort for continued development, there must be sacrifices; the economic drawbacks for the local residents were massively outweighed by the benefits the High Line would bring to the neighbourhood. Within the modern city, the regular appearance of wilderness is also essential in promoting the growth of the area, improving quality of life for the population and encouraging a better relationship between the natural and built environment. We see today a remarkable structure to which the public has access, and thus they are able to experience this inner city biodiversity which has brought huge ecological wealth Fig. 30. The meandering paths between the planted wildlife .

to an otherwise disregarded area. Although the High Line is a

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managed and controlled environment, it successfully represents

Holl proposed to transform the High Line into an elevated

the wasteland that once colonised the rail track, exhibiting the

street of multi purposing houses, when housing was in high

phenomenal relationship between its spontaneous biodiversity

demand31. Nonetheless, having been constructed in the 1930’s

and the city. We see today how important it is not to go against

and made redundant in the 1980’s, a decision about the future

nature, particularly within the urban context where natural life

of the rail tracks was necessary.

is limited.

THE FUTURE IS NOT GREEN

‘Friends of the High Line’ faced serious opposition when they tried to turn their proposal into reality. Many people believed this scheme was an economic waste and that further urban development was the necessary and correct decision for the revitalisation of the rundown neighbourhoods. Rudy Giuliani, the mayor of New York at the time, had great plans; he wanted the new Yankee Stadium to be located around the rail yard, though the focus later moved to the 2012 Olympic bid30 and the

Fig. 31. Steven Holl’s 1981 Proposal for the High Line.

new stadia required for a host city. Alternatively, in 1981, Steven 30 David and Hammond, p. 30. 31 Joel Sternfeld, Adam Gopnik and John Stilgoe, Joel Sternfeld: Walking the High Line ([New York]: Pace/MacGill Gallery, 2002), p. 59.

In 2001, the High Line came very close to demolition; Giuliani

of the High Line would not exist without large individual

signed the demolition order two days before he left the oﬃce32.

donations or the continued volunteer work. Major donors had

The extensive research produced in the report by the Design

expressed interest right from the start. The Diller – von

Trust for Public Space meant that Guiliani's successor, Michael

Furstenberg Family Foundation has donated over $35 million

Bloomberg, was able to visualise the new purpose of the High

since 200533; its $10 million gift in June 2009 was matched by

Line, stop the demolition order and therefore support the plans

Lisa and Philip Falcone34, enabling a variety of experiences such

proposed by ‘Friends of the High Line’. Due to an inspired

as the Falcone Flyover and the Diller – von Furstenberg Sundeck

repurposing and regeneration project, a great deal of publicity

along the High Line.

surrounded this contemporary urban ecology. Much of the initial backing came from the galleries and fashion houses in Chelsea which had moved from Soho; the area was already undergoing gentriﬁcation but it happened much quicker as a result of the High Line. The galleries held fund raising events, attracting many wealthy supporters and helping to establish a

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bond with the local businesses. The magnitude of the High Line’s success is thanks to the huge network of long term support and the generosity of their donors. Many key sections

Fig. 32 & 33. The Diller – von Furstenberg Sundeck and The Falcone Flyover (following spread).

32 ‘The Inside Track On New York City’s High Line’, npr books (National Public Radio, Inc., 2011) <http://www.npr.org/2011/09/03/140063103/the-‐inside-‐track-‐on-‐new-‐yorks-‐high-‐line> [accessed 31 October 2014]. 33 Jennette Mullaney, ‘High Line Headquarters to Be Named The Diller -‐ von Furstenberg Building’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line, 2013) <http://www.thehighline.org/blog/2013/08/22/high-‐line-‐headquarters-‐to-‐be-‐named-‐the-‐diller-‐von-‐

furstenberg-‐building> [accessed 12 January 2015]. 34 David and Hammond, pp. 118–119.

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COMPETITION TIME FOR THE HIGH LINE

element to its built environment, one which charms and enriches its inhabitants38; a project such as the High Line would

In 1999, The Design Trust for Public Space and ‘Friends of the

encompass this aspiration towards beauty and innovation

High Line’ worked together to produce a feasibility study35,

within the public realm, charming and enriching all visitors.

which outlined the recommendations they believed were the best options for this disused elevated railway. The Design Trust

In 2003, ‘Friends of the High Line’ held a design competition.

for Public Space is a nonproﬁt organisation which focuses on

Many of these designs were not practical or realistic; however,

projects that improve the public space of New York36; with the

it encouraged the wider community to participate in and follow

help of architects Casey Jones and Keller Easterling, fellows of

the project. Following receipt of 720 entries39, there was an

the Design Trust, a report was produced on the potential for

exhibition at the Vanderbilt Hall in Grand Central Station in July

this derelict structure to become an open space. They studied

2003. The following year, ‘Friends of the High Line’ called for a

the history, physical conditions, local zoning, current land use

team of professionals to produce a scheme for repurposing the

and community needs of the High Line37, concluding that the

structure. An exhibition at the MoMA40 was organised by

redesign should focus on pedestrians and the structure should

‘Friends of the High Line’, showcasing the ﬁnal four designs and

not be demolished — there were too many opportunities for

Joel Sternfeld’s original photographs, which provided the public

reuse. The Design Trust report believed New York has a unique

with enough information so that they could ﬁnally visualise the

35 Joshua David, Casey Jones and Keller Easterling, Reclaiming the High Line: A Project of the Design Trust for Public Space, with Friends of the High Line, ed. by Karen Hock, 2002. 36 ‘Mission and Values’, Design Trust (Design Trust for Public Space) <http://designtrust.org/about/mission-‐and-‐values/> [accessed 11 January 2015]. 37 ‘Reclaiming The High Line’, Design Trust (Design Trust for Public Space) <http://designtrust.org/projects/reclaiming-‐high-‐line/> [accessed 11 January 2015]. 38 David, Jones and Easterling, pp. 80–81. 39 David and Hammond, pp. 163–169. 40 The Museum of Modern Art.

