In This Issue: Managers & Leaders: Are They Different? Page 9
Extending the Long Term Viability Page 24
How You Make Decisions Page 30
Failure the Impartial Executioner Page 33
The of the the Laboratory LaboratoryAnimal AnimalManagement Management Association, 2015 The Journal Journal of Asso ciation, 2009
The Lama Review - Page 1 Volume 27 › 1Issue 2 Volume 22 › Issue
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ObjecƟves of the Laboratory Animal Management AssociaƟon • To promote the dissemination of ideas, experiences, and knowledge • To encourage continued education • To act as spokesperson • To actively assist in the training of managers This publication contains copyrighted material the use of which has not always been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. Such material is made available to advance understanding of ecological, political, economic, scientific, moral, ethical, personnel, and social justice issues, etc. It is believed that this constitutes a “fair use” of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law. In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C Section 107, this material is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior general interest in receiving similar information for research and educational purposes. If you wish to use copyrighted material for purposes of your own that go beyond “fair use,” you must obtain permission from the copyright owner. For more information concerning The LAMA Review, please contact the Editor in Chief, Jim Manke at the e-mail listed below.
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T H E
2014-2015 Executive Committee Officers
L A M A
PRESIDENT Wayne DeSantis West Chester, PA VICE PRESIDENT Roxanne Fox Sarasota, FL VICE PRESIDENT ELECT Leah Curtin Framingham, MA
Volume 27, No.2
PAST-PRESIDENT Pam Straeter Princeton, NJ
In This Issue:
7 9 20
President’s Message Managers & Leaders Are They Different? Change Management
SECRETARY/TREASURER Howard Mosher Killingworth, CT Directors at Large Kelly Patterson-Montclair, NJ Leah Curtin - Framingham, MA Steve Baker - Cambridge, MA Jefferson Childs- Cincinnati, OH Ed Russo- Worcester, MA ATA Rep Teresa Woodger - Montreal, QE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR Jim Manke, CAE Maple Grove, MN
24
Extending the Long Term Viability
30
How You Make Decisions Is As Important As What You Decide
32
Why Real Leaders Pump Gas
33
Failure the Impartial Executioner
41 Building the Strong Organization Advertiser Listing Page 13 Across from TOC Page 22 Page 2 Page 7
Page 4 - The Lama Review
Allentown Purina Lab Diet Vet Equip Ancare Pharmacal
2014-2015 LAMA Review Editorial Staff EDITOR IN CHIEF Reed A. George- Ashburn, VA James D. Cox- Ashburn, VA MANAGING EDITOR Evelyn Howard Lafayette, IN EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Steve Baker Cambridge, MA Gail Thompson Wheatland, WY
Staff Contacts Jim Manke, CAE Executive Director (763)235-6482 Kathi Schlieff Meeting Manager (763) 235-6483 Judy Hansen Membership & Development Manager LAMA Review Coordinator (763)235-6484
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Brittany Vester Boler, PhD Animal Nutrition Technical Services Consultant – Purina Animal Nutrition
JOGP!MBCEJFU DPN t XXX -BC%JFU DPN The Lama Review - Page 5
Did you know? In the Laboratory Animal community, publishing in professional journal is an essential part of advancing your career. Submitting an article to the LAMA Review provides an opportunity to be published in a professional journal. This is a great opportunity to share your research knowledge and accomplishments. Imagine your journal impacting and influencing the laboratory animal management practices! The LAMA Review provides important information on industry’s advancements and developments to those involved in the Laboratory Animal field with emphasis in management. The LAMA Review is published electronically each quarter and combines short columns with longer feature articles. Each issue focuses on significant topics and relevant interest to ensure a well-rounded coverage on laboratory management matters.
Submitting an article Choose an interesting topic that has the potential to benefit the Laboratory Animal Management community. Write the article that you would like to see published in the journal. Be sure to include multiple sources to support your research and accurately cite references. Submit your article to Review via email lamareview@gmail.com
Benefits of publishing The LAMA Review is the official journal of the Laboratory Animal Management Association, which is committed to publishing high quality, independently peer-reviewed research and review material. The LAMA Review publishes ideas and concepts in an innovative format to provide premium information for laboratory Animal Management in the public and private sectors which include government agencies. A key strength of the LAMA Review is its relationship with the Laboratory Animal management community. By working closely with our members, listening to what they say, and always placing emphasis on quality. The Review is finding innovative solutions to management’s needs, by providing the necessary resources and tools for managers to succeed.
Article Guidelines
Submissions of articles are accepted from LAMA members, professional managers, and administrators of laboratory animal care and use. Submissions should generally range between 2,000 and 5,000. All submissions are subject to Submissions are accepted for the following features of the LAMA Review: o o o o o
Original Articles Review Articles Job Tips Manager’s Forum Problem Solving
Page 6 - The Lama Review
President’s Message - by Wayne Desantis Hello (Again) Lama Membership, I hope the beginning of everyone’s summer is going as planned, graduations, picnics, weekends at the shore or lake and of course dreaming of next year’s LAMA meeting, smile! To keep everyone up to date, I am pleased to say that we have stayed on course to bring you the best possible value for your membership. The work started by the Education committee with the boot camp has continued, has been well received and well attended. Our mission to foster continuing career as well as personal growth is on track by way of the scholarships we offer. We have received a lot of help recently because of volunteers to all of our committees and for that we thank you. Overall the organization is strong and focused as we strive to keep up with (and exceed) expectations. In short LAMA is an organization committed to serving your needs so please continue to let us know what you need. As the sitting president of this fantastic organization I take my role and responsibilities very seriously. As I see it, staying true to the core mission, specifically “LAMA, is an association dedicated to advancing the quality of management and care of laboratory animals throughout the world” is what I am entrusted to do. With your help, dedication and focus we will grow well into the future.
The Lama Review - Page 7
From The Editor’s Cube..... -Jim Manke- Editor
I am very pleased to announce that we have new co-editors for the LAMA Review! James Cox and Reed George, both with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, will start work with the next (fall) edition. Reed A. George, Senior Director of Scientific Services, Janelia Research Campus, directs Janelia's shared resource laboratories, including microscopy, model organism, and biological resource facilities. He is also responsible for operational leadership for Janelia's team projects. George says Janelia's cross-disciplinary approach to science's important questions brought him to Virginia from Berkeley, CA, where he was a senior program manager for the Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project, running the project's DNA-sequencing operations and its technology development group. James D. Cox, Shared Resource Director of Animal Services, Janelia Research Campus, is responsible for ensuring the use of animals in research at Janelia complies with best practices and applicable laws and regulations, and enables the very best science. In addition to his direct responsibilities for the Vivarium and IACUC, Cox oversees the Drosophila and Media shared resources. Cox served as the IACUC chair for nine years and remains a member of both the IACUC and IBC. Reed and Jim share the vision of providing the very best in care for laboratory animals and employing sound management approaches for animal facilities, thereby supporting the best science. Their goal is to maximize the knowledge gained from each and every experiment, supporting the goals of refinement and reduction in laboratory animal science. They hope to bring new ideas from the broader fields of leadership and management to improve the laboratory animal industry overall. Welcome aboard Reed and Jim – now excuse me while I pack my things and leave the Editor’s Cube! JIM
Page 8 - The Lama Review
Managers & Leaders Are They Different?
Can Organizations Develop Leaders? Zaleznik suggests two ways to develop leaders. First, avoid overreliance on peer-learning situations, e.g., task forces. They stifle the aggressiveness and initiative that fuel leadership. Second, cultivate one-to-one relationships between mentors and apprentices; e.g., a CEO chooses a talented novice as his special assistant. These close
working relationships encourage intense emotional interchange, tolerance of competitive impulses, and eagerness to challenge ideas—essential characteristics of leadership. the ideal way to develop leadership? Every society provides its own answer to this question, and each, in groping for answers, defines its deepest concerns about the purposes, distributions, and uses of power. Business has contributed its answer to the leadership question The Lama Review - Page 9
Idea in Brief Tough, persistent; smart, analytical; tolerant, and of good will—all qualities you want in your best managers. How else can they perform their jobs: solving problems and directing people and affairs? But let’s face it: It takes neither genius nor heroism to be a manager. Even highly valued managers don’t inflame employees’ passions and imagination. Nor do they stimulate the change that all organizations require. For those qualities, you need leaders, not managers. In this 1977 groundbreaking article, Abraham Zaleznik challenged the traditional view of management. That view, he argued, omits essential leadership elements of inspiration, vision, and human passion—which drive corporate success. Managers and leaders are two different animals. Leaders , like artists, tolerate chaos and lack of structure. They keep answers in suspense, preventing premature closure on important issues. Managers seek order, control, and rapid resolution of problems. Companies need both managers and leaders to excel. But too often, they don’t create the right environment for Leaders to flourish. Zaleznik offers a solution.
by evolving a new breed called the manager. Simultaneously, business has established a new power ethic that favors collective over individual leadership, the cult of the group over that of personality. While ensuring the competence, control, and the balance of power among groups with the potential for rivalry, managerial leadership unfortunately does not necessarily ensure imagination, creativity, or ethical behavior in guiding the destinies of corporate enterprises. Leadership inevitably requires using power to influence the thoughts and actions of other people. Power in the hands of an individual entails human risks: first, the risk of equating power with the ability to get immediate results; second, the risk of ignoring the many different ways people can legitimately accumulate power; and third, the risk of losing self-control in the desire for power. The need to hedge these risks accounts in part for the development of collective leadership and the managerial ethic. Consequently, an inherent conservatism dominates the culture of large organizations. In The Second American Revolution , John D. Rockefeller III describes the conservatism of organizations: “An organization is a system, with a logic of its own, and all the weight of tradition and inertia. The deck is stacked in favor of the tried and proven way of doing things and against the taking of risks and striking out in new directions.”1 Out of this conservatism and inertia, organizations provide succession to power through the development of managers rather than individual leaders. Ironically, this ethic fosters a bureaucratic culture in business, supposedly the last bastion protecting us from the encroachments and controls of bureaucracy in government and education.
Manager vs. Leader Personality A managerial culture emphasizes rationality and control. Whether his or her energies are directed toward goals, resources, organization structures, or people, a manager is a problem solver. The manager asks: “What problems have to be solved, and what are the best ways to achieve results so that people will continue to contribute to this organization?” From this perspective, leadership is simply a practical effort to direct affairs; and to fulfill his or her task, a manager requires that many people operate efficiently at different levels of status and responsibility. It takes neither genius nor heroism to be a manager, but rather persistence, tough-mindedness, hard work, intelligence, analytical ability, and perhaps most important, tolerance and goodwill. Another conception of leadership, however, attaches almost mystical beliefs to what a leader is and assumes that only great people are worthy of the drama of power and politics. Here leadership is a psychodrama in which a brilliant, lonely person must gain control of himself or herself as a precondition
Page 10 - The Lama Review
Attitudes toward goals
Conceptions of work
Relations with others
Sense of self
Managers
Leaders
Take an impersonal, passive outlook
Take a personal, active outlook. Shape rather than respond to ideas. Alter moods, evoke images, expectations
Goals arise out of necessities, not desires
Change how people think about what‛s desirable and possible. Set company direction.
Negotiate and coerce. Balanceopposing views.
Develop fresh approaches to problems.
Design compromises. Limitchoices.
Increase options. Turn ideas into exciting images.
Avoid risk.
Seek risk when opportunities appear promising.
Prefer working with people, but maintain minimal emotional involvement. Lack empathy.
Attracted to ideas. Relate to others directly, intuitively, empathetically.
Focus on process, e.g., how decisions are made rather than what decisions to make.
Focus on substance of events and decisions, including their meaning for participants.
Communicate by sending ambiguous signals. Subordinates perceive them as inscrutable, detached, manipulative. Organization accumulates bureaucracy and political intrigue.
Subordinates describe them with emotionally rich adjectives; e.g., “love,” “hate.” Relations appear turbulent, intense, disorganized. Yet motivation intensifies, and unanticipated outcomes proliferate.
Comes from perpetuating and strengthening existing institutions.
Feel part of the organization.
Comes from struggles to profoundly alter human and economic relationships.
Feel separate from the organization.
Idea in Practice The Lama Review - Page 11
for controlling others. Such an expectation of leadership contrasts sharply with the mundane, practical, and yet important conception that leadership is really managing work that other people do. Two questions come to mind. Is this leadership mystique merely a holdover from our childhood—from a sense of dependency and a longing for good and heroic parents? Or is it true that no matter how competent managers are, their leadership stagnates because of their limitations in visualizing purposes and generating value in work? Driven by narrow purposes, without an imaginative capacity and the ability to communicate, do managers then perpetuate group conflicts instead of reforming them into broader desires and goals? If indeed problems demand greatness, then judging by past performance, the selection and development of leaders leave a great deal to chance. There are no known ways to train “great” leaders. Further, beyond what we leave to chance, there is a deeper issue in the relationship between the need for competent managers and the longing for great leaders. What it takes to ensure a supply of people who will assume practical responsibility may inhibit the development of great leaders. On the other hand, the presence of great leaders may undermine the development of managers who typically become very anxious in the relative disorder that leaders seem to generate. It is easy enough to dismiss the dilemma of training managers, though we may need new leaders or leaders at the expense of managers, by saying that the need is for people who can be both. But just as a managerial culture differs from the entrepreneurial culture that develops when leaders appear in organizations, managers and leaders are very different kinds of people. They differ in motivation, personal history, and in how they think and act.
Attitudes Toward Goals Managers tend to adopt impersonal, if not passive, attitudes toward goals. Managerial goals arise out of necessities rather than desires and, therefore, are deeply embedded in their organization’s history and culture. Frederic G. Donner, chairman and chief executive officer of General Motors from 1958 to 1967, expressed this kind of attitude toward goals in defining GM’s position on product development: “To meet the challenge of the marketplace, we must recognize changes in customer needs and desires far enough ahead to have the right products in the right places at the right time and in the Page 12 - The Lama Review
right quantity. “We must balance trends in preference against the many compromises that are necessary to make a final product that is both reliable and good looking, that performs well and that sells at a competitive price in the necessary volume. We must design not just the cars we would like to build but, more important, the cars that our customers want to buy.”2 Nowhere in this statement is there a notion that consumer tastes and preferences arise in part as a result of what manufacturers do. In reality, through product design, advertising, and promotion, consumers learn to like what they then say they need. Few would argue that people who enjoy taking snapshots need a camera that also develops pictures. But in response to a need for novelty, convenience, and a shorter interval between acting (snapping the picture) and gaining pleasure (seeing the shot), the Polaroid camera succeeded in the marketplace. It is inconceivable that Edwin Land responded to impressions of consumer need. Instead, he translated a technology (polarization of light) into a product, which proliferated and stimulated consumers’ desires. The example of Polaroid and Land suggests how leaders think about goals. They are active instead of reactive, shaping ideas instead of responding to them. Leaders adopt a personal and active attitude toward goals. The influence a leader exerts in altering moods, evoking images and expectations, and in establishing specific desires and objectives determines the direction a business takes. The net result of this influence changes the way people think about what is desirable, possible, and necessary.
Conceptions of Work Managers tend to view work as an enabling process involving some combination of people and ideas interacting to establish strategies and make decisions. They help the process along by calculating the interests in opposition, planning when controversial issues should surface, and reducing tensions. In this enabling process, managers’ tactics appear flexible: on one hand, they negotiate and bargain; on the other, they use rewards, punishments,and other forms of coercion. Alfred P. Sloan’s actions at General Motors illustrate how this process works in situations of conflict. The time was the early 1920s when Ford Motor Company still dominated the automobile industry using, as did General Motors, the conventional water-cooled engine.
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With the full backing of Pierre du Pont, Charles Kettering dedicated himself to the design of an aircooled copper engine, which, if successful, would be a great technical and marketing coup for GM. Kettering believed in his product, but the manufacturing division heads opposed the new design on two grounds: first, it was technically unreliable, and second, the corporation was putting all its eggs in one basket by investing in a new product instead of attending to the current marketing situation. In the summer of 1923, after a series of false starts and after its decision to recall the copper engine Chevrolets from dealers and customers, GM management scrapped the project. When it dawned on Kettering that the company had rejected the engine, he was deeply discouraged and wrote to Sloan that, without the “organized resistance” against the project, it would have succeeded and that, unless the project were saved, he would leave the company. Alfred Sloan was all too aware that Kettering was unhappy and indeed intended to leave General Motors. Sloan was also aware that, while the manufacturing divisions strongly opposed the new engine, Pierre du Pont supported Kettering. Further, Sloan had himself gone on record in a letter to Kettering less than two years earlier expressing full confidence in him. The problem Sloan had was how to make his decision stick, keep Kettering in the organization (he was much too valuable to lose), avoid alienating du Pont, and encourage the division heads to continue developing product lines using conventional water-cooled engines. Sloan’s actions in the face of this conflict reveal much about how managers work. First, he tried to reassure Kettering by presenting the problem in a very ambiguous fashion, suggesting that he and the executive committee Page 14 - The Lama Review
sided with Kettering, but that it would not be practical to force the divisions to do what they were opposed to. He presented the problem as being a question of the people, not the product. Second, he proposed to reorganize around the problem by consolidating all functions in a new division that would be responsible for the design, production, and marketing of the new engine. This solution appeared as ambiguous as his efforts to placate Kettering. Sloan wrote: “My plan was to create an independent pilot operation under the sole jurisdiction of Mr. Kettering, a kind of copper-cooled car division. Mr. Kettering would designate his own chief engineer and his production staff to solve the technical problems of manufacture.” 3 Sloan did not discuss the practical value of this solution, which included saddling an inventor with management responsibility, but in effect, he used this plan to limit his conflict with Pierre du Pont. Essentially, the managerial solution that Sloan arranged limited the options available to others. The structural solution narrowed choices, even limiting emotional reactions to the point where the key people could do nothing but go along. It allowed Sloan to say in his memorandum to du Pont, “We have discussed the matter with Mr. Kettering at some length this morning, and he agrees with us absolutely on every point we made. He appears to receive the suggestion enthusiastically and has every confidence that it can be put across along these lines.”4 Sloan placated people who opposed his views by developing a structural solution that appeared to give something but in reality only limited options. He could then authorize the car division’s general manager, with whom he basically agreed, to move quickly in designing
water-cooled cars for the immediate market demand. Years later, Sloan wrote, evidently with tongue in cheek, “The copper-cooled car never came up again in a big way. It just died out; I don’t know why.” 5 To get people to accept solutions to problems, managers continually need to coordinate and balance opposing views. Interestingly enough, this type of work has much in common with what diplomats and mediators do, with Henry Kissinger apparently an outstanding practitioner. managers aim to shift balances of power toward solutions acceptable as compromises among conflicting values. Leaders work in the opposite direction. Where managers act to limit choices, leaders develop fresh approaches to long-standing problems and open issues to new options. To be effective, leaders must project their ideas onto images that excite people and only then develop choices that give those images substance. John F. Kennedy’s brief presidency shows both the strengths and weaknesses connected with the excitement leaders generate in their work. In his inaugural address he said, “Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty.” This much-quoted statement forced people to react beyond immediate concerns and to identify with Kennedy and with important shared ideals. On closer scrutiny, however, the statement is absurd because it promises a position, which, if adopted, as in the Vietnam War, could produce disastrous results. Yet unless expectations are aroused and mobilized, with all the dangers of frustration inherent in heightened desire, new thinking and new choice can never come to light. Leaders work from high-risk positions; indeed, they are often temperamentally disposed to seek out risk and danger, especially where the chance of opportunity and reward appears promising. From my observations, the reason one individual seeks risks while another approaches problems conservatively depends more on his or her personality and less on conscious choice. For those who become managers, a survival instinct dominates the need for risk, and with that instinct comes an ability to tolerate mundane, practical work. Leaders sometimes react to mundane work as to an affliction.
Relations with Others
Managers prefer to work with people; they avoid solitary activity because it makes them anxious. Several years ago, I directed studies on the psychological aspects of careers. The need to seek out others with whom to work and collaborate seemed to stand out as an important characteristic of managers. When asked, for example, to write imaginative stories in response to a picture showing a single figure (a boy contemplating a violin or a man silhouetted in a state of reflection), managers populated their stories with people. The following is an example of a manager’s imaginative story about the young boy contemplating a violin: “Mom and Dad insisted that their son take music lessons so that someday he can become a concert musician. His instrument was ordered and had just arrived. The boy is weighing the alternatives of playing football with the other kids or playing with the squeak box. He can’t understand how his parents could think a violin is better than a touchdown. “After four months of practicing the violin, the boy has had more than enough, Dad is going out of his mind, and Mom is willing to give in reluctantly to their wishes. Football season is now over, but a good third baseman will take the field next spring.” This story illustrates two themes that clarify managerial attitudes toward human relations. The first, as I have suggested, is to seek out activity with other people (that is, the football team), and the second is to maintain a low level of emotional involvement in those relationships. Low emotional involvement appears in the writer’s use of conventional metaphors, even clichés, and in the depiction of the ready transformation of potential conflict into harmonious decisions. In this case, the boy, Mom, and Dad agree to give up the violin for sports. These two themes may seem paradoxical, but their coexistence supports what a manager does, including reconciling differences, seeking compromises, and establishing a balance of power. The story further demonstrates that managers may lack empathy, or the capacity to sense intuitively the thoughts and feelings of others. Consider another story written to the same stimulus picture by someone thought of as a leader by his peers: “This little boy has the appearance of being a sincere artist, one who is deeply affected by the violin, and has an intense desire to master the instrument. “He seems to have just completed his normal practice session and appears to be somewhat crestfallen at his inability to produce the sounds that he is sure lie within the violin. The Lama Review - Page 15
believing that next time they will win. “He appears to be in the process of making a vow to himself to expend the necessary time and effort to play this instrument until he satisfies himself that he is able to bring forth the qualities of music that he feels within himself. “With this type of determination and carry through, this boy became one of the great violinists of his day.” Empathy is not simply a matter of paying attention to other people. It is also the capacity to take in emotional signals and make them meaningful in a relationship. People who describe another person as “deeply affected,” with “intense desire,” “crestfallen,” and as one who can “vow to himself” would seem to have an inner perceptiveness that they can use in their relationships with others. Managers relate to people according to the role they play in a sequence of events or in a decisionmaking process, while leaders, who are concerned with ideas, relate in more intuitive and empathetic ways. The distinction is simply between a manager’s attention to how things get done and a leader’s to what the events and decisions mean to participants. In recent years, managers have adopted from game theory the notion that decisionmaking events can be one of two types: the win-lose situation (or zero-sum game) or the win-win situation in which everybody in the action comes out ahead. Managers strive to convert win-lose into win-win situations as part of the process of reconciling differences among people and maintaining balances of power. As an illustration, take the decision of how to allocate capital resources among operating divisions in a large, decentralized organization. On the surface, the dollars available for distribution are limited at any given time. Presumably, therefore, the more one division gets, the less is available for other divisions. Managers tend to view this situation (as it affects human relations) as a conversion issue: how to make what seems like a win-lose problem into a win-win problem. From that perspective, several solutions come to mind. First, the manager focuses others’ attention on procedure and not on substance. Here the players become engrossed in the bigger problem of how to make decisions, not what decisions to make. Once committed to the bigger problem, these people have to support the outcome since they were involved in formulating the decision- making rules. Because they believe in the rules they formulated, they will accept present losses, Page 16 - The Lama Review
Second, the manager communicates to subordinates indirectly, using “signals” instead of “messages.” A signal holds a number of implicit positions, while a message clearly states a position. Signals are inconclusive and subject to reinterpretation should people become upset and angry; messages involve the direct consequence that some people will indeed not like what they hear. The nature of messages heightens emotional response and makes managers anxious. With signals, the question of who wins and who loses often becomes obscured. Third, the manager plays for time. Managers seem to recognize that with the passage of time and the delay of major decisions, compromises emerge that take the sting out of winlose situations, and the original “game” will be superseded by additional situations. Compromises mean that one may win and lose simultaneously, depending on which of the games one evaluates. There are undoubtedly many other tactical moves managers use to change human situations from win-lose to win-win. But the point is that such tactics focus on the decision-making process itself, and that process interests managers rather than leaders. Tactical interests involve costs as well as benefits; they make organizations fatter in bureaucratic and political intrigue and leaner in direct, hard activity and warm human relationships. Consequently, one often hears subordinates characterize managers as inscrutable, detached, and manipulative. These objectives arise from the subordinates’ perception that they are linked together in a process whose purpose is to maintain a controlled as well as rational and equitable structure. In contrast, one often hears leaders referred to with adjectives rich in emotional content. Leaders attract strong feelings of identity and difference or of love and hate. Human relations in leader-dominated structures often appear turbulent, intense, and at times even disorganized. Such an atmosphere intensifies individual motivation and often produces unanticipated outcomes.
Senses of Self In The Varieties of Religious Experience, William James describes two basic personality types, “once-born” and “twice-born.” People of the former personality type are those for whom adjustments to life have been straightforward and whose lives have been more or less a peaceful flow since birth. Twice-borns, on the other hand, have not had an easy time of it. Their lives are
marked by a continual struggle to attain some sense of order. Unlike once-borns, they cannot take things for granted. According to James, these personalities have equally different worldviews. For a once-born personality, the sense of self as a guide to conduct and attitude derives from a feeling of being at home and in harmony with one’s environment. For a twice-born, the sense of self derives from a feeling of profound separateness. A sense of belonging or of being separate has a practical significance for the kinds of investments managers and leaders make in their careers. Managers see themselves as conservators and regulators of an existing order of affairs with which they personally identify and from which they gain rewards. A manager’s sense of selfworth is enhanced by perpetuating and strengthening existing institutions: he or she is performing in a role that harmonizes with ideals of duty and responsibility. William James had this harmony in mind—this sense of self as flowing easily to and from the outer world—in defining a once-born personality. Leaders tend to be twice-born personalities, people who feel separate from their environment. They may work in organizations, but they never belong to them. Their sense of who they are does not depend on memberships, work roles, or other social indicators of identity. And that perception of identity may form the theoretical basis for explaining why certain individuals seek opportunities for change. The methods to bring about change may be technological, political, or ideological, but the object is the same: to profoundly alter human, economic, and political relationships. In considering the development of leadership, we have to examine two different courses of life history: (1) development through socialization, which prepares the individual to guide institutions and to maintain the existing balance of social relations; and (2) development through personal mastery, which impels an individual to struggle for psychological and social change. Society produces its managerial talent through the first line of development; leaders emerge through the second.