High Line. Since ‘Friends of the High Line’ was conceived, the focus of the work has been to involve the community at every

COMPARING THE CORRIDORS

stage; together, they have changed how public space is

Strong correlations can therefore be seen between La

designed, operated and maintained and this bond has revalued

Promenade Plantée and the High Line, with particular emphasis

the perception of public open space.

on revitalisation and repurposing, although both schemes have been unique in their approach with regards to style and experience. The High Line was a wealth of biodiversity — in some places the hardy primitive species were up to waist height, a true urban wilderness before it was transformed into a contemporary urban ecology. The landscape design by Piet Oudolf consciously selected many of the species that initially grew on the rail bed, inspiring the landscape we see today. La Promenade Plantée on the other hand was originally designed as a controlled garden; the trees and plants were purposefully placed to provide pleasant views of both the vegetation and the city. The Parisian park oﬀers a more varied experience than the

Fig. 34. Nathalie Rinne, from Vienna “The High Line Pool”, one of the four competition winners-‐ to repurpose the existing High Line into a mile long lap pool. The jury included both architects and landscape architects.

High Line; bike lanes, benches and many large green spaces encourage a multitude of activities to take place within La Promenade Plantée. The High Line exists as a linear walkway connecting areas of the city which would not typically be linked

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by transport routes. The journey of the green walkway ignores

overtime; it is essential that they are not destroyed to make

the typical ‘grid’ structure of New York, allowing visitors to take

way for modern developments. The presence of historic

routes new and exclusive to the High Line; an alternative city

structures are therefore well suited for regeneration schemes;

experience occurs as a result.

the High Line and La Promenade Plantée were successful in the transition of a disused historic structure into a popular modern destination. By establishing an elevated pedestrian walkway, connecting the city from one point to another, an exclusive dimension to the city has been created. These disused structures have caused minimal complications and interruptions to the modern ﬂow of movement within the city; its transition therefore has only oﬀered further encouragement for the human population to realise the potential of the already existing infrastructure.

Today, they are seen as successful, inspirational precedents for Fig. 35. An illuminated wooden bench curves for an entire city block.

The demolition of a structure with strong ties to a city’s history is rarely encouraged. The background of an area is vital to understanding how society and the environment has developed

future elevated landscapes and urban redevelopment projects around the world; there is a shared value to the way the city is perceived. Singapore has repurposed an old railway to create an unlikely nature preserve running over 20km through some of

the wealthiest areas of its densely developed city41, oﬀering

In Ho•ogen, Netherlands, their pioneering electric railway lies

glimpses of the old steel railway bridges and greenery, sights

unused. The Hofplein line is currently in the early stages of

uncommon to the modern city of Singapore. Similar to the High

redevelopment; the design by Doepel Strijkers Architects will

Line, its success was made possible through the community

turn the train tracks into an elevated park and a commercial

campaign to assure the government that this trail was

strip. An interesting sustainable approach has been included:

necessary.

industrial waste heat will be used to heat the ineﬃcient buildings that run parallel to the Hofplein and this will radically reduce the CO2 footprint of the city42. Mexico City on the other hand is desperate to have its own version of the High Line. A scheme is in place in which a structure is being constructed from scratch to enable its residents to have a raised ecological escape from the city — a unique project as it is driven by the government43, similar to La Promenade Plantée.

! ! Fig. 36. Singapore's lush city; side walks boards by vegetation.

41 Justin Bergman, ‘In Singapore’s Center, but a World Away’, The New York Times (The New York Times Company, 2 April 2014) <http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/06/travel/in-‐singapores-‐center-‐but-‐a-‐world-‐away.html?_r=0> [accessed 2 January

2015]. 42 ‘Ho•ogen’, Doepel Strijkers (Doepel Strijkers Architects) <http://www.doepelstrijkers.com/?lan=_uk#/projects/79/HOFBOGEN/> [accessed 31 December 2014]. 43 Ruth Samuelson, ‘New York City’s High Line Inspires Mexico City Chapultepec Project’, Fox News Latino (Fox News Latino, 2011) <http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/lifestyle/2011/08/15/new-‐york-‐citys-‐high-‐line-‐inspires-‐mexico-‐city-‐chapultepec-‐ project/> [accessed 31 December 2014].

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! !

It is apparent, in the case of both the High Line and La Promenade Plantée, that the utilisation of these abandoned structures and the re-‐establishing of their historical past has been the backbone to the success of the project. These existing elevated spaces, located within a tight urban context, have been exemplary in exhibiting the city in a breathtaking way as well as providing inspiration on a global scale. Also, over the years, these neglected spaces have become colonised by primitive species, and thus a corridor that has potential for an aesthetically pleasing landscape has been created. Furthermore, its high elevation allows for minimal disruption from the street, providing views that have never been seen before. Fig. 37. The Hofplein Line repurposed by Doepel Strijker Architects.

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Fig. 38 & 39. The Chelsea Gardens extend for three blocks displaying sun-‐loving grasses and perennial wildﬂowers that grow between the planks representing the plants that once grew between the rail tracks. & La Promenade Plantée in Autumn display an array of colourful vegetation contrasting spectacularly agains the arches of the Viaduc des Arts.

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Fig. 40.

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IMPROVING SOCIAL RELATIONS

! A REQUIREMENT FOR A NEW RELATIONSHIP !

As a consequence of man's prior actions, we are seeing a delicate new relationship emerging between nature and society; urbanisation is continuing, requiring further development, and this undoubtedly will result in supplementary habitat destruction. Where the natural habitat exists in the built domain, we must ensure the ecosystem remains as much as possible in its original form, not only to prevent a decrease in habitats and species but also to encourage the growth of the ﬂora and fauna within an urban context. This chapter seeks to illustrate the extensive social relations that have evolved with the High Line, building on the knowledge that human intervention was necessary to establish this unique synthesis between infrastructure and natural life within the modern urban context.