Development of Leadership Every person’s development begins with family. Each person experiences the traumas associated with separating from his or her parents as well as the pain that follows such a wrench. In the same vein, all individuals face the difficulties of achieving self-regulation and selfcontrol.But for some, perhaps a majority, the fortunes of childhood provide adequate gratifications and
sufficient opportunities to find substitutes for rewards no longer available. Such individuals, the “once-borns,” make moderate identifications with parents and find a harmony between what they expect and what they are able to realize from life. But suppose the pains of separation are amplified by a combination of parental demands and individual needs to the degree that a sense of isolation, of being special, or of wariness disrupts the bonds that attach children to parents and other authority figures? Given a special aptitude under such conditions, the person becomes deeply involved in his or her inner world at the expense of interest in the outer world. For such a person, selfesteem no longer depends solely on positive attachments and real rewards. A form of self-reliance takes hold along with expectations of performance and achievement, and perhaps even the desire to do great works. Such self-perceptions can come to nothing if the individual’s talents are negligible. Even with strong talents, there are no guarantees that achievement will follow, let alone that the end result will be for good rather than evil. Other factors enter into development as well. For one, leaders are like artists and other gifted people who often struggle with neuroses; their ability to function varies considerably even over the short run, and some potential leaders lose the struggle altogether. Also, beyond early childhood, the development patterns that affect managers and leaders involve the selective influence of particular people. Managerial personalities form moderate and widely distributed attachments. Leaders, on the other hand, establish, and also break off, intensive one-to one relationships. It is a common observation that people with great talents are often indifferent students. No one, for example, could have predicted Einstein’s great achievements on the basis of his mediocre record in school. The reason for mediocrity is obviously not the absence of ability. It may result, instead, from self-absorption and the inability to pay attention to the ordinary tasks at hand. The only sure way an individual can interrupt reverielike preoccupation and self-absorption is to form a deep attachment to a great teacher or other person who understands and has the ability to communicate with the gifted individual. Whether gifted individuals find what they need in one-toone relationships depends on the availability of teachers, possibly parental surrogates, whose strengths lie in cultivating talent. Fortunately, when generations meet and the self-selections occur, we learn more about how The Lama Review - Page 17
to develop leaders and how talented people of different generations influence each other. While apparently destined for mediocre careers, people who form important one-to-one apprenticeship relationships often are able to accelerate and intensify their development. The psychological readiness of an individual to benefit from such a relationship depends on some experience in life that forces that person to turn inward. Consider Dwight Eisenhower, whose early career in the army foreshadowed very little about his future development. During World War I, while some of his West Point classmates were already experiencing the war firsthand in France, Eisenhower felt “embedded in the monotony and unsought safety of the Zone of the Interior…that was intolerable punishment.” 6 Shortly after World War I, Eisenhower, then a young officer somewhat pessimistic about his career chances, asked for a transfer to Panama to work under General Fox Connor, a senior officer whom he admired. The army turned down his request. This setback was very much on Eisenhower’s mind when Ikey, his first born son, succumbed to influenza. Through some sense of responsibility for its own, the army then transferred Eisenhower to Panama, where he took up his duties under General Connor with the shadow of his lost son very much upon him. In a relationship with the kind of father he would have wanted to be, Eisenhower reverted to being the son he had lost. And in this highly charged situation, he began to learn from his teacher. General Connor offered, and Eisenhower gladly took, a magnificent tutorial on the military. The effects of this relationship on Eisenhower cannot be measured quantitatively, but in examining his career path from that point, one cannot overestimate its significance. As Eisenhower wrote later about Connor, “Life with General Connor was a sort of graduate school in military affairs and the humanities, leavened by a man who was experienced in his knowledge of men and their conduct. I can never adequately express my gratitude to this one gentleman.…In a lifetime of association with great and good men, he is the one more or less invisible figure to whom I owe an incalculable debt.” Some time after his tour of duty with General Connor, Eisenhower’s breakthrough occurred. He received orders to attend the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, one of the most competitive Page 18 - The Lama Review
schools in the army. It was a coveted appointment, and Eisenhower took advantage of the opportunity. Unlike his performance in high school and West Point, his work at the Command School was excellent; he was graduated first in his class. Psychological biographies of gifted people repeatedly demonstrate the important part a teacher plays in developing an individual. Andrew Carnegie owed much to his senior, Thomas A. Scott. As head of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad, Scott recognized talent and the desire to learn in the young telegrapher assigned to him. By giving Carnegie increasing responsibility and by providing him with the opportunity to learn through close personal observation, Scott added to Carnegie’s self-confidence and sense of achievement. Because of his own personal strength and achievement, Scott did not fear Carnegie’s aggressiveness. Rather, he gave it full play in encouraging Carnegie’s initiative. Great teachers take risks. They bet initially on talent they perceive in younger people. And they risk emotional involvement in working closely with their juniors. The risks do not always pay off, but the willingness to take them appears to be crucial in developing leaders.
Can Organizations Develop Leaders? A myth about how people learn and develop that seems to have taken hold in American culture also dominates thinking in business. The myth is that people learn best from their peers. supposedly, the threat of evaluation and even humiliation recedes in peer relations because of the tendency for mutual identification and the social restraints on authoritarian behavior among equals. Peer training in organizations occurs in various forms. The use, for example, of task forces made up of peers from several interested occupational groups (sales, production, research, and finance) supposedly removes the restraints of authority on the individual’s willingness to assert and exchange ideas. As a result, so the theory goes, people interact more freely, listen more objectively to criticism and other points of view, and, finally, learn from this healthy interchange. Another application of peer training exists in some large corporations, such as Philips N.V. in Holland, where organizational structure is built on the principle of joint responsibility of two peers, one representing the commercial end of the business and the other the technical. Formally, both hold equal responsibility for geographic operations or product groups, as the case may be. As a practical matter, it may turn out that one
or the other of the peers dominates the management. Nevertheless, the main interaction is between two or more equals. The principal question I raise about such arrangements is whether they perpetuate the managerial orientation and preclude the formation of one-to-one relationships between senior people and potential leaders. Aware of the possible stifling effects of peer relationships on aggressiveness and individual initiative, another company, much smaller than Philips, utilizes joint responsibility of peers for operating units, with one important difference. The chief executive of this company encourages competition and rivalry among peers, ultimately rewarding the one who comes out on top with increased responsibility. These hybrid arrangements produce some unintended consequences that can be disastrous. There is no easy way to limit rivalry. Instead, it permeates all levels of the operation and opens the way for the formation of cliques in an atmosphere of intrigue. One large, integrated oil company has accepted the importance of developing leaders through the direct influence of senior on junior executives. The chairman and chief executive officer regularly selects one talented university graduate whom he appoints his special assistant, and with whom he will work closely for a year. At the end of the year, the junior executive becomes available for assignment to one of the operating divisions, where he or she will be assigned to a responsible post rather than a training position. This apprenticeship acquaints the junior executive firsthand with the use of power and with the important antidotes to the power disease called hubris —performance and integrity. Working in one-to-one relationships, where there is a formal and recognized difference in the power of the players, takes a great deal of tolerance for emotional interchange. This interchange, inevitable in close working arrangements, probably accounts for the reluctance of many executives to become involved in such relationships. Fortune carried an interesting story on the departure of a key executive, John W. Hanley, from the top management of Procter & Gamble to the chief executive officer position at Monsanto. 8 According to this account, the chief executive and chairman of P&G passed over Hanley for appointment to the presidency, instead naming another executive vice president to this post.
The chairman evidently felt he could not work well with Hanley who, by his own acknowledgment, was aggressive, eager to experiment and change practices, and constantly challenged his superior. A chief executive officer naturally has the right to select people with whom he feels congenial. But I wonder whether a greater capacity on the part of senior officers to tolerate the competitive impulses and behavior of their subordinates might not be healthy for corporations. At least a greater tolerance for interchange would not favor the managerial team player at the expense of the individual who might become a leader. I am constantly surprised at the frequency with which chief executives feel threatened by open challenges to their ideas, as though the source of their authority, rather than their specific ideas, was at issue. In one case, a chief executive officer, who was troubled by the aggressiveness and sometimes outright rudeness of one of his talented vice presidents, use various indirect methods such as group meetings and hints from outside directors to avoid dealing with his subordinate. I advised the executive to deal head-on with what irritated him. I suggested that by direct, faceto-face confrontation, both he and his subordinate would learn to validate the distinction between the authority to be preserved and the issues to be debated. The ability to confront is also the ability to tolerate aggressive interchange. And that skill not only has the net effect of stripping away the veils of ambiguity and signaling so characteristic of managerial cultures, but also it encourages the emotional relationships leaders need if they are to survive. 1. New York: Harper-Row, 1973, p. 72. 2. Alfred P. Sloan, Jr., My Years with General Motors (New York: Doubleday, 1964), p. 440. 3. Ibid, p. 91. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid, p. 93. 6. Dwight D. Eisenhower, At Ease: Stories I Tell To Friends (New York: Doubleday, 1967), p. 136. 7. Ibid, p. 187. 8. “Jack Hanley Got There by Selling Harder,� Fortune , November 1976. Reprint R0401G To order, see the next page or call 800-988-0886 or 617-783-7500 or go to www.hbr.org
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Change Management Jeff Slattery Azusa Pacific Online University The ubiquitous nature of change seems to imply that change comes easily, but this is certainly not the case in most instances. The world of business and information technology requires frequent, and at times significant, change initiatives. Successful change appears even more elusive, and thus, the following information strives to address the major factors that aid in change management. The paper describes the technical and human elements of change and includes components of change management that relate to the field of information system management. The results provide guidelines and processes for successfully implementing change initiatives.
(p. 48). Information technology projects are not devoid of change issues, as well. In fact, as Flynn, Pan, Keil, and Mahring (2009) state, IT projects at times “grossly exceed their planned budget and schedules, often by a factor of 2-3 fold or greater”; again these instances emphasize the need to focus on key initiatives and the process of change management (p. 131). The stakes are simply too high; firms must take change management seriously and dedicate the time and resources necessary to effectively implement the initiates. The very survival of a firm often depends on their ability to adapt and effectively change with the quickly adapting global business marketplace.
As stated prior, change in business remains a constant and continual process. Firms need to manage changes and, at times, seek to limit The level of global competition, corporate scandals, the degree of change while at the same time and continually changing governmental regulations aggressively forging forward with changes, and standards requires that firms of all sizes prioritizing becomes a key point. implement change initiatives in order to survive, remain competitive, and be in compliance with laws Change creates a sense of uncertainty, stress, and and standards. The changes range from minute anxiety for employees, which is often interpreted as to enterprise-wide and bring many challenges resistance by change agents who are already aware and benefits. Firms that embrace change and of the change and the end results or ramifications. utilize it to their advantage receive a comparative The change agents have spent countless hours advantage that increases their ability to compete developing, revising, and strategizing about how and remain efficient in the marketplace. Due to the the change will improve business operations or critical nature of change, the following information advance the firm, but when the information is describes the role of change management in presented to frontline employees, they are often organizations, discusses the key factors of change, surprised and upset by the suggested or required the potential impact, leadership characteristics, changes. Balestracci (2003) states that firms and common barriers to change, and offers guidelines individuals in our technological age are “ expected to aid in the successful implementation of change to absorb in 10 years what used to be assimilated initiatives. in two or three generations,” which creates untold stress and has been identified as “ corporate Gans (2011) states that 80% of firms polled reported craziness” (p. 39). This same author goes on to experiencing “some” confusion with the concept of cite the 85/15 rule: 85% of the problems in an change management and another 57% indicated organization derive from faulty process while only that they “often” experienced confusion during the 15% or fewer are related to employees, and thus, process of change. These statistics clearly indicate management should take the stance to “ blame the the necessity to implement a clear, consistent, and process, not the person” (Balestracci, 2003, p. 40). comprehensive change management strategy For some firms this may be a major cultural shift, Page 20 - The Lama Review
but doing so decreases defensiveness, makes the actual problem the problem, and enables employees to unite against the problem in creating a solution. Depersonalizing the problem decreases the emotional reactivity to the situation, which allows for, and even encourages, change. Once the emotional reactivity has dissipated, the firm and employees are able to move into the change mode. The ability to respond appropriately requires five essential skills:
training Humor—to build happiness without nonlogical stress Communication—to have face-to-face interactions Responsibility—to be responsible for completing objectives (p. 303)
In addition, Bluestone (2011) notes the difficulties associated with change and states that leaders should work to create a culture where mistakes are allowed and discussed in a positive light, using the mistakes and failures as learning opportunity. Employees should not be afraid to report mistakes and failures. The corporate culture should encourage Displaying these skills and abilities makes the a sense of forgiveness and restoration; employees change process much easier and flow more should not obsess on making the right and perfect smoothly, but there are leadership and corporate decision at the expense of actually implementing cultural characteristics and factors that are also a decision and experiencing an error or setback. Bluestone (2011) ends by stating that “cultural essential for a success change process. change is evolution, not revolution”; this speaks to Bejestani (2011) states that, “management is partly the continual process of organizational change and science and partly art” (p. 302). The humanside or change management (p. 21). soft-skills account for a major element of change, even with regard to the technical aspects of change. Gee and Gee (2011) continue with the same line of IT systems or applications do not develop, install, thinking by stating the firms should work to “ create a and maintain themselves. People are at the center culture of change and innovation…which is one the of change, and the successful implementation best ways to build organizations that can respond to of change requires leadership and management change in a positive and proactive manner” (p. 31). acumen. Great leaders and managers are able The actions and behaviors of managers account for to overcome resistance, unite employees, create up to 50% of how employees view a firm. Managers a shared vision, and motivate employees or a who encourage the following behaviors and team to implement change and accomplish tasks. attitudes are working to instill a culture of creativity, Bejestani (2011) lists the following leadership innovation, and change, which again provides a competitive advantage for their firm: characteristics: 1. Self-awareness 2. Emotional maturity 3. Self-motivation 4. The ability to show empathy 5. The ability to develop and maintain positive relationships (Balestracci, 2003 p. 42)
Consistency—to build confidence in the people who work for you Observation—to observe team members and their behaviors in a positive light Problem solving—to make right decisions and solve problems, especially in criticalsituations Training friendly—to believe in the necessity of training and provide resources for
Encourage new and creative idea sharing Promote diversity of thinking Support conflicting or opposing points of view Allow time for innovation and provide resources Allow people the freedom to make decisions with parameters The Lama Review - Page 21
Nurture risk taking as opposed to being risky (Gee & Gee, 2011, p. 31) Similarly, firms that primarily operate from a top-down mentality are punitive, allow silos to exist, fail to communicate decisions, are overly controlling and fail to see the value of their employees, severely limit or hinder their ability to react quickly to market trends and implement creative and innovative change initiates. Although the soft-side of change requires extensive management and interaction, the technical aspects remain and are vital to the process. Hayes (2010) notes that IT projects are vital for all firms but the role of many IT professionals has changed. IT managers and even frontline staff are not simply able to maintain and interact with IT systems; they are being required more and more to collaborate and negotiate with other functional areas of the business. Hayes (2010) goes on to state that, “the change from provisioning physical IT assets and virtual IT assets is changing the relationship between IT and business units inside and organization” (p. 54). IT professionals are being pushed to not only upgrade existing skills and competencies but to learn, acquire, and utilize a whole new set of skills beyond specific IT skills (Hayes, 2010). Firms must move beyond utilizing standard management and IT-related change management software and applications, such as SWOT analysis or Balanced Scorecards (Barraso, 2011). Firms that embrace and utilize project management techniques in addition to the standard techniques in developing and designing change management systems and protocols will become much more efficient and innovative in implementing changes that will serve to advance their firms. The time of being able to set back and rely upon prior successful change initiatives and practices has past. Firms must take advanced of their employees’ enthusiasm, creativity, and innovative spirit when diving into major change initiates. The results will be astonishing; successful, innovative, and creative change projects will become the norm as opposed to Page 22 - The Lama Review
the dreaded.