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The High Line runs through Community Board 2 and 4. Prior to

Central Park, for example, is a 750 acre space that was

the High Line’s existence, Board 4 which contains the majority

deliberately set aside in 1853 to become America's ﬁrst large

of the High Line structure, had less than one-‐ﬁfth of an acre of

scale landscaped park; it was designed by Frederick Law

open space per thousand residents44. For many of the residents,

Olmsted and Calvert Vaux45 who recognised the beneﬁt of

access to the High Line is the only ecological interaction they

green space within an urban sprawl. This knowledge is nothing

would have. The neighbourhoods were in desperate need for an

new, although there was a period of time when there was

ecology that would help encourage a community synthesis,

insuﬃcient focus on the design of green spaces. The presence

altering their perspective on life and transforming their attitude

of the High Line has refocused attention on the importance of

towards natural ecosystems within an urban domain. This

green space, by allowing visitors to relax and step away from

chapter seeks to understand how the presence of the wildlife

their fast paced and technology reliant lifestyle and temporarily

can renew social behaviour in a metropolitan area.

escape into a peaceful environment. Edward Wilson strongly

THE INFLUENCE OF GREEN SPACES

believed that it is in our nature to have an intuitive bond with the natural forms and, in order for humans to reduce stress, anxiety and aggression, a close contact with nature on a regular

We have learnt overtime about the importance of green spaces

or even casual basis was necessary: the ‘Biophilia hypotheses’46.

in urban areas: they can improve the health of the public and

Therefore, it can be said that the presence of an urban ecology

are a great contribution to the formation of a civil society.

such as the High Line will improve the way people perceive

44 David, Jones and Easterling, p. 78. 45 ‘History’, Central Park (Central Park Conservancy) <http://www.centralparknyc.org/about/history.html> [accessed 7 January 2015]. 46 Natural Greenspaces in Towns and Cities, 3 December 2003 <http://scottishwildlifetrust.org.uk/docs/002__057__publications__policies__Policy_on_natural_greenspaces___June_2012__1339581874.pdf> [accessed 29 October 2014].

nature, particularly within an urban context and enable them to

The High Line has had a remarkable impact on the people of

understand how this interaction can improve their quality of

New York. Not only have crime rates within the Chelsea district

life.

been greatly reduced, but also there have been no reports of

major crimes along the High Line itself 47; the well lit walkway and its proximity to other buildings reduce the likelihood of serious crimes. People will make time for the High Line — an ideal location to observe the city life and something that has never been considered necessary for the people of New York. It has become a destination point. The ‘amphitheatre’ seating area on Tenth Avenue Square, one of the most popular locations along the parkway, is the best example where people of New York can relax within the park. It has no function or purpose; however this sitting area that is lower than the original track represents the design team’s aims to “cut into the structure and reveal it from the interior rather than just build onto it”48. Looking down, the views from the cut out windows Fig. 41. Tenth Square Avenue with Frank Gehry IAC building in the background.

show the traﬃc passing underneath, while looking up tenth

47 Michael Wilson, ‘The High Line Park Is Elevated. Its Crime Rate Is Low’, The New York Times (The New York Times Company, 10 June 2011) <http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/11/nyregion/the-‐high-‐line-‐park-‐is-‐elevated-‐its-‐crime-‐rate-‐is-‐not.html>

[accessed 7 January 2015]. 48 David and Hammond, p. 104.

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avenue a multitude of high rise buildings can be seen — views everyone in New York takes in on a daily basis. What is so

THE FRIENDLY LINE

special about this square is the way the decking invites you to

In today’s modern domain, it is important for green spaces to

sit, watch and acknowledge the world going on around you.

be accessible and approachable so that members of the public

Despite being within such a diverse ecological park, one will

are able to escape the built environment. The Field Operations

remain in an environment that is heavily dominated by

and Diller Scoﬁdio + Renfro team won ‘The High Line Design

machinery — the High Line’s existence so basic yet so complex

Competition’ in 2004 — their design was to introduce

and compelling.

controlled vegetation with an appreciation of the historic structure and a unique walkway system. Wanting to save the High Line from re-‐construction, they displayed the plants in a natural way and exposed the original structure; this approach won because their beliefs were similar to ‘Friends of the High Line’ with regards to minimal changes to the existing structure.

‘Friends of the High Line’ encourages improved relations within the urban environment to help establish a contemporary ecology. The organisation is a private partner to the New York City Department of Parks & Recreation 49 . With this Fig. 42. A render, The Field Operations and Diller Scoﬁdio + Renfro. 49 ‘About the High Line’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line, Inc.) <https://www.thehighline.org/about> [accessed 28 November 2014].

independence they are able to engage the surrounding community with the High Line; a sense of ownership and involvement is created through the maintenance and operations that help keep the park running smoothly.

Members of ‘Friends of the High Line’ are seen as ‘the non-‐ profit caretakers’50: the gardeners, technicians and visitor service staff who work tirelessly, maintaining the park and raising the necessary private funds for the 3 phased transformation while also establishing an endowment for the future. The goodwill of this community based organisation creates a relaxed atmosphere; the passing public frequently ask the gardeners questions about the flora and fauna. The organisation therefore hopes to develop a strong community and neighbourhood through the protection of the historic structure and to inspire a new ecological language for the city. Fig. 43 & 44. The volunteers for ‘spring cutback’, who trim the plants to make way for new growth and the ‘snow team’ who help to keep the park accessible during the winter months. 50 ibid.