About the Author
Bluestone, A. (2003, July). Process of change: What it really takes. Practice Management Solutions, 21.
Jeff Slattery, MA., DBA., is the discipline chair for management at Azusa Pacific Online Flynn, D., Pan, G., Keil, M., & Mahring, M. (2009). University. He can be reached for questions De-escalating IT projects: The DMM model. Communications of the ACM, 52(10), 131regarding this article at jslattery@apou.net. 134. References Balestracci, D. (2003). Handling the human side of Gans, K. (2011, October). Should you change your thinking about change management?Strategic change. Quality Progress, 36(11), 38-45. Finance 48-50. Barroso, B., H. (2011). The balanced scorecard: The evolution of the concept and its effects on change Gee, V., & Gee, S. (2011, October). Business in organizational management. EBS Review, 28, improve creates a culture of change and 53-66. innovation. The Journal for Quality & Participation, 30-33. Bejestani, H. (2011). Improving project change management using leadership spirit. iBusiness, Hayes, J. (2010, September 24). Virtual impacts. Engineering & Technology, 54-55. 3,302-306.
JUST SAY “NO” By: Dr. Donald E. Wetmore I used to put everyone else’s requests and needs first and if there was any time left over at the end of the day for what I needed and wanted to do, that was acceptable. That is until I began to realize that if you and I are going to be effective time managers, we have to stay away from allocating our time solely on the basis of those who demand it. Instead, if you and I are going to be effective time managers, we have to allocate our time on the basis of those who deserve it. I don’t mean this in any negative or arrogant way. It’s just you have limits to the amount of time you have to spend and so one of the most powerful words in your Time Management vocabulary is the word, “no.” Almost everyone you encounter will think they have a better idea about how you should be spending your time. It doesn’t make others bad. It’s just the way the world works. If there is a void in your Time Management life, someone, or many for that matter, will jump in to fill that spot. The problem is that they do not have the full understanding of where you are taking your life and if you keep saying “yes,” they will continue to take up your time, possibly keeping you from accomplishing what you really want to do. “No” is sometimes difficult to say because you have
been taught differently. You have been taught to say, “yes,” to please, to serve, and to accommodate. There is nothing wrong with saying “yes” most of the time, but occasionally there is a line you choose not to cross, when saying “yes” is really not the best use of your time to get you to where you need and want to be. If you had unlimited amounts of time, you could “yes” all the time to everyone. But you don’t. You have 24 hours each day, 7 days a week for a total of 168 hours. And you get to spend that time only once, so you have to spend it wisely. I have listed seventeen ways here to say “no.” Don’t let me put the words in your mouth. Take the ones you like, change them around and you use the words that are comfortable for you. The point is, if you are ever in a position when you can never say “no,” then you are always saying “yes,” and like the song says, “If you don’t stand for something, you will fall for everything.”
Try these: “I’m sorry. That’s not a priority for me right now.” “I can’t help you on this now, but I can get to it next week. Would that be okay?” “I have so much on my plate now I don’t know when I can get to it. But I do know someone over here who can help you now.” (Continued on 29) The Lama Review - Page 23
Extending the Long-Term Viability of Animal Facilities I ncorporate Cutting-Edge Air Control, Flexible Configurations, Durable Finishes Flexible room configurations, durable finishes and equipment, and highly sensitive airflow control and monitoring can extend the sustainable life of animal facilities and vivaria, where the research and biosecurity needs can change repeatedly over the course of several years. Detailed upfront planning and mockups of proposed spaces contribute to the long-term success and flexibility of these facilities. A retrofit of vivarium space at Tulane University utilized a specialized airflow system to address pressure control issues. And a phased, 18-year vivarium expansion plan at the University of Iowa (UI) has progressed steadily without changes in the initial designs, thanks to a detailed master planning phase that looked at numerous space usage scenarios, HVAC and airflow systems,
and the room finishes. The UI design also addresses biosecurity issues. [See Project Team below.] “The fact that the university has allowed me to allot funds upfront for sustainability and to design for flexibility has paid off. Trying to save money upfront costs a lot more in the end,” says Dr. Paul Cooper, attending veterinarian at the UI, where he has worked for 37 years. “The only thing being renovated in the space of the existing master plan is a cage wash facility built in 2002; it was designed for a smaller facility and is inefficient. It will be turned into staging for clean and dirty caging going to/from our new, central cage wash facility.”
Addressing Airflow Control Issues Tulane University encountered a pressure control
An ongoing, 18-vivarium expansion at the University of Iowa makes use of numerous durable finishes to ensure long-term sustainability. These include stainless steel doorframes that won’t rust, MMA flooring, and sheet-welded vinyl walls (left) or glazed block with epoxy grout (right). (Photos courtesy of Rohrbach Associates PC Architects) Page 24 - The Lama Review
issue—caused by existing elevator shafts—during a vivarium retrofit/renovation, but was able to fix it by utilizing progressive offset control (POC) to help manage airflow. “The pressure control in the space was being compromised due a plunger effect of the elevators. They also had issues with multiple ingress and egress locations on the floor,” says David Rausch, senior manager of channel marketing for Phoenix Controls. “Maintaining pressure during those situations was challenging. We used a unique strategy to help them out.” Tulane’s project involved upgrading a circa 1970s vivarium at its School of Medicine. Existing elevator shafts pulled air from the corridor as the elevator went down, and pushed air into the corridor on the return trip, says Rausch. Combined with multiple ingress and egress points, this made it difficult to maintain directional airflow control and proper pressure. They addressed the issues with POC, which uses pressure sensors along with high-speed valves and specialized control algorithms to adjust the quantity of air in order to maintain directional airflow.
door is opened, our system can move to an alternate fixed volumetric offset within one second. “The supply and exhaust valves are tracking each other all the time and working together to maintain that offset. Most other systems don’t work together like that,” says Rausch. “What’s important is maintaining pressure in normal conditions and insuring directional airflow during events as seen at Tulane.” UI’s current under-construction facility, the Pappajohn Biomedical Discovery Building (PBDB), includes a 20,000-sf vivarium holding and support space, and a 35,000 sf shelled space for a future central vivarium. That facility uses a Phoenix Controls system combined with an Aircuity® air monitoring system to address airflow issues, says Gary Cooper, vice president of Alvine Engineering, who has spent 25 years helping design UI facilities.
Using high-end sensors in a fixed location, the Aircuity system draws air out of each room and The volumetric offset (the difference between supply and determines how clean it is, then sends a message exhaust airflow) is used to maintain the room differential to the Phoenix Controls system, which controls the pressure, explains Rausch. “As soon as a door opens, airflow. Both systems have saved the university however, you begin to lose directional airflow. A room a significant amount in energy costs, adds Gary can quickly change direction and result in a loss of containment. With our system, as soon as a door contact Cooper. switch is opened, it freezes the pressure control loop and allows for a fixed alternate volumetric offset. The system can immediately return to the original volumetric offset
once the door is closed. That guarantees a stable airflow control. “It worked great for Tulane, and also is a huge advantage for high-air-change-rate spaces like clean rooms, high containment, and operating room spaces.” Phoenix Controls manufactures the high-speed, pressure independent valves needed for POC, and custom configures each one based on the space needs. Phoenix’s digital control network guarantees a one-second response time hen the door switch is opened and signals a response, he adds. “If there’s too much time between measuring, adjusting, and confirming valve airflow, the directional airflow could be compromised. With our solution, when a
The factory-calibrated controls make airflow and other environmental factors in each animal room easier to predict, so it will be easier to perform the annual re-certifications necessary for maintaining government funding, says Gary Cooper. The Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC) requires specific space, temperature, humidity, air pressure, air change rates, and lighting parameters. The HVAC system for PBDB was designed with some redundancy, and has airflow capacity for 15 ACH, even though the current need is only 10 ACH. Multiple air handling units, exhaust fans, and heat recovery coils are headered together in common duct and piping systems to allow for redundancy
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and easy maintenance. Equipment can be isolated to be serviced, so the whole system doesn’t need to go down, he explains. All of these factors increase the space’s flexibility. They also created an “airflow matrix” of the design and operational and recertification data, says Gary Cooper. The matrix not only tells the contractor how to build the system, it tells engineers how to recertify and shows the university where expansion is possible. “The components that are in the system have additional capacity; the matrix helps define where that additional capacity will be. The matrix enables them to see how flexible the space is—what it’s designed for and at what level it can operate.” Moveable cage racks in PBDB’s design present airflow challenges, particularly maintaining uniform temperature, adds Gary Cooper. Ceiling devices blowing supply air control temperature and rely on an airflow pattern that’s uniform top to bottom.
“It wasn’t a fun exercise. But we ultimately designed it so you can use the spaces for virtually any species. You may need to move in a different cage or pen, but the spaces do not need renovation of any type to change use.” Dr. Cooper says he looked carefully at the quality of products used in the project, having been trained on their importance by his father, who was a finish carpenter. “We changed some things as we found better products over time, such as flooring, but for the most part the products we’ve chosen will last a long time. Do it once, and do it right.” Small animal room walls are a welded sheet vinyl that’s impervious to moisture, doesn’t crack or chip, and can be repaired on site so the room doesn’t have to be closed. “We have rooms 30 years old where the product looks as good as it did when originallyinstalled,” says Dr. Cooper. In large animal rooms, walls are glazed block with epoxy grout, because they offer better sound control. Neither finish relies on epoxy paint, so they won’t break down and are sustainable, he adds.
“The challenge was to lay out the diffusers in a way that will address the cages being configured differently. If you put something on wheels, there’s All animal rooms have stainless steel doorframes, nothing guaranteeing they’ll ever fill the room in the because regular steel that’s painted will chip and rust after years of hosing down rooms. All flooring is same way twice.” Methyl methacrylate(MMA) because they’ve found For the exhaust system at PBDB, they installed it to be the most durable, says Dr. Cooper. And they 6-foot flexible hoses from the ceiling, spaced so that put floor drains in every room, so they can be used they could be used in almost any cage configuration. for larger animals or aquatics, or in case of leaks, The hoses attach to the exhaust side of the cage adds Gary Cooper of Alvine Engineering. racks, and funnel into the room’s exhaust duct and Noise issues were mitigated with strategic room then into the building’s exhaust system. placement and wall construction. “Where we specifically designed for large species, we put food Sustainability Through Design Details storage rooms, cooler rooms, or labs as the last The UI design team planned for a variety of space- room on the corridor, so it’s a buffer. If we knew efficient scenarios when looking at animal spaces, there would be lots of noise in an area, like cage says Dr. Paul Cooper, knowing researchers would wash, we addressed it with wall construction, such as double walls, or those buffer rooms.” have ever-changing, unpredictable needs. In what Dr. Cooper calls a painstaking process, he and the project architect wrote down pen size regulations and rack sizes for various species. Then, using computer models, they designed holding rooms of various sizes that could accommodate the widest variety of possible configurations. Page 26 - The Lama Review
Heat welded Protect-All® sheet vinyl floor is used in the vivarium’s corridor system to lessen the impact of noisy carts, as well as in rooms for hooved animals. “It gives them better traction, because the floor has give to it, and it’s virtually indestructible,” explains Dr. Cooper.
To protect the animals, the University of Iowa’s vivarium expansion project is designed with several levels of biosecurity. Interior, secure corridors require special access to ensure that animals in barrier areas are protected from potential contamination (left). They are surrounded by non-barrier corridors (right), and no doors directly link barrier to non-barrier areas. (Photos courtesy of Rohrbach Associates PC Architects)
“We’ve designed animal suites to be flexible and sustainable at the same time. Suites are all designed for multiple species, and we don’t have to take these rooms down to repair them.”
direct access into animal housing from a circulation corridor. A perimeter corridor provides the fourth level of biosecurity. Most of the travel between interconnected facilities and the cage wash/materials handling areas will occur here.
Efficient Biosecurity Design Careful design for biosecurity can address not only safety issues, but also cost concerns. The new vivaria at UI will have several levels of biosecurity protection.Starting at the cage level, Thoren racks provide HEPA-filtered air to each individual cage. The only way contaminants can cross cages is through someone handling the mice, says Dr. Cooper. The second biosecurity level comes through suite design. Each suite has an anteroom off the corridor to protect the animals, with a procedure room behind it. On either side of those rooms is an animal room (two total). Most of the research can be done inside the suites, eliminating the risk of going to a lab, or returning to non-barrier housing and a lower biosecurity level, says Dr. Cooper. Secure doors at both ends of the suite access corridors offer a third security level. Special access is required, so the corridors can be kept clean and free of sound, says Dr. Cooper. Separate interior corridors within the secure section ensure that animals are further isolated—there’s no
“One of the most important levels of biosecurity is by means of a central cage wash facility, where we will be autoclaving virtually every cage for every species in every facility for sterilization,” adds Dr. Cooper. Two new imaging cores (small animal and human/ large animal) are designed so that barrier and nonbarrier animals can share the same equipment. The small animal imaging core is adjacent to the barrier rodent facility, but is designed so that non-barrier mice can come in through a tunnel connected to their housing area. Room equipment is sanitized before barrier animals access the same rooms. Again, animals don’t have to be stepped down into non-barrier housing status after imaging. “This design allows us to maintain biosecurity, and we don’t have to duplicate $10 million worth of equipment to maintain the health status of the animals,” says Dr. Cooper. The human and large animal imaging core has a dedicated elevator and corridor. Animals access the imaging rooms via their own door and corridor; human subjects access imaging from the opposite side. The Lama Review - Page 27
Paul Cooper, DVM, received his veterinary degree from Iowa State University in 1975, and joined a small animal practice near St. Louis, Mo. In early 1977, he accepted a clinical veterinarian position in the animal research program at the University of Iowa. He currently serves as the University’s The Human Factor attending veterinarian and director of the Office Even the most sophisticated biosecurity devices of Animal Resources (OAR) under the vice president can’t account for the human factor; nevertheless, for research and economic development. He installing them is crucial to maintaining the integrity provides veterinary and administrative oversight for budgeting, staff, travel, professional development, of animals that can cost up to $100,000 apiece. and primary research support activities. His “You can never take the human element out. We can principal responsibility as the attending veterinarian build physical barriers and travel routes and require is to develop and implement an effective program special equipment/attire, do training and explaining, of veterinary care. and people still don’t follow directions. But, to me, some of the design features we put in improve our Gary Cooper is vice president and principal-inability to keep people from messing it up. We have charge of projects at Alvine Engineering, where he has worked since 1979. Cooper is a member and to protect the animals at all cost.” past president of the American Society of Heating, For added security in the UI project, the two access Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers doors (from barrier and non-barrier sides) to the Inc.; a member of the International Society for small animal imaging room will have red and green Pharmaceutical Engineering; and a member of lights above them. When the red light is on, access the Advisory Committee for Mechanical Courses, will be electronically blocked from that side, explains Architectural Engineering Program at his alma mater, Southeast Community College in Milford, Dr. Cooper. Neb. “We’re taking that to the next step over time, where if a researcher has been to a nonbarrier mouse David Rausch joined Phoenix Controls in 2006, facility, they would automatically be prevented from and is currently the senior marketing channel going into a barrier facility on same day. That would manager. He has been involved in many aspects be one level of trying to stop people from doing of product management, product design, and something they shouldn’t. The first place we will be project design of specialty mechanical devices and controls within the laboratory industry for able to do that is in small animal imaging.” more than 12 years. Rausch is an active member Gary Cooper notes that mockups of proposed of ASHRAE and a voting member to several of its spaces helped planners tweak designs, in part by technical committees, and serves as secretary of New England’s Chapter for I2SL. He has a showing how people will actually use them. bachelor’s degree in civil engineering from Old Hindsight is always 20/20, adds Dr. Cooper, but Dominion University and an associate’s degree in utilizing the best planning processes possible, along applied science/mechanical engineering from State with mockups and discussions by the users, will University of New York (SUNY) Morrisville. reduce future design problems. Gary Cooper Vice President By Taitia Shelow This report is based on presentations Paul Cooper, Alvine Engineering David Rausch, and Gary Cooper made at Tradeline’s 1102 Douglas St. Omaha, Neb. 68102 Animal Research Facilities 2014 conference. (402) 233-7525 gcooper@alvine.com [1] For More Information: “This is another core facility that is going to have $70 million worth of equipment in it that we don’t have to duplicate,” notes Dr. Cooper.