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! A SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CORRIDOR

Throughout the year, over 300 events51 take place: public programmes, cabaret and dance performances and art exhibitions. These hope to engage, educate and encourage further involvement from the public as well as strengthen the social bonds with this contemporary ecology. The High Line is becoming well known for attracting famous speakers who express their views on the difficult relationship between the natural and artificial environment, while others will provide information about the history of the area and views on urban planning52. The Green Corps is an educational and job-‐training programme for local youths aged 14-‐1953; for six months they work with the High Line gardeners to maintain the landscape, establishing a relationship with the urban ecology at an early Fig. 45. In the summer 2014 the High Line transformed into an open-‐air dance floor at sunset, hosting the City’s best Latin Bands.

51 David and Hammond, p. 126. 52 ‘Adults’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line) <https://www.thehighline.org/activities/adult> [accessed 6 January 2015]. 53 ‘Teens’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line) <https://www.thehighline.org/activities/teens> [accessed 6 January 2015].

age which not only secures the High Line’s future but also

installs a skill and an interest for the future. Hoping to initiate the bond at a young age, many events also take place

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throughout July and August, oﬀering younger children a hands on experience with nature and an opportunity to learn about the natural life that lives along the High Line54. Each year 3,200 students and chaperons55 learn about the ecology on the High Line and the history of the Manhattan’s West Side; having been integrated into the primary school curriculum and the educational programme of ‘Friends of the High Line’, these lessons continue to be very popular. These exciting programmes create a unique relationship with each participant, a necessary bond that will help the longevity of the High Line and develop a community well educated about the natural ecosystem.

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Fig. 46. A volunteer talks to students about the Meatpacking District’s history.

54 ‘Kids’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line) <https://www.thehighline.org/activities/kids> [accessed 6 January 2015]. 55 ‘Schools’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line) <https://www.thehighline.org/activities/schools> [accessed 6 January 2015].

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! The High Line is home to many artworks that strongly relate to a particular site, and the considered placement of these art exhibitions aims to emphasise the uniqueness of the sky-‐park. For example in 2010, the position of the ‘Viewing Station’ by Richard Galpin56 at Eighteenth Street invited members of the public to see the city in a new way. These viewing frames created an alternative vision of the city; breaking down the complex built environment they portray a new detail to the viewer. Ed Ruscha57 was commissioned by High Line Art, to produce a mural on the side of an apartment building adjacent to the High Line at West 22nd Street. This humorous text pays respect to the problems surrounding urban living; for the visitors a moment of reflection and enjoyment can occur or an opportunity to discuss the overwhelming city experience of New York. Fig. 47 & 48. ‘Honey, I twisted through more damn traffic today’ and ‘The Viewing Box’. 56 ‘Viewing Station’, High Line Art (Friends of the High LIne) <http://art.thehighline.org/project/richardgalpin/> [accessed 12 January 2015]. 57 ‘Honey, I Twisted through More Traffic Today’, High Line Art (Friends of the High Line) <http://art.thehighline.org/project/honey-‐i-‐twisted-‐through-‐more-‐damn-‐traffic-‐today/> [accessed 11 January 2015].

A COMPLEMENTARY DESTINATION

It is considered by both residents and tourists to be one of the

encouraging the visitor to consider the unique setting in which they ﬁnd themselves.

most popular attractions within New York; over 4 million visitors58 have been guided through this mysterious urban ecology exhibiting geometric avenues and crumbling buildings. This physical bond established between the visitor and nature has created an opportunity to change the way people view their natural habitat, by signiﬁcantly altering the perspective of the urban environment; imposing billboards seen at eye level, and a close proximity to the shops, cars and street architecture form an intimate relationship with the streetscape. An entirely new experience with the Manhattan horizon is created — a unique experience to every visitor. No longer is a derelict structure viewed as an eyesore, waiting to be demolished, but as a site

Fig. 49. Painters from Colossal Media paint a large ad for the MoMA.

that has potential for transformation. This inspires new ways of thinking about the future of the urban environment while also

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58 David and Hammond, p. 125.

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At sunset, visitors meander through the carefully positioned planks and flowerbeds. The High Line has been delicately illuminated by L’Observatoire International; LED lights are used to prevent glare59 so that visitors can appreciate the surroundings at night. This style of lighting created beautiful scenes on and off the High Line. From a distance the illuminated features give the impression of the structure being elevated off the ground with occasional details being visible, while on the parkline the benches and handrails help to direct the public through the lit plants. The subtle lighting frames and draws attention to the vegetation, focusing on the display of the natural environment within an urban context. Looking from above, you clearly see the paths winding through this diverse wildlife, rather than an infinite wooden walkway bounded by flowerbeds. The High Line has been revitalised with nature as a priority, but the delicacy of the lighting has established an inspiring addition to the Manhattan skyline at night. Fig. 50. The illuminated Falcone Flyover. 59 ‘High Line Lighting’, Architizer <http://architizer.com/projects/high-‐line-‐lighting/> [accessed 7 January 2015].

A LIFELONG FRIENDSHIP

To conclude, this extraordinarily urban regeneration project has created a lifelong synthesis between the community and the natural environment, successfully establishing a curiosity within the public to learn about the natural world and the consequences of our lifestyle. It is therefore apparent that, in order for the relationship between the natural and the artiﬁcial environment to improve, regeneration projects should sit within the demands of the public. Projects should provide a destination or a through route and must be in context with the ﬂow of the city — there has to be a reason for the public to visit.

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Fig. 51 & 52. The lighting pays respect to the architectural details of the Field Operations and Diller Scoﬁdio + Renfro team and the planting design from Piet Oudolf.

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CONCLUSION

! The world is turning into an increasingly delicate biosphere and efforts to safeguard these natural phenomena are becoming widely encouraged and practiced. La Promenade Plantée and the High Line have become a model for redefining public spaces and the driving force for ecological revitalisation; we must continue to create alternative ways of exhibiting natural life within the urban context. Proving to be ideal locations for colonising plant life and a popular destination for people, they have effectively demonstrated that the demolition of derelict structures is unnecessary. This form of urban architecture understands the fragile character of the natural forms. It is well known that the conditions of a built environment will cause the natural structure of any ecosystem to adapt or permanently change. The ecological conditions similar to the wasteland are returning, a result of Piet Oudolf’s selection of grasses and perennials, and the environment has hardly changed — the self-‐ seeded species that first colonised the area are re-‐establishing

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themselves. The natural environment and architecture require a

natural and built environment. Connecting the past, present

relationship in which one will complement the appearance of

and future encourages a revival of the ‘past’ lifestyle in which a

the other: the presence of the natural life is necessary to

strong interaction with the natural world existed. Today, it can

prevent a totally man-‐made domain, while the architecture will

be understood that human intervention is of a more considered

create a unique setting for the location of ﬂora and fauna.

approach, and with this approach a successful transformation

of a space into a place of signiﬁcance is able to happen.

The growing presence of these natural phenomena within the

urban setting is leading to a return to previous ideals of organic

The presence of nature in an urban domain ruptures the

life. A cautious and respected relationship with nature was

constant ﬂow of artiﬁcial forms. It is interesting to note that the

exhibited in the past, but when the world moved into the

acknowledgement of nature to the human population is not

industrial era this relationship changed to one of minimal

often recognised until the habitat has been removed or altered.

concern. Present day attitudes have changed again, to the

For example we may wonder to what extent the residents of

belief that nature is essential for the modern world and thus a

Chelsea and the Meatpacking District were aware of the

cautious and respectful relationship is expressed; as a result of

complex and exciting natural ecosystem that existed 30m

extensive urban migration and development, access and

above their heads, between 1980 and 1999, before the High

interaction with natural life is not what it once was. Past human

Line parkway was opened. It is for such reasons measuring the

activity has slowly destroyed the natural ecosystem, at times to

impact that wilderness has on the human population is diﬃcult,

a point of no return, and redeﬁning urban spaces with nature

because very few people are aware of its presence, whereas it is

helps to secure the longevity of the relationship between the

much easier to understand the impact a transformed wilderness

This renewed approach to the city is a belief that combining the

site has on the population as a result of human activity.

natural and artiﬁcial world will provide a fresh perspective on

the surroundings, triggering future innovative developments.

The presence of nature on the urban environment is one of

On the High Line, the wildlife that initially colonised the rail

great importance and the beneﬁts can be identiﬁed by

tracks, situated amongst the Manhattan skyline, interacts with

recreational, ecological and aesthetic values. Culturally, La

the noise of the traﬃc below and the chatter of people — a

Promenade Plantée and the High Line are home to many

unique environment has been created. This ‘wilderness in the

programmes and exhibitions that strengthens the exhilarating

city’, has established the modern role that nature should play

ecological urban wonder. These developments have changed

within the urban domain, bringing the city dweller closer to

the way society views, feels and interacts with nature in the

natural life, prompting further thoughts on the sustainability of

urban domain. They have become a necessary involvement in

raised walkways and perhaps the prospect that urban layering is

the routine of the population. A sense of calm and tranquility is

the future for a metropolitan centre. Nonetheless, this form of

felt by visitors — a juxtaposition to the rhythm of the built

human intervention is reliant on a focus that will preserve the

environment. Ultimately, we must be aware that an improved

natural ecology, without which the High Line might not exist in

consideration towards overgrown urban areas and a sensitivity

its form today.

to the natural ecosystem must increase, to sustain social relationships with the natural world, if the urban environment is to keep existing in unity with the natural world.

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The successful revival of the derelict structures that once

to exist in a completely natural way to allow for a species rich

existed — La Promenade Plantée and the High Line — can be

and diverse environment to develop: the presence of the ‘third

viewed as a rejection of the deﬁnitive models of standard

landscape’62. Despite this, it is possible for a lifelong beauty to

development. Repurposing these structures has gloriﬁed the

exist in the derelict buildings that are being taken over by

idea of ruin and derelict structures with ‘ecological refugia’60, an

vegetation; the natural life is reclaiming control with no human

unmanaged wildlife. The High Line’s beauty comes from its

interference. As this movement increases in popularity, it

rusting industrial structure and its overgrown nature and, in

questions whether the presence of crumbling structures in an

spite of human involvement, La Promenade Plantée portrays a

urban context is the stimulation for the survival of these

beautiful synthesis of the past structures existing boldly within

ecological landscapes; they are perceived to have no value until

the built domain today. They exist today as visionary landscapes

they have been developed.

Nature has existed on the earth for over 4.5 billion years61,

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overtime establishing an almost Darwinian capability of

In urban areas, the value of demolishing a structure to make

knowing how to do what it does; however, anthropogenic

space for a new construction and the presence of natural

actions are destroying this by constantly changing the

ecosystems are equally important; to secure the permanent

environment. Within all environments there must be areas left

existence of natural life human management is required. If the

made possible by inspirational human intervention.

60 Gandy, ‘Marginalia: Aesthetics, Ecology, and Urban Wastelands’. 61 Guattari, Pindar and Sutton, p. 3. 62 Clement, ‘The Third Landscape’.

structure becomes totally transformed like La Promenade

wilderness within today’s environment and the signiﬁcance of

Plantée or representative of the third landscape like the High

allowing the public to interact with the natural habitat. Human

Line, it will still promote the ideas of an ecology within a

intervention with the appropriate design approach towards

contemporary city. Creating a synthesis of the built and the

urban ecology is necessary, in order to create the right synthesis

natural form, these unique urban ecologies have secured for the

between the traditional and modern forms of architecture. The

future the permanence of the habitat and established a bond

High Line can be seen as the structure in which nature was the

between the natural and the built environment.

instigator of this process; had it not been for natural selection

and survival, man would not have had the inspiration to create

The High Line has become well established in a modern city. Re-‐

this park. Anthropogenic actions have just improved what

presenting the original wilderness wasteland, by planting the

nature had started.

into the built context. Already accommodating over 4 million

! ! !

visitors63, this successful human intervention has enabled the

The High Line and La Promenade Plantée have been equally

wasteland to remain a distinctive component of the urban

successful in proving how the presence of a natural habitat can

landscape. Matthew Gandy stated, “Wastelands are a

beneﬁt an urban domain, economically transforming the area

characteristic feature of many urban landscapes”64, and the

with residential, commercial and cultural developments.

actions taken by the High Line acknowledge the importance of

Particularly in New York, sacriﬁces have been made to improve

original colonising species and introducing public access, it has improved social relations and re-‐established the ecology back

63 David and Hammond, p. 125. 64 Gandy, ‘Marginalia: Aesthetics, Ecology, and Urban Wastelands’.

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the relationship with the natural and built environment while also attempting to improve the quality of life for the residents.