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Paul Cooper, DVM Attending Veterinarian University of Iowa 400 Medical Laboratories Iowa City, Iowa 52242 (319) 335-7985 paul-cooper@uiowa.edu [2]
Project Team: Rohrbach Associates PC Architects Architect of Record Gwathmey Siegel Kaufman Architects Exterior Design Architect Payette Planning Architect Alvine & Associates Mechanical and Electrical Engineers Charles Saul Engineering Structural Engineer Confluence Landscape Architect Phoenix Controls HVAC Controls Aircuity Inc. ACH Demand-Based Control System Edstrom Industries Inc. Animal Watering System Thoren Caging Systems Animal Caging Lynx Product Group Cage Wash Beta Star Life Science Equipment Autoclaves
David Rausch Senior Manager of Channel Marketing Phoenix Controls 75 Discovery Way Acton, Mass. 01720 © Copyright Tradeline, Inc. 2015. Reprinted with permission, all rights (978) 795-3430 drausch@phoenixcontrols.com [3] reserved. TradelineInc.com is a registered product of Tradeline, Inc., a provider of leading-edge resources to facilities planning and management through conferences, publications, and the Internet community. Visit www.TradelineInc.com for more information.
(Continued from page 29) Just Say No
“Before I take this on for you, let me show you a few things so that you might be able to do it yourself.” “I have made so many commitments to others, it would be unfair to them and you if I took on anything more at this point.” “If I can’t give you a ride to the school dance on Friday, how else would you get there safely?” “I don’t know how soon I can help you on this, but I will get back to you as soon as I am free to help you.” “I’m sure we’re close enough that when I say “no” you’ll understand it’s for a good reason.” “Sure I can help you with your request as long as we both agree and understand that the item I agreed to do for you yesterday is going to have to wait.” “Before I take this over from you, what do you think we ought to do about it?” “I’ve got good news and bad news. The good news is, I sure can do that for you. The bad news is, I’m so overloaded with everything else, I’ve become delirious and have been lying about my commitments.” “When I get overwhelmed like I am now, I remove every third person who asks me for something, from my “Good Friends List” and the second person just left.” “No.”
“Thanks for thinking to ask me, but, no thanks.” “I would like to help you out on this but you understand I don’t have the resources available to do the right job for you.” “Now that’s the type of thing I would love to help you on if only I had the time.” “Just like you, I get overloaded sometimes and have to tell some very special people, “no.” This is one of those times.” And as you speak, smile. Would you like to receive free Timely Time Management Tips on a regular basis to increase your personal productivity and get more out of every day? Sign up now for our free “TIME MANAGEMENT DISCUSSION LIST”. Just go to: http://www.topica.com/lists/ timemanagement and select “subscribe”. We welcome you aboard! Dr. Donald E. Wetmore-Professional Speaker Productivity Institute-Time Management Seminars 127 Jefferson Street Stratford, CT 06615 (800) 969-3773 (203) 386-8062 fax: (203) 386-8064 Email: ctsem@msn.com website: http://www.balancetime.com Professional Member-National Speakers Association
Copyright 1999 You may re-print the above information in its entirety in your publication, newsletter, or on your webpage. For permission, please email your request for “reprint” to: ctsem@msn.com The Lama Review - Page 29
How you Make Decisions Is As Important As What You Decide
Conventional thinking has suggested that leadership positions go to those who aggressively plan their careers with a keen eye for building the right skills to reach top jobs. Others believe that leaders are born, not made. But according to research one of us (Julia) conducted for her book Pivot Points, the key differentiator between the career arc of someone who becomes a successful business leader and the average person is consistency in how the person makes major decisions.
professional careers supported this finding and identified inclusiveness in the decision-making process as the key differentiator of leadership. Specifically, respondents were asked to indicate their degree of agreement on a five-point scale with 40 statements of various decision-making behaviors they used at different career decision points. A variable cluster analysis found strong agreement with the following three statements as the behaviors that distinguished decision making with leader-like accountability and ingenuity:
In-depth one-on-one interviews with five recognized leaders who have been operating CEOs in five different industries—PR (Al Golin), health care (Glen Tullman), finance (John Rogers), social enterprise (Dale Dawson), and marketing (Bud Frankel)—revealed that their leadership development occurred in a process far more organic than career planning. Each one made a number of pivotal decisions with unwaveringly strong accountability and ingenuity that triggered learning and growth.
Before making a decision at a critical time, I invested time and effort to explore multiple perspectives, needs, and ideas through a proactive dialogue with experts and stakeholders.
A further survey of 500 college-educated individuals in Page 30 - The Lama Review
During the decision-making act, I weighed a variety of options.Then, after making the decision, I explained it fully to all stakeholders to reduce the stress of change among those affected. Note that this inclusive process is not decision-making by committee or by consensus. It’s the process of
constant connection with respected experts and stakeholders, which enables them to recognize business opportunities and threats, and figure out how to adapt or take advantage of them. Habitual outreach prevents insular thinking, opens doors to ideas and collaborative relationships, expands problem-solving perspectives, and increases the range of resources for implementation. Most importantly, it enables real-time adjustments that improve outcomes. This inclusive approach takes 360 degrees of context into account, thereby ensuring better decisions and a higher chance of successful implementation. In its full context, the study asserts that, over time, leaders who follow this inclusive process progressively stand out from the crowd. Consider the story of Bud Frankel, the founder of Frankel, a firm that created the marketing services industry (where both of us eventually worked) that gained a national reputation and attracted clients across both the consumer and healthcare areas. As a leader in his company, Bud used what he called “Management by Wandering Around” (MBWA), where he’d stop into offices and ask the opinions of employees, clients, and others to gather insights about his organization and clients. He made it comfortable for people to give him contradictory advice and bad news. In doing so, he discovered major flaws in the company that called for radical change. One such issue was years of growing discord between himself and his partner, Marv Abelson, and its divisive impact on the organization. “We were an ‘us’ team when we started out. Then competition between us brought out insidious kind of stuff—that’s my designer, that’s my copywriter, why isn’t your guy billing as much as my guy, all kinds of stuff,” Bud recalled while being interviewed for the book. “We were Abelson-Frankel, yet operated as two separate agencies.” Bud sought outside counsel on the fairest way to fix the issue, namely, to break up the partnership. Various perspectives he obtained helped him clarify his options and enabled rational decisions for all parties to focus on moving forward. He came up with two workable options: to buy or sell. Bud’s partner decided to sell and got cash, as well as the opportunity to hire any employee for his new agency. With the purchase of Abelson’s shares, Bud invested all of his efforts to galvanize clients and employees around one vision and one leader. He took full ownership for the implementation of the decision, explaining his thinking and the implications to those affected.
He encouraged feedback—even if the subordinate and clients disagreed with him—monitored the company’s progress and the results, and changed course when necessary. “Mostly I looked at the people and saw how they were doing and feeling,” Bud said told us in conversation. “I based a lot of decisions on the staff. If the staff were uncomfortable with a decision, I’d look at it.” What’s more, he would openly admit his mistakes, even apologizing at times to employees who expressed disagreement with his decisions when they did not turn out as hoped. As the agency grew, Bud appointed an agency leadership team and focused his energies on scaling up the company’s unique value proposition. Bud continued to use MBWA to randomly drop in on meetings and pepper others with questions and stories, prodding them to create the breakthrough ideas that actually worked in the marketplace. He also formalized an outside advisory board of business leaders, thus ensuring that future leaders of the company would also get feedback on important leadership decisions. Bud’s inclusive approach kept him constantly connected with the pulse of his clients, employees, and the marketplace, and helped him decide on the ways to professionalize the marketing services industry and start his agency. Near the end of his career, it also helped him decide to sell Frankel. Through his ever-broadening perspective, he led Frankel to develop many firsts, including the first worthy cause promotion and the first to use computer graphics in advertising. It helped his own career to grow from a commission-based salesperson to a global, industry-changing business leader, marketing legend, and later, philanthropist. In today’s fast-paced environment of dramatically changing technologies and global forces, leaders need to understand how to make the right decisions the right way. By making use of those around you in understanding the situation, weighing a variety of options, and explaining the decision to stakeholders, leaders can make better decisions and set themselves up for future success. ______________________________________ Laurence Minsky is Associate Professor in the Department of Communication and Media Innovation at Columbia College Chicago; his most recent book is The Get a Job Workshop. ________________________________________ Julia Tang Peters is a leadership adviser to C-level executives and the author of Pivot Points: Five Decisions Every Successful Leader Must Make.
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Why Real Leaders Pump Gas Jim Clemmer
Chief executives give great speeches on the importance of quality, leadership, teamwork, and employee participation. But in improving organization performance, as in golf, it’s the follow-through that makes the difference. Consider the case of one Canadian company that had been “doing quality” for about two years. It followed the textbook perfectly. Trainers and facilitators delivered introductory workshops to the 1,500 employees. Enthusiasm and interest began to build as hundreds of suggestions poured in. Work teams were formed with eager volunteers among employees, union leaders, and professional staff. The teams collected and analyzed data on the root causes of a wide number of problems. All this led to a series of “small win” improvements that increased team momentum and enthusiasm. But by the second year, all this activity wasn’t producing the results the organization needed. The teams realized the biggest problems lay with the organizational systems, processes, structure, and management procedures. And that’s where they hit the wall. The improvement effort turned out to be a “bolt-on” to the side of the normal management practices. While managers gave their blessing (and often passionate lip service) to the effort, they didn’t embrace and lead it. The quality coordinator has since quit and most of the teams’ enthusiasm has turned to cynicism. But some improvement efforts are thriving, and in those cases, there is evidence of strong executive leadership. Canadian Airlines International Ltd. of Calgary, for example, has substantially increased customer satisfaction and cost effectiveness during the past two years. President Kevin Jenkins leads the effort through constant visits and consultations with pilots, mechanics, airport staff, flight crews, and administrative support staff. He regularly works at important customer-contact and support positions in full uniform. (Recently, he worked one day as a Vancouver gate agent for some of Canadian’s Asian flights.) This hands-on experience helps him appreciate Page 32 - The Lama Review
customer and employee perspectives and understand Canadian’s processes from the inside. Mr. Jenkins focuses his management team on these processes through biweekly reviews of key service and quality performance indicators. Top managers hold daily conference calls reviewing Canadian’s “ontime performance,” in which Mr. Jenkins participates at least once a week. There are also examples of executive leadership in the public sector. Pat Henderson, chief executive of Freeport Hospital in Kitchener, ON, is personally leading her institution to “do more with less.” She is working with the board of governors to restructure the hospital’s maze of committees around a strategic focus of meeting customer needs and improving quality of care while reducing costs. In addition to their own training and planning sessions, Ms. Henderson and her managers lead cross-functional teams of physicians, nurses, and employees. Their job is to map, analyze, and improve the core processes and systems that pull together the work of frontline care givers and support staff. Leading by example is also a theme at Canadian Tire Corp.’s petroleum division. To improve customer satisfaction, there is a policy that all customer complaints will be resolved within twenty-four hours at the gas bar. President Jim Ryan frequently shows the urgency of service recovery by personally calling unhappy customers in a bid to win them back. To keep priorities straight, everyone at the Toronto home office, including Mr. Ryan, periodically spends a few days pumping gas. At Petroleum Management College, managers are given two to four weeks of training. Mr. Ryan kicks off every session by discussing the organization’s values and the importance of continuous customer service and quality improvement. It’s been said that “children are natural mimics — they act like their parents despite all attempts to teach them good manners.” As with parenting, executives speak a louder sermon with their lives than their lips. Words — no matter how passionate — are not enough.