It is therefore acknowledged that, in urban wastelands, human intervention can be successful in the transformation of the space into a place of signiﬁcance by reclaiming and controlling the wilderness. This modern concept of wilderness has been accepted as a necessary habitat within urban environments, made possible by human involvement. This ambitious synthesis between the built and natural forms has established a world wide trend to transform derelict spaces into places of importance; ecologies within an urban context, dominated by highly dense residential and commercial buildings, promise an alternative to urban living.

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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Fig. 54. (Following spread) This photograph illustrates the breathtaking detail at one of the three Rail Track Walks at the Rail Yards. The results achieved by ‘Friends of the High Line’, has been astonishing, achieving everything they set out to do the High Line is an remarkable urban ecology.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOK CHAPTER

! BOOKS !

Emmrich, Rico, and Dieter Rink, ‘Surrogate Nature or Wilderness? Social Perceptions and Notions of Nature in an Urban Context’, in Wild urban woodlands, by Ingo Kowarik and Stefan Korner, ed. by Ingo Kowarik (Germany: Springer-‐Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K, 2009)

Bennett, Michael, and David Teague, The Nature of Cities: Ecocriticism and Urban Environments (United States: Tucson : University of Arizona Press, c1999., 1999)

David, Joshua, and Robert Hammond, High Line: The Inside Story of New York City’s Park in the Sky (United States: Farrar, Straus &; Giroux Inc, 2011)

David, Joshua, Casey Jones, and Keller Easterling, Reclaiming the High Line: A Project of the Design Trust for Public Space, with Friends of the High Line, ed. by Karen Hock, 2002

Guattari, Felix, Ian Pindar, and Paul Sutton, The Three Ecologies (United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014)

Oudolf, Piet, and Henk Gerritsen, Planting the Natural Garden (Portland : Timber Press, 2003., 2003)

Sternfeld, Joel, Adam Gopnik, and John Stilgoe, Joel Sternfeld: Walking the High Line ([New York]: Pace/MacGill Gallery, 2002)

! !

! ! WEBPAGES !

‘About the High Line’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line, Inc.) <https://www.thehighline.org/about> [accessed 28 November 2014]

‘Adults’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line) <https:// www.thehighline.org/activities/adult> [accessed 6 January 2015]

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———, ‘Piet, Oudolf Leader of the New Perennials’, The Dirt (American Society of Landscape Architects, 2010) <http://dirt.asla.org/

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Pettis, Andi, ‘How the High Line Gardeners Keep It WIld’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line, 2014) <https://www.thehighline.org/blog/ 2014/06/10/how-‐the-‐high-‐line-‐gardeners-‐keep-‐it-‐wild> [accessed 7 January 2015]

! !

‘History’, Central Park (Central Park Conservancy) <http:// www.centralparknyc.org/about/history.html> [accessed 7 January 2015]

‘Ho•ogen’, Doepel Strijkers (Doepel Strijkers Architects) <http:// www.doepelstrijkers.com/?lan=_uk#/projects/79/HOFBOGEN/> [accessed 31 December 2014]

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‘Kids’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line) <https:// www.thehighline.org/activities/kids> [accessed 6 January 2015]

! !

‘Reclaiming The High Line’, Design Trust (Design Trust for Public Space) <http://designtrust.org/projects/reclaiming-‐high-‐line/> [accessed 11 January 2015]

‘Schools’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line) <https:// www.thehighline.org/activities/schools> [accessed 6 January 2015]

‘Teens’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line) <https:// www.thehighline.org/activities/teens> [accessed 6 January 2015]

‘The High Line’, HR&A Advisors (HR&A Advisors) <http:// www.hraadvisors.com/featured/the-‐high-‐line/#> [accessed 31 October 2014]

———, NYC Parks (The City of New York) <http:// www.nycgovparks.org/parks/the-‐high-‐line> [accessed 31 December 2014]

‘Mission and Values’, Design Trust (Design Trust for Public Space) <http://designtrust.org/about/mission-‐and-‐values/> [accessed 11 January 2015] Mullaney, Jennette, ‘High Line Headquarters to Be Named The Diller -‐ von Furstenberg Building’, the High Line (Friends of the High Line, 2013) <http://www.thehighline.org/blog/2013/08/22/high-‐line-‐

! !

‘The Inside Track On New York City’s High Line’, npr books (National Public Radio, Inc., 2011) <http://www.npr.org/2011/09/03/140063103/ the-‐inside-‐track-‐on-‐new-‐yorks-‐high-‐line> [accessed 31 October 2014]

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‘The Use of Historic Buildings in Regeneration’ <http://www.english-‐ heritage.org.uk/publications/heritage-‐works/heritage-‐works-‐2013.pdf> [accessed 30 October 2014]

‘Viaduc Arts’, Patrick Berger (Patrick Berger Architects) <http:// www.patrickberger.fr/projets/150_viaduc/viaduc_03.html> [accessed 10 January 2015]

‘Viewing Station’, High Line Art (Friends of the High LIne) <http:// art.thehighline.org/project/richardgalpin/> [accessed 12 January 2015]

‘World’s Population Increasingly Urban with More than Half Living in Urban Areas’, the United Nations (United Nations Publications, 2014) <http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/world-‐ urbanization-‐prospects-‐2014.html> [accessed 5 December 2014]

! NEWS ARTICLE !