Failure: The Impartial Executioner of Leaders, Followers, and Their Organizations David Stehlik Regent University The following analysis illustrates that organizational failures occur as a combination of leadership, followership, and cultural problems by contrasting the positive and negative examples of each. None alone is usually the sole culprit. The organization’s front person is not always running the ruse. Having examined relevant literature, pride and sloth emerged as the prevalent root causes of most leadership and followership failures. Because organizational failures have vast global and cultural ramifications, this topic is of immediate importance for globalization, which, in this period of economic recession, will likely result in further market consolidation, and so the question will become: Will the acquisitions succeed or fail to merge? Thus, in the following sketches of what makes leaders, followers, and organizational cultures great or prone to fail, consultants, becoming better equipped to assess organizational risks and leadership needs, should recognize that failure is more complex than the usual caricatures reveal. Well-known management models are shown for their usefulness in helping bridge the gaps.
The Blame Game A constant often unmentioned in discussions of death and taxes is the failure of the organization. What causes such failure is a question strategy consultants ought to be familiar with and have an answer to, because failure seems to knock on the doors of all organizations at some point, and knowing how to bid him adieu is wisdom of great value. As executioner of the perpetual cycle of creation and destruction in the global marketplace, organizational failure is an equal opportunist. What follows, therefore, is an examination of reasons why leaders, followers, and their organizations succeed or fail. Comprehensive examinations of successful leadership, followership, and organizational culture are beyond the scope of this article; but, the following couplets will get consultants started by describing positive characteristics which should suffice in providing a backdrop against which the stark attitudes and actions aligned with failure will be readily visible.
Great Leaders The word “leader” has powerful undertones. Leaders are often identified with strength, and even when leaders fail, they are bemoaned for the magnitude of their failures. In examining what causes leadership failure, therefore, it helps to understand what leaders ought to be like. Throughout history, memorable leaders have been singled out and honored for their boldness and sense of conviction (Sonnenfeld, 1997, p. 34). Great leaders assess and avoid risk when possible without incurring negative repercussions. Additionally, they understand the communication required to tie multiple parties’ motivations to their efforts and link strategy and functions across their organizations, ensuring engagement in accord with the leadership plan and schedule (Caffrey & Medina, 2011, p. 45). They balance the paradoxes of exercising power with being the primary organizational servant and of casting unique visions with feedback solicitation to build unity and drive change (Sonnenfeld, 1997, p. 38). Simply put, great leaders tend to be more: 1) perceptive to the present organizational realities, 2) capable of forecasting the approximate future, 3) persuasive in communicating for change, and 4) adept in executing change strategy (Thornton, 2011, p. 17). They are inquisitive, asking questions and listening to gain knowledge To them, the maxim “knowledge is power” is almost sacred, because new information helps them mitigate present or potential risks, closing gaps that could halt organizational progress (p. 18). For such leaders, the future is promising, and the present is only disciplined dedication and improvement away from that preferable future (p. 20). Carefully describing their vision with a clear message, tactful and illustrative, so as to convey it in a manner that unites and inspires broadly, through a valuable combination of urgencyinducing examples, these leaders deftly exercise the power of communication (p. 19). They can function with managerial prowess, “planning, organizing, measuring, controlling, and motivating” employee activity (p. 20). And, they usually exhibit incredible patience and The Lama Review - Page 33
fortitude as their vision unfolds – though this can also be a pitfall as explained in the next section. These leaders do not leave followers confused. They, “train, educate, and keep people informed,” just as they would desire their leaders to do unto them, and they promote an air of celebration for achievement from the start (p. 20).
Failing Leaders Obviously, some leaders fail because they are “toxic” (Chaleff, 2009, p. 182). Like the scandalous bankers of recent years, they care little for the consequences of their actions when the resulting injury only affects others with little recourse (A guide, 2002; Chaleff, 2009, p. 183; Patsuris, 2002; Slater, 2012). Thus, the following reasons for failure will most always be witnessed in situations with toxic leaders. With that noted, numerous reasons for failure exist, and they primarily stem from individual pride. For instance, egos that blind leaders to helpful, competitive ideas, filtering information so only that which coalesces with the leaders’ positions is retained, arise from pride, which receives no challenge out of audacity as well as fear (Thornton, 2011, p. 18). The leader who will not question himself is dangerous and unfair to his organization and its future. And, the leader who is too fearful to address necessary problems is like a man who denies proper treatment to a wound. Such failing leaders, “jump to inaccurate conclusions,” as they are unwilling to explore new avenues of thought, tuning out important but disagreeable information; and therefore, they cling to an illusion rather than reality (p. 18). Moreover, this position keeps them from receiving vital feedback and limits their involvement with followers and peers, whom they alienate with their arrogant denials of criticism. Without these opportunities to serve alongside others of similar life position, leaders block themselves from exposure to the insights of those whose own leadership positions offer what would seem to be a more palatable context (read: less humiliating) for receiving counsel. Other problematic symptoms of arrogance include: declining social and political involvement, an unwillingness to acknowledge the implications of a changing environment and break with the past, and an increasing fear of failure as the former symptom compounds any penalties for not changing (Sonnenfeld, 1997, p. 37; Thornton, 2011, p. 19). Regarding communication, such leaders give a convoluted message and are visibly devoid of passion. It may be that they do not have a clear vision about which they can get excited. They do not understand the importance of simplification and make difficult any follower’s task of understanding and engaging the vision – as well as not building an argument as to why it would Page 34 - The Lama Review
benefit the follower (Thornton, 2011, p. 20). Illogically, these leaders seem to believe that their organizations can forever rest on past achievements as well as employ conventional methods to attain unconventional goals (Jennings, 2012, p. 14). Also, as Komai and Stegeman (2010) point out, leadership failure can also result from too many unsuccessfully initiated projects or leading change efforts with too much enthusiasm, not demonstrating empathy toward those followers most drastically affected (pp. 57-58). Additionally, an organization’s reliance on any leader is proportional to the damage that leader can cause through failure (p. 57). Sometimes said leaders are incompetent, or they act too slowly and superficially, which is exacerbated and quickened by this reliance (Ready, 2005, p. 22).
For Consulting Considerations Given the failures described, in contrast with the characteristics of great leaders, consultants should consider most seriously the kinds of models, tools, and assessments which will drive leaders in self-awareness. The two models below will be familiar for their general use in organization and negotiation strategy, and so leaders will likely readily accept their validity. Furthermore, they are easily repurposed for the object under review: the leader.
SWOT Analysis The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats analysis can be used to draw the leader into accepting that s/he does have weaknesses that can be listed (ask mentors, subordinates, and family members), which, by themselves actually pose a threat to him or herself as well as their followers and organization.
Johari Window The Johari Window is a great tool for showing a leader that s/he evaluates him or herself using a different data set than his or her followers. Aligning their perceptions comes at the cost of greater openness. Revealing information can be positive or negative, depending on the motivations and tenor of the audience to forgive, appreciate, and believe.
Great Followers The makeup of a good follower is an important contrast to those followers found in organizational failure scenarios. Followers who require minimum supervision and are competent in their work equate to reduced demands on leadership and an increased ability among leaders to move forward in trust that such followers will accomplish the tasks they have been assigned (Allen, 1965, p. 83). These followers view themselves and their work as valuable to the organization and take responsibility to “[put] the objectives and requirements of the group as a whole ahead of [their] own personal interests” (p. 83). Nevertheless, these men and women recognize that such responsibility implies they will speak out against bad policy formation while not participating in sabotaging policies once decided upon (Chaleff, 2009, p. 98). Valuable followers are strategic sources of information who keep communication open with their leadership, aligning with what helps the organization and against what harms it, whether that be the leader or the organization itself (p. 99). With regard to leaders, they oppose arrogance, explosive anger and intimidation
tactics, and destructive personal behaviors (pp. 102106). Organizationally, “if the process for input into decision making is…credible and open,” they are willing to help leaders, “challenge individuals who are disregarding it or challenge the organizational culture itself to value it more” (p. 99). Their actions are inherently moral, conscious decisions, guiding the organization by the behaviors it is supposed to value and which “govern decent organizational behavior while preserving the
capacity of the organization to fulfill its purpose” (pp. 149-150). Followers have to set the example for others in unstructured leadership positions when questionable leadership arises in their organizations by deciding between leaving, publically opposing, or becoming internal change agents (p. 150). Leaders’ relationships with followers ought not be rife with contention. They ought not be adversarial in nature. Followers are not Social Darwinism’s failures who were dominated by victorious leaders now in control (Kelley, 1992, p. 35). In fact, followers sometimes hold equal or more power in directing organizations than their positional leaders. All the more important then, because of their sheer number in comparison to positional leaders, is that followers exercise what Robert Kelley (1992) labeled the “courageous conscience” (p. 168). As Kelley’s research revealed, followers think about and talk about, “the moral component of their role more often than their leaders do” (p. 167). Thus, the follower needs to be able to, “judge right from wrong and [have] the fortitude to take affirmative steps toward what one believes is right,” as well as The Lama Review - Page 35
abstain from disagreeable actions with, “conviction…in the face of strong societal pressures” (p. 168). Kelley identified two key components to great followership: “independent critical thinking and active engagement,” which prove crucial to effective moral decision making (p. 173). Finally, as with great leaders, great followers are discerning when making decisions that could result in failure and question themselves thoroughly regarding potential approaches’ costs and benefits in dubious situations (pp. 176-182).
inconvenienced or suffer in order for them to get what they want” (Kelley, 1992, p. 174). Additionally, poor followers are often hindered by psychological fears such as, “personal impotence vis-à-vis a toxic leader” and “ostracism, isolation, and social death,” as well as psychological needs including, “security and certainty,” feeling “chosen” and being included in “human community,” being at the center of attention for increased self-esteem, and feeling significant by, “commit[ting] to a noble vision” (p. 184).
Failing Followers Kelley (1992) categorizes poor followers with labels such as “conformist,” “passive,” and “pragmatic,” all emphasizing problems stemming from varying degrees of intellectual laziness as opposed to the critical thinking characteristic of great followers (p. 173). The first allow their leaders to decide for them (abdication of personal responsibility); the second will only make the moral decision when pressured; the third will try sidestepping suspicious situations with rationalizations instead of, “disturb[ing] the status quo to do something worthwhile that needs being done” (p. 173). Furthermore, lazy followers are more prone to egotism, tend to be impatient and leave organizations when they are frustrated with leadership rather than working through conflict and resistance issues (Allen, 1965, p. 83; Kelley, 1992, pp. 173-174). Criticism becomes intolerable, and their self-adulation hinders their ability to supply insight and foresight to their organization. Pertaining especially to the “pragmatic follower,” such self-centeredness appears much like the poor leader addressed above, “believ[ing] it is okay for the larger group to be
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For Consulting Considerations As noted above, the followers who drive the organizational cart rather than weigh it down are the ones who are actively involved and who think critically on their own. They might frustrate leaders from time to time, because they think with the organization’s best interest in mind. For example, if they think the leader is not checking the facts well enough or remembering organizational history clearly, then such followers will point those inconvenient facts out or remember the sullied history for everyone. In the end, however, they are the best allies for their quality of work and their care. Consultants can use the following models to encourage teams of key organizational members to decide promptly, with and without information, and also to think with a variety of priorities in mind so as to strengthen their analytical skills to complement decision-makers.
The Consequences Model The Consequences Model looks at the extent of consequences given the length of time spent gathering
information pertaining to any matter for decision. It illustrates that as time increases, the knowledge gathered for the decision increases, presumably and inversely making the decision less risky and removing doubts (consequences decrease). Teams can use this tool once they know what information they need to make decisions. It will keep those decisions in front of them, disallowing them the silence of indecision without visible consequences by asking: How long have we been at work on this, and what do we know now that was previously unknown? If that necessary information is known, riskiness is at an acceptable level and a decision needs to be made. Further delay is unwarranted.
The Role Playing Model (Edward de Bono’s “six thinking hats”) With the Role Playing Model, people are led in facilitated thinking exercises, where they are asked to dialogue from a shared frame of mind – emphasized by wearing hats of the same color. De Bono offered six mindsets represented by six colors (see below). Hats, wristbands or anything highly visible may be used, but they must be the same color at the same time to emphasize the point that we are each stronger in some ways of thinking than others, and that divergent thinking is good for highlighting how we generally prioritize decisions according to different values based on our experience with a particular “color.” Additionally, by seeing each other’s strengths, we can leverage them for leading in particular tasks. We can also be made aware of weaknesses which accompany those strengths in order to understand
A Word about Culture Culture is easy to notice, but difficult to capture. Culture can be used to mean the shared experiences of a people, and it relates to all of the group’s varying needs. It permeates society and directs its discourse. According to the classic definition given by Sir Edward Taylor, culture is, “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by (individuals as members) of society” (Cellich & Jain, 2004, p. 24). Organizational culture includes, “the set of values, norms, guiding beliefs, and understandings…shared by members of an organization…taught to new members as the correct way to think, feel, and behave” (Daft, 2013, p. 390). Of the three aspects of culture readily recognized, that cultures are learned, interrelated in public and private life, and that they must be shared, the first is most pertinent to this discussion, for it assumes that culture can be taught (Cellich & Jain, 2004, pp. 24-25). Hypothesizing that leaders can affect organizations through awareness and management of organizational culture, Ray and Goppelt (2011) conducted research on communication networks, “propos[ing] methods that both enhance practitioners’ ability to influence organizational culture change through individual transformation in a leadership development [program] and aid researchers in understanding if and how a leadership development program creates organizational culture change” (p. 61). That the workforce is changing through both the influx of millennials and recession-driven acquire-to-merge environment, is obvious. Coupled with the radical pace of technological and social change occurring since the late 1990s, Balda and Mora (2011) conclude in their recent article that “future organizational paradigms will have to develop a multigenerational collaborative culture,” and that servant leadership is the best approach, “contribut[ing] to these new networked and collaborative organizations to help Millennials flourish and prepare them for leadership positions as well” (p. 13). Their position also assumes leaders’ capability of constructing culture. Thus, all roads to culture affecting leadership – and vice versa – point to heavy investment needed in modeling/training and communication efforts. Such needs should be an area of proficiency for consultants. Conducting workshops and crafting implementation plans to develop younger leaders and change culture is bulletwound, Band-Aid thinking. Organizations need to think like you think, otherwise, how can they legitimately value what you offer? This means consultants should place greater emphases on facilitation of in-house leadership development programs and culture change initiatives. The added value the organization gains from acquiring these skills far exceeds the cost of time it takes for this thinking to mature, because the organization change is not stopping. The environment is not standing still for their programs. Knowing how to build and develop The Lama Review - Page 37
the organizational architecture, therefore, is crucial to sustainable competitive advantage through leadership development and culture-crafting.