Bergman, Justin, ‘In Singapore’s Center, but a World Away’, The New York Times (The New York Times Company, 2 April 2014) <http:// www.nytimes.com/2014/04/06/travel/in-‐singapores-‐center-‐but-‐a-‐ world-‐away.html?_r=0> [accessed 2 January 2015]

McGeehan, Patrick, ‘With Next Phase Ready, Area Around High Line Is Flourishing’, The New York Times (The New York Times Company, 5 June 2011) <http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/06/nyregion/with-‐next-‐ phase-‐ready-‐area-‐around-‐high-‐line-‐is-‐ﬂourishing.html> [accessed 31 October 2014]

Wilson, Michael, ‘The High Line Park Is Elevated. Its Crime Rate Is Low’, The New York Times (The New York Times Company, 10 June 2011) <http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/11/nyregion/the-‐high-‐line-‐park-‐is-‐ elevated-‐its-‐crime-‐rate-‐is-‐not.html> [accessed 7 January 2015]

! JOURNAL ARTICLE !

Gandy, Matthew, ‘Marginalia: Aesthetics, Ecology, and Urban Wastelands’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 103 (2013), 1301–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2013.832105>

! REPORT !

Natural Greenspaces in Towns and Cities, 3 December 2003 <http:// scottishwildlifetrust.org.uk/docs/ 002__057__publications__policies__Policy_on_natural_greenspaces_ __June_2012__1339581874.pdf> [accessed 29 October 2014]

! DICTIONARY ENTRY !

‘Wilderness’, by Oxford Dictionary, Oxford Dictionary Press <http:// www.oxforddictionaries.com/deﬁnition/english/wilderness> [accessed 24 December 2014]

! ! !

__________________________________________________________

SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES

! WEBPAGES !

Benﬁeld, Kaid, ‘The Original “High Line”: La Promenade Plantée in Paris’, Sustainable Cities Collective (Social Media Today LLC, 2011) <http://sustainablecitiescollective.com/kaidbenﬁeld/27174/original-‐ high-‐line-‐la-‐promenade-‐plant-‐e-‐paris> [accessed 23 December 2014]

Best, Nathaniel, ‘Promenade Plantée: Elevated Open Space in Paris’, Landscape Architecture Study Tour (Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning at the University of Massachusetts) <http://people.umass.edu/latour/France/best/> [accessed 23 December 2014]

Clancy, Joseph, ‘What Makes a Biophilic City?’, Landscape Architects (Landscape Architects Network, 2014) <http://landarchs.com/biophilic-‐ city/> [accessed 29 October 2014]

Cohen, Steven, ‘The Highline: Public-‐Private Partnership and Bloomberg’s Leadership Creates a Great NYC Park’, The Huffington Post (TheHuffingtonPost.com, 2011) <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ steven-‐cohen/the-‐highline-‐public-‐priva_b_868968.html> [accessed 23 December 2014]

Golden, James, ‘On the High Line: The Third Landscape with Gilles Clement and Michael Gordon’, View from Federal Twist (James Golden, 2013) <http://federaltwist.com/on-‐the-‐high-‐line-‐the-‐third-‐

landscape-‐with-‐gilles-‐clement-‐and-‐michael-‐gordon/> [accessed 27 December 2014]

Green, Jared, ‘Interview with Robert Hammond, Co-‐Founder of the High Line’, The Dirt (American Society of Landscape Architects, 2012) <http://dirt.asla.org/2012/02/08/interview-‐with-‐robert-‐hammond-‐co-‐ founder-‐of-‐the-‐high-‐line/> [accessed 13 November 2015]

King, Jason, ‘Take the High Road: Paris’, Landscape+Urbanism, 2008 <http://landscapeandurbanism.blogspot.co.uk/2008/02/take-‐high-‐ road-‐nyc-‐paris.html> [accessed 6 January 2015]

‘NYC Parks: The High Line’, Museum of The City <http:// www.museumofthecity.org/nyc-‐parks-‐the-‐high-‐line/> [accessed 3 January 2015]

Paletta, Anthony, ‘The High Line’s Final Chapter Is Complete; But Don’t Close the Book Just Yet’ (ArchDaily, 2014) <http://www.archdaily.com/ 554117/viewing-‐a-‐city-‐in-‐motion-‐from-‐the-‐high-‐line-‐s-‐third-‐phase/> [accessed 13 December 2014]

———, ‘The High Line’s Last Section Plays Up Its Rugged Past’, Metropolis (Metropolis Magazine, 2014) <http:// www.metropolismag.com/Point-‐of-‐View/October-‐2014/The-‐High-‐Lines-‐ Last-‐Section-‐Plays-‐Up-‐Its-‐Rugged-‐Past/> [accessed 23 December 2014]

‘Promenade Plantée’, Architectuul (Architectuul, 2011) <http:// architectuul.com/architecture/promenade-‐plantee> [accessed 27 December 2014]

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‘References’, Piet Oudolf -‐ Gardens and Landscapes (Piet Oudolf) <http://oudolf.com/references> [accessed 23 December 2014]

Rosenﬁeld, Karissa, ‘Take a Walk on the High Line with Iwan Baan’ (ArchDaily, 2014) <http://www.archdaily.com/550810/take-‐a-‐ walk-‐on-‐the-‐high-‐line-‐with-‐iwan-‐baan/> [accessed 13 December 2014]

Samuelson, Ruth, ‘New York City’s High Line Inspires Mexico City Chapultepec Project’, Fox News Latino (Fox News Latino, 2011) <http:// latino.foxnews.com/latino/lifestyle/2011/08/15/new-‐york-‐citys-‐high-‐line-‐ inspires-‐mexico-‐city-‐chapultepec-‐project/> [accessed 31 December 2014]

‘The Flying Parks-‐ From The Highline in New York to The Promenade Plantée in Paris!’, Landscape Architects (Landscape Architects Network, 2012) <http://landarchs.com/from-‐new-‐york-‐to-‐paris/> [accessed 27 December 2014]

‘Visite de Paris: La Promenade Plantée-‐Coulée Verte Paris 12’, FranceDigitale (FranceDigitale) <http://www.francedigitale.com/ Rando.Web/58> [accessed 27 December 2014]

! NEWS ARTICLE !

Foderaro, Lisa, ‘$20 Million Gift to High Line Park’, The New York Times (The New York Times Company, 26 October 2011) <http://

www.nytimes.com/2011/10/27/nyregion/20-‐million-‐gift-‐to-‐high-‐line-‐ park.html?_r=0> [accessed 6 January 2015]

Ouroussoﬀ, Nicolai, ‘On High, a Fresh Outlook’, The New York Times (The New York Times Company, 10 June 2009) <http:// www.nytimes.com/2009/06/10/arts/design/10high.html? pagewanted=1> [accessed 13 December 2014]

! ! ENCYCLOPAEDIA ENTRY !

Daul, Kimberly, ‘Promenade Plantee’, Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2013) <http://www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/topic/1827196/Promenade-‐Plantee> [accessed 13 November 2014]

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PICTURE CREDITS Cover Photo -‐ Joel Sternfeld Fig. 1 -‐ Iwan Baan Fig. 2 -‐ http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/pbcote/courses/archive/ 2010/gsd6447/bighorse/ Fig. 3 -‐ High Line Photo Gallery Fig. 4 -‐ Elizabeth from http://elizabeth-‐ aboutnewyork.blogspot.co.uk/2011_06_01_archive.html Fig. 5 -‐ Joel Sternfeld Fig. 6 -‐ bilbyandbear from https:// bilbyandbear.wordpress.com/2013/07/02/pariss-‐promenade-‐ plantee-‐vs-‐nycs-‐high-‐line/ Fig. 7 -‐ Kennie Ting from http://dreamofacity.com/2012/01/20/ dream-‐of-‐a-‐city-‐2011-‐summer-‐%E5%A4%8F/ Fig. 8 -‐ Joel Sternfeld Fig. 9 -‐ Joel Sternfeld Fig. 10 -‐ Ed Snodgrass Fig. 11 -‐ Friends of the High Line, Joan Garvin and Karen Blumberg Fig. 12 -‐ Stephanie Wilkins Fig. 13 -‐ Joel Sternfeld Fig. 14 -‐ taigatrommelchen from ﬂickr Fig. 15 -‐ http://travel-‐babel.com/2011/09/28/hooray-‐for-‐the-‐high-‐ line/ Fig. 16 -‐ Nyttend from Wikipedia

Fig. 17 -‐ http://www.localnomad.com/en/blog/2013/02/13/ promenade-‐plantee-‐parkway-‐the-‐highline-‐park-‐in-‐paris/ Fig. 18 -‐ http://www.messynessychic.com/2012/07/06/paris-‐ secret-‐park-‐in-‐the-‐sky-‐the-‐original-‐high-‐line/ Fig. 19 -‐ (top) Patrick Berger Architects Fig. 20 -‐ (bottom) http://europeantrips.org/promenade-‐ plantee-‐the-‐first-‐elevated-‐park-‐in-‐the-‐world.html Fig. 21 -‐ (top) http://europeantrips.org/promenade-‐plantee-‐the-‐ first-‐elevated-‐park-‐in-‐the-‐world.html Fig. 22 -‐ Robin Plashoff Horton Fig. 23 -‐ http://europeantrips.org/promenade-‐plantee-‐the-‐first-‐ elevated-‐park-‐in-‐the-‐world.html Fig. 24 -‐ Friends of the High Line Fig. 25 -‐ Joel Sternfeld Fig. 26 -‐ (left) Foster + Partners Architects Fig. 27 -‐ (top) Zaha Hadid Architects Fig. 28 -‐ http://www.imamuseum.org/blog/wp-‐content/ uploads/2013/07/IAC-‐Headquarters.jpg Fig. 29 -‐ La Citta Vita from flickr Fig. 30 -‐ Iwan Baan Fig. 31 -‐ Steven Holl Fig. 32 -‐ Iwan Baan Fig. 33 -‐ Iwan Baan Fig. 34 -‐ Nathalie Rinne Fig. 35 -‐ Iwan Baan Fig. 36 -‐ Margaret Badore Fig. 37 -‐ Doepel Strijker Architects Fig. 38 -‐ (left) taxontaxoff from http://www.panoramio.com/ photo/47649391

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Fig. 39 -‐ Lucy Dodsworth from http://www.ontheluce.com/ 2011/11/03/paris-‐promenade-‐plantee/ Fig. 40 -‐ Joel Sternfeld (check) Fig.41 -‐ http://stevetokar.wordpress.com/2010/07/04/high-‐line-‐ new-‐york-‐city-‐10th-‐avenue-‐square/ Fig. 42 -‐ City of New York and Friends of the High Line Fig. 43 -‐ (top) Liz Ligon Fig. 44 -‐ (bottom) David Wilkinson Fig. 45 -‐ Rowa Lee Fig. 46 -‐ Rowa Lee Fig. 47 -‐ (top) Tomothy Schenck Fig. 48 -‐ (bottom) Jason Mandella Fig. 49 -‐ http://www.livinthehighline.com/2013/04/24/painters-‐ in-‐the-‐sky/ Fig. 50 -‐ Iwan Baan Fig. 51 -‐ Courtney Embrey Fig. 52 -‐ Courtney Embrey Fig. 53 -‐ https://studiosparis.wordpress.com/tag/promenade-‐ plantee/ Fig. 54 -‐ Iwan Baan

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