Great Organizations Strong organizations are marked by a combination of both good leadership and followership where there is interdependency among leaders and followers, and cooperation supersedes selfinterest (Allen, 1965, p. 84). Such organizations value the up-and-coming generation of workers in their midst and have senior leaders who “own the talent and leadership development agenda” by taking an inventory of the workforce and building opportunities and bridges for future success into the current organizational structure (Ready, 2005, p. 21). For instance, these organizations have cultures which support cross-department experience and training rather than favoring only those who excel in a particular business unit, handle a certain business function, or work out of a specific office to the effect of penalizing workers who would train broadly and have a diverse career with vabolstered by inquisitive leadership and creative followership. Furthermore, followers in these organizations are aware of expected and valued behaviors and ethics. Such clear expectations establish an atmosphere where questionable activities are unlikely to persist, morally and statutorily prohibited or allowed by policies and procedures already instituted. This means leaders and followers should encounter fewer situations where they must rely solely on personal courage in order for the organization to exit the matter properly (though good leaders and followers have that courage when necessary) (p. 25).
Failing Organizations Failing organizations experience countless problems. Vague communication to workers about the mission and vision makes measuring work against strategic objectives difficult (Caffrey & Medina, 2011, p. 43). Perhaps most egregious is the “climate of distrust” which plagues these organizations, further obstructing singleness of motivation (Sonnenfeld, 1997, p. 35). Organizational learning and training programs to develop various levels of talent are viewed as unimportant or as all cost and of doubtful benefit; and, if any exist, they are usually hostages of organizational politics, rarely advancing true managerial growth (Ready, 2005, p. 25; Sonnenfeld, 1997, p. 37). When organizational policies are indefinite, followers and leaders operate according to their own habits and moral codes, some being stricter and more culturallyPage 38 - The Lama Review
bound than others. Depending on the organization’s worker diversity, such a setting is ripe for producing conflict (Allen, 1965, p. 81). Much organizational failure can be accounted for if one considers leaders’ lack of knowledge for leading change processes, the failure of applying such knowledge in follower relationships, the blindness such leaders exhibit toward hidden organizational conflicts, and the indifference such leaders demonstrate toward poisonous organizational cultures (Mauer, 2010, p. 37; Mauer, 2011, p. 34). This will remain unchallenged without proper training and modeling. Company responses to Ready’s (2005) study showed that organizational cultures, systems and processes, and cognitive misfires were responsible for most failures (p. 24). Regarding the first, respondents saw the silo effect, useful in establishing stronger individual performances among divisions and sometimes reducing bureaucratic processes, resulted in disunity and harmed the cohesion and progress of organizational vision. Such divisions discouraged leaders’ and followers’ exploration and partnership beyond their silo’s walls, resulting in reduced resource sharing, collaborative ventures and developments, and, “opportunities to develop talent across the enterprise” (p. 24). Per the second, respondents pointed out that “systems and processes for identifying and developing leadership” were in place, but they did not work. Thus, said companies lacked the leaders-in-training to, “achieve their companies’ [present and forthcoming] strategic priorities” (p. 24). This deficiency was partially blamed upon entrenched ethnocentrism, which limits broader identification and assessment processes (p. 24). And, the third reason was a criticism of rganizational development being “a cost item rather than a critical strategic investment” (p. 25).
For Consulting Considerations An Appreciative Inquire (AI) Modelst organizational exposure (p. 25). These organizations are forwardacting, a trait AI, according to Moore (2008), “is based on valuing and recognizing the best in people or the world around us. And it means asking questions and being open to seeing new potentials and possibilities in people and organizations” (p. 216). For organizational culture to develop positively, members have to dialogue positively. This can be difficult in decision-making meetings when everyone has something to gain or lose by being heard and influential. The following model illustrates the kind of language helpful for positively dialoguing while also generating ideas (top right quadrant). Some may claim this is just verbal foolery, but think of it like this: if conflicting ideas are presented, the better idea can
influence the other ideas through this technique. Without AI, the focus will remain on the lesser ideas, and the dialogue may become adversarial. Energy for growth accompanies creativity and positive elements. Frame your responses in this manner and you will force yourself to appreciate the positive aspects of others’ ideas and think creatively before critiquing another’s idea
A Conflict Resolution Model
Only one ideal outcome emerges from conflict, the one which brings the parties together, a solution developing of their “one mind.” That is also known as a win-win resolution. It is only win-win if neither avoids the matter, harms the other party, quits prematurely, has a thirdparty decide for them, or compromises. Some might think negotiation is winning the most away from the other party, or that compromising is the way to build relationships that last, but both are not resolutions. They leave the relational tension unresolved. Compromise and its subset, arbitration, are both rational tactics, unlike the others, but neither brings the parties together. When working with organizational culture, there are subcultures which may need to be addressed. They will especially surface amid budget discussions and anytime silothinking puts different organization functions, product/ service lines, and geographies at odds. It is then when a meeting of the minds is needed to mend rifts. Use your knowledge of the ideal and several non-ideal tactics to frame a workshop regarding current approaches to inter-departmental decisions and external partnerships which are handled in an irresolvable manner. And, as a consultant, realize the implications for your conflict negotiation work: You cannot facilitate resolution without having the right stakeholders present.
Conclusion So, why do organizations fail? They can fail because of any number of combinations of problems with the leaders, followers, and organizational cultures, for it goes without saying: “It takes two to tango” (Block, 2000, p. 202). Sometimes unconvincing, arrogant leaders may be guilty, and sometimes wishy-washy, irresponsible followers are to blame. Sometimes the organization’s unwritten rules seem to be at fault, opposing changeagent followers and dynamic leaders who would guide positive organizational change. Regardless, it is the consultant’s responsibility to recognize that accusations rarely offer the full picture, and multiple parties are often partially responsible. Consultants, therefore, need to help organizations face and own their fault honestly by conveying realistic expectations of stakeholder responsibility. Using tools such as the models presented should help organizations lift the fog and bid foreseeable and preventable failure “Begone!”
About the Author David Stehlik is a strategy consultant in Fort Wayne, Indiana, providing corporate training services to clients of Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne, and an adjunct professor for the University of Saint Francis’ (Fort Wayne) online MBA program. Concurrently, he is a student in Regent University’s doctoral program in strategic leadership. Inquiries regarding this article may be addressed to David Stehlik at dstehl@gmail.com. References A guide to corporate scandals [Electronic version]. (2002, July 15). The Economist. Allen, L. A. (1965). Leaders who fail their companies. Business Horizons, 8(2), 79-83. Balda, J. B., & Mora, F. (2011). Adapting leadership theory and practice for the networked, millennial generation. Journal of Leadership Studies, 5: 13–24. doi: 10.1002/jls.20229
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Block, P. (2000). Flawless consulting: A guide to getting your expertise used (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
Moore, M. (2008). Appreciative inquiry: The why: The what? The how? Practice Development n Health Care, 7(4), 214-220. doi:10.1002/pdh.270
Caffrey, N. G., & Medina, C. G. (2011). Doomed to fail. Quality Progress, 44(1), 40-45.
Patsuris, P. (2002, August 26). The corporate scandal sheet. In Forbes.com: Accounting. Retrieved August 2, 2012, from http://www.forbes.com/2002/07/25/ accountingtracker.html
Cellich, C., & Jain, S. C. (2004). Global business negotiations: A practical guide. Mason, OH: Thomson South-Western. Chaleff, I. (2009). The courageous follower: Standing up to & for our leaders (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. Daft, R. L. (2013). Understanding the theory and design of organizations (11th ed.). N.p.: South- Western, Cengage Learning
Ray, K. W., & Goppelt, J. (2011). Understanding the effects of leadership development on the creation of organizational culture change: A research approach. International Journal of Training and Development, 15: 58–75. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-419.2010.00368.x Ready, D. A. (2005, November 29). Is your company failing its leaders? Business Strategy Review, 16(4), 21-25. doi:10.1111/j.0955-6419.2005.00375.x
Jennings, J. (2012, August). Let go of resistance: The first step to reinvention is moving past yesterday’s breadwinners. Chief Learning Officer, 11(8), 14.
Slater, S., & Vellacott, C. (2012, July 26). Barclays executive pay-off slammed as “reward for failure.” In Reuters. Retrieved August 3, 2012, from http://uk.reuters. com/article/2012/07/26/uk-banking-libor-barclays-idUK BRE86P18P20120726?feedType=RSS
Kelley, R. E. (1992). The power of followership: How to create leaders people want to follow, and followers who lead themselves. New York, NY: Doubleday.
Sonnenfeld, J. (1997). How leaders fail. Leader to Leader, (3), 34-38.
Komai, M., & Stegeman, M. (2010). Leadership based on asymmetric information. RAND Journal Of Economics (Blackwell Publishing Limited), 41(1), 35-63. doi:10.1111/j.1756- 2171.2009.00089.x Maurer, R. (2010). Why do so many changes still fail? Journal For Quality & Participation, 33(3), 36-37. Maurer, R. (2011). Why do so many changes still fail? (Part two). Journal For Quality & Participation, 33(4), 33-34.
Thornton, P. B. (2011). Why some leaders succeed and others fail. Leader to Leader, 2011(60), 17-21. doi:10.1002/ltl.463 Information about models such as those described and displayed in this article can be found at: Moolenburgh, W. (2013). In ProvenModels. Retrieved September 3, 2013, from http://www.provenmodels.com/ Summaries: Management encyclopedia (2013, March 9). In 12Manage. Retrieved September 3, 2013, from http://www.12manage.com/index_expert.html
“I have three precious things which I hold fast and prize. The first is gentleness; the second is frugality; the third is humility, which keeps me from putting myself before others. Be gentle and you can be bold; be frugal and you can be liberal; avoid putting yourself before others and you can become a leader among men.” Lao Tzu
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How can leaders bring about greater gains toward productivity and organizational success? Strength-based leadership, an innovative leadership theory, suggests leaders can achieve this by focusing their efforts on building their own strengths and the strengths of individual followers. Despite research supporting the benefits of a strengths approach, many organizations have yet to employ this method of leadership, possibly because the organizational design inhibits it. This article outlines the history of the strengths movement and the research that supports a strengths approach. It then introduces the strengths-based leadership model conceived of and popularized by Tom Rath, Barry Conchie, and the late Donald Clifton. Next, it explores how elements of organizational design affect the styles of leadership employed within an organization. Finally,
and contribute more to organizational success.5 Despite the research supporting strengths-based leadership, many organizations are still not properly leveraging the strengths of their leaders and followers. The design of the organization may hinder leaders from developing certain leadership styles. One organization, W. L. Gore & Associates, provides a case study of the organizational design hospitable to the development of strengths-based leadership.
A Brief History of Strengths It is difficult to pinpoint the exact origins of the “strengths movement” within the organizational and leadership community. Some point to 1967, when Peter Drucker wrote, “The effective executives build on strengths—
Building the Strong Organization: Exploring the Role of Organizational Design in Strengths-Based Leadership David Burkus
this article profiles W. L. Gore & Associates and how its organizational structure positions leaders to develop the strengths of their followers. William Whyte popularized the organization man as an individual who sought to serve the large organization by ignoring his own aspirations and identity.1 In return, the organization would promise lifetime employment and determine his place in society, pushing him higher up the organizational hierarchy the longer he stayed loyal. Within a decade, the logic of the organization man began to be satirized in what would become known as the Peter Principle, which said that in a hierarchy, employees like the organization man would eventually rise to the level of their incompetence.2 Although initially perceived as satire, recent developments in exploring individual strengths have begun to provide support for the Peter Principle. Strengths-based leadership, also referred to as strengths-based development or strengths-based organizational management, asserts that individuals are most productive when operating within their strengths.3 When individuals accept promotions that draw them away from their strengths, they become less engaged, eventually awakening one day to find themselves unfulfilled, bored, drained, and frustrated.4 Research exhibits that employees who are engaged in their work experience are more productive
their own strengths, the strengths of their superiors, colleagues and subordinates.”6 Others cite Donald Clifton as the godfather of the strengths movement when, 30 years ago, he began a research project with the Gallup organization that would produce several published works promoting a strengths revolution.7 Buckingham and Coffman began this revolution with their book, First, Break All the Rules, which, among other things, described how and why great managers break a hallowed rule of conventional wisdom: that with enough training, anyone can achieve anything they set their minds to.8 Instead, they asserted, the best managers cease coercing people into overcoming their weaknesses and instead find ways to minimize the impact of these weaknesses by maximizing employees’ strengths. Buckingham and Clifton, in Now, Discover Your Strengths, further explored this premise by providing an explanation for why individuals could not become proficient in their weaknesses.9 The authors did this by attacking two commonly held beliefs as myths: (a) that anyone can be competent in anything they work hard enough at, and (b) the greatest room for individual growth was in areas of weaknesses. At the time, most of the training programs created by or for organizations The Lama Review - Page 41
had the goal of making people better at something they were weak in, essentially trying to get people to become something they were not. The justification behind many of these training programs is the belief that people change as they grow older, thereby making it possible to control what they change into. Buckingham and Clifton challenged this justification, arguing that the biological underpinnings of strengths and weaknesses lay the thick synaptic connections of the brain.10 Humans grow new synaptic connections faster in areas that already have thick concentrations of connections. This allows them to learn the most, generate the most ideas, and have the best insight into areas where they already have generous connections. Personality research supports this theory. A study of 1,000 New Zealand children found that personality traits observed in a child at age 3 were remarkably similar to those found in his or her personality at age 26.11 Gallup conducted a similar experiment using a strengths assessment and found a similarly strong correlation.12 This implied that the theory keeping so many training programs afloat was taking on water. After exposing these two myths, Buckingham and Clifton replaced them with the two assertions: (a) individual talents are enduring and unique, and (b) the greatest room for individual growth was in the areas of strengths.13 In doing so, the authors provided a thought provoking instructional on how to determine an individual’s strengths and develop them for leadership and organizational success. A few years later, Buckingham wrote that great managers discover what was unique about each subordinate and capitalize on it.14 Additionally, Buckingham targeted individual workers, writing that, in order to have sustained success, individuals should discover what
they don’t like doing and find a way to eliminate it from their job or minimize it, in affect focusing individuals on their interests and strengths. The minds behind the strengths movement would make this discovery process easier by creating and popularizing the Clifton StrengthsFinder15 and outlining a six-week program for individuals wanting to discover and perform within their strengths.16 The most recent and logical step in the strengths dialogue occurred when Tom Rath and Barry Conchie formalized in writing a theory of leadership that began to grow out of the body of research highlighting the importance of strengths.17 They called this theory strengths-based leadership.
Strengths-Based Leadership At the core of the strengths movement is the underlying belief that people have several times more potential for growth building on their strengths rather than fixing their weaknesses.18 A strength is defined as the ability to exhibit near-perfect performance consistently in a given activity.19 The aim of strengths-based leadership is to develop the efficiency, productivity, and success of an organization by focusing on and continuously developing the strengths of people within the organization.20 Strengths-based organizations don’t ignore weaknesses, but rather, focus on building talents and minimizing the negative effects of weaknesses.21 Strengths-based leaders are always investing in their strengths and the strengths of individuals on their team. Rath and Conchie put forth three tenants of strengthsbased leadership, as summarized in Figure 1: 1. Effective leaders invest in their followers’ strengths. Where mediocre managers seek to get followers to take responsibility for their weaknesses and devote themselves to plugging these gaps, great leaders seek to manage around these weaknesses and invest their time and energy understanding and building on followers’ strengths. 2. Effective leaders build wellrounded teams out of followers who are not. Leadership requires strengths in four areas: executing, influencing, relationship building, and strategic thinking. While the best leaders do not demonstrate all of these skills, they build their teams so that all four areas are represented. 3.
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Effective
leaders
understand
the needs of followers. People follow leaders for a variety of reasons, some more common than others. Leaders build levels of trust, hope, and optimism by understanding the unique attributes of followers. 23
Individuals’ strengths can be discovered by monitoring spontaneous actions, yearnings, or areas of rapid learning.24 In addition, leaders can assess the strengths of themselves and their followers using assessments such as the Clifton StrengthsFinder (now often called StrengthsFinder 2.0). StrengthsFinder assists individuals in the discovery of strengths by measuring the predictability of patterns of behavior from the results of a forced-choice inventory. The results of the assessment reveal dominant themes of talent. These themes are areas predicted to hold the greatest potential for building on the strengths of leaders and followers. As these themes are used to develop strengths, it’s important to note that leaders and followers shouldn’t strive for a goal of 100% strengths-utilization.25 The leaders of the strengths approach recognize the impending need to work on organizational minutiae and apportion 25% of workers’ time as the appropriate allotment of nonstrengths activities. The strengths approach has developed alongside the equally innovative field of positive psychology.26 This relationship is understandable since the intent of strengths-based leadership is to increase organizational success by helping individuals perform optimally and positive psychology has been labeled as “the scientific study of optimal human functioning.”27 Strengths-based leadership appears antecedent to numerous constructs from positive psychology, including subjective well-being,28 optimism,29 and creativity.30 Positive psychology highlights the need to develop major psychological theories around virtues and character strengths, rather than focusing on deficits.31 Strengths-based leadership supplements the aim of positive psychology by providing a mechanism for identifying positive personal and interpersonal talents in an organizational setting in order to increase individuals’ positive subjective experience.32 Additionally, the strengths approach shares similarities to the developing concept of appreciative inquiry.33 The objectives of appreciative inquiry are to bring out the best in people, organizations, and the world around them and to do so by developing a culture that appreciates strengths. In order to capture these strengths, appreciative inquiry outlines a method of discovering the
processes that work well, dreaming of what processes could work well in the future, designing and prioritizing those processes, and achieving destiny by implementing the proposed design.34 This process bears a striking resemblance to the strengths discovery process suggested by the strengths-based leadership proponents. However, appreciative inquiry is typically utilized as a systems approach, whereas strengthsbased leadership is most often labeled as an individual approach.35 Research supports the utilization of strengths-based leadership for optimizing an organization. When an organization’s leadership does not focus on individual strengths, that employee has only a 9% chance of being engaged. However, when an organization’s leadership focuses on individual strengths, employees have a 73% chance of being engaged.36 Additionally, strengths-based leadership has been identified as a core element of “positive leadership” and correlated with increases in follower optimism, engagement, and project performance.37 The term engagement refers to the broad and deep connection that individuals feel with their organization.38 Employee engagement has been significantly correlated to business outcomes including profitability, turnover, safety, and customer satisfaction.39 Among religious congregations, research reveals that members of faith-based communities who have the opportunity to operate in their strengths regularly are more engaged than those who don’t.40 Engaged members volunteer more, give more money, are more likely to recruit others, and have higher life satisfaction scores than those who are not engaged. St. Lucie Medical Center in Florida provides a case study on the impact of strengths-based leadership initiatives.41 This 150-bed hospital faced shockingly low employee engagement scores and a turnover rate of 53%. The hospital decided to study the talents of its people, beginning with top leadership and eventually rolling out talent inventories to every employee. The results of these inventories were used to build teams that properly leveraged individual employees’ talents. Within 2 years, the hospital saw its attrition rate drop significantly, with equally significant rises in employee engagement scores. Perhaps more impressively, St. Lucie saw a drastic increase in the satisfaction rates of both patients and physicians, putting St. Lucie on the road to becoming one of the area’s most well-respected hospitals. Yet, despite nearly a decade of research and published works stressing the importance of strengths, fewer than two out of ten Americans believe that they work in a role that utilizes their strengths most of the time.42 The Lama Review - Page 43
In addition, over half of all American employees believe that they will experience bigger gains by fixing their weaknesses rather than building upon their strengths.43 One of the possible reasons for this might be the relationship between organizational design and leadership, specifically the affect this relationship has on how leaders within the organization develop their leadership style.
The Role of Design Selznick claims, “The theory of leadership is embedded within the organization,” an assertion of the affect of organizational design on leadership.44 Organizational design refers to a structured, guided process for integrating an organization’s resources, including people, technology, and information.45 This design process helps to increase the probability of success within the organization and individual members by attempting to align the form and functions of the organization as closely as possible to the intended mission and purpose of the organization. Leadership has been theorized to be dependant upon the dynamics of the organization.46 Overall, organizational design consists of specifying three elements: strategy, structure, and systems. Each of these elements of organizational design exhibit an influence on the leadership style demonstrated within the organization. Strategy is concerned with how the organization will interact with its competitive environment in order to fulfill the mission of the organization.47 Strategy is the current set of plans, objectives, and decisions that have been made in order to achieve the organizations goals and to further its mission.48 In defining its strategy, an organization must consider whom it seeks to serve, how it will serve, what makes it unique from competitors, and how it can gain a competitive advantage. The choice of strategy affects many characteristics of the organization, including leadership style. Research highlights the importance of properly aligning leadership style with organizational strategy in order to ensure organizational success.49 Structure represents the form of the organization, its people, divisions, departments, and functions. These structures provide labels to describe how the organization works together and to compare it with other organizations. Structure is often represented as an organizational chart.50 When determining structure, organizations must consider who does what, who has the ability to make decisions, and who should answer to whom.51 Relationships exist between organizational structure and the top-down leadership style that develops.52 Bureaucratic structures tend to develop Page 44 - The Lama Review
transactional leaders, while organic structures tend to develop transformational leaders.53 Systems are the sets of interacting elements that receive inputs from the environment and transform them into output discharged into that environment. Systems are the less tangible aspects of organizational design but they play a vital role in how individuals within the organization determine appropriate behavior and performance.54 Often as an organization grows larger, more formal systems are put into place that are intended to manage information and detect deviations from establish standards.55 These formalized, mechanistic organizations create an environment that tends to favor transactional leadership styles.56 These three elements of organizational design each exert an effect on how leaders determine the style of leadership they will utilize, demonstrating that organizations must consciously build the desired leadership style into their organizational design. This implies that, in order to see strengths-based leadership develop among the leaders of an organization, it must be built into the design of the organization. One company, W. L. Gore & Associates, provides an exemplary model for organizational design that allows strengths-based leadership to thrive.
A “Strong” Design W. L. Gore & Associates is a manufacturing company that was founded in 1958.57 Besides being known for their innovative Gore-Tex® fabric, Gore is also known for its innovative organizational design, which has led to their being one of only three companies to appear on the “100 Best Companies to Work For in America” rankings every year since the list’s inception in 1984.58 Additionally, Gore has been named the “Most Innovative Company in America” by Fast Company magazine.59 Gore’s revolutionary structure is the brainchild of Wilbert “Bill” Gore, who left a 17-year career with DuPont to experiment with the potential of polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE).60 Having worked on small, innovative research and development teams, Bill Gore wondered why an entire company couldn’t be organized with the same freewheeling, autonomous energy. Much of Bill Gore’s management philosophy was influenced by McGregor’s theory Y construct, which argued that humans were self-motivating and sought to find meaning in their work.61 Gore leverages individuals’ desire to find meaning in their work using an organizational design that is unique in its strategy, structure, and systems.62
Porter describes the essence of strategy as “choosing to perform activities differently than rivals do.”63 Using this description, Gore’s strategy would be choosing not to spend a lot of energy formalizing their strategy or core business.64 This method serves to further the company’s mission statement: to make money and have fun.65 Leaders at Gore encourage innovation and give associates “dabble time” to create new product breakthroughs. Associates are free to make commitments to projects that they believe they will enjoy and can positively contribute to. Most of Gore’s products initially started as the focus of an associate’s “dabble time.” This strategy—pursue fun projects—has resulted in a portfolio of over 1,000 products while also allowing individuals to commit themselves to projects they feel will best utilize their strengths. With the exception of four major business divisions, the company is void of the usual structural elements.66 Instead of a hierarchy, Gore utilizes what it calls a lattice, a flat structure where every person is connected to every other person in the plant.67 All individuals enter the company equally with the title “associate.” There are no bosses at Gore. Instead, the perplexing questions of “What do I work on?” and “What’s my next career move?” are worked out between an associate and a sponsor.68 Sponsors are veterans that help decode the jargon and guide associates through the lattice. In their first few months, associates circulate through a variety of teams and, along with the sponsor, decide what team would provide the best fit. They then make a commitment to a particular project and team. In lieu of bosses, associates become responsible to the team they commit to. This loose structure allows associates to experiment, under the supervision of their sponsor, until they find a project their strengths can contribute to and a team that needs their strengths in order to become more well-rounded Additionally, Gore doesn’t directly hire or promote leaders. Instead, leaders are determined by followership.69 If associates choose to follow another associate, then that associate becomes a leader. Gore labels this process natural leadership, with leaders gaining credibility from unique knowledge, a history of success, or involving others in significant decisions. Gore seeks to hire people who they hope will become leaders and waits to see if those people develop good ideas and persuade others to adopt those ideas.70 As such, it is the people who regularly contribute great ideas that are likely to find themselves at the top of the leadership role regardless of whether or not they carry much decision-making power. Indeed, over half of the company’s associates describe themselves as leaders. However, becoming a leader is not a requirement for a fulfilling or
engaging career. Because of the format for developing into a leader, only those who feel that leadership lies within their strengths aspire to and are rewarded with leadership. Likewise, those who believe that becoming a leader is not within their individual strengths are not stigmatized. The lattice structure of Gore also affects the organization’s systems. Every person and department directly interacts with every other person and department.71 Founder Bill Gore believed that every organization has an underground lattice structure despite the formal structure and systems, which people use to get information and further projects. This underground lattice is also where informal cross-functional teams form to develop new products and initiatives. Gore’s unique structure simply makes this underground lattice the formal one, bringing all of these benefits to the foreground. The lattice structure, with open and informal systems, also allows the strengths of one individual, team, department, or division to seek out and utilize the strengths of any other entity. W. L. Gore & Associates has not directly instituted any formal strengthsbased leadership initiatives. However, the uniqueness of its strategy, structure, and systems created an organization where strengths-based leadership appears to have developed and thrived.
Conclusion Strengths-based leadership is the culmination of an innovative movement asserting the importance of strengths with over 30 years of research. However, despite the available research demonstrating the benefits of strengths-based initiatives on individual and organizational success, most organizations are not engaging their employees using a strengths-based leadership model and most individuals don’t realize the growth potential of building upon their strengths. Research exhibits a relationship between the design of an organization and the leadership styles that organizational leaders develop. One company, W. L. Gore & Associates, utilizes a unique lattice structure that allows associates to make commitments to projects they feel will engage them and utilize their strengths. While not formally instituting a strengths-based leadership initiative, Gore’s unique structure appears to have positioned itself to develop and benefit from strengths-based leadership. Furthermore, Gore’s organizational design avoids the doomsday prediction of the Peter Principle by avoiding hierarchies and seeking to help each associate make commitments to tasks that leverage their strengths and allow them to succeed. Organizational leaders can learn from the design of W. L. Gore & Associates The Lama Review - Page 45
Endnotes
15 Rath (2007).
1 Whyte, W. (1956). The organization man. Simon & Schuster: New York, NY.
16 Buckingham (2007).
2 Peter, L., & Hull, R. (1969). The Peter principle: Why things always go wrong. William Morrow & Company: New York, NY. 3 Rath, T., & Conchie, B. (2008). Strengths-based leadership: Great leaders, great teams, and why people follow. Gallup Press: New York, NY.
17 Rath & Conchie (2008). 18 Rath (2007). 19 Clifton & Harter (2003). 20 Rath & Conchie (2008). 21 Clifton & Harter (2003).
4 Buckingham, M. (2007). Go put your strengths to work: 6 powerful steps to achieve outstanding performance. Free Press: New York, NY.
22 Rath & Conchie (2008).
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49 Burton, R., Eriksen, B., Dojbak H책kosson, D., & Snow, C. (2006). Organization design: The evolving state-of-theart. Springer: New York, NY. 50 Daft (2009). 51 Austin-Robertson (2009). 52 Khandawalla, P. (1977). The design of organizations. Harcourt, Brace, & Jovanovich: New York, NY. 53 Bass, B. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. Free Press: New York, NY. 54 Kiedel (1995). 55 Daft (2009). 56 Bass (1985). The Lama Review - Page 47
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