GANGTOK REGIONAL STUDY_03_12_2015 by Landscape Perspectives_Academics

Acknowledgement

Our sincere thanks to Government of Sikkim, Urban development and Housing department of Sikkim, Sikkim tourism department, Cultural Affairs & Heritage Department, Irrigation Department and Water Security, PHE Department, Forest Department of Sikkim and ENVIS Department. Our sincere thanks to Prashant Pradhan Architects for providing all the necessary base data and guiding us for the study of Gangtok. We would like to thank Prof. Deepa Maheshwari and Sandeep Sir for guiding us through out the study.

LIST of figures Chapter 1: Introduction Fig 1: 1849 Map of Sikkim and Eastern Nepal 5 Fig 2: Ancient Silk route passing through Sikkim 5 Fig 3a: Old Nepali woman 5 Fig 3b: Monks in a Sikkim monastery 5 Fig 4: A systems chart generated out of the social, political and cultural history of Sikkim in a timeline backdrop. It also shows particular events affecting the history and evolution. 7 Fig 5: 1919 Sketch of MG Road 8 Fig 6: A systems chart generated out of the social, political and cultural history of Gangtok in a timeline backdrop. 8 It also shows particular events affecting the history and evolution. Fig 7: 1977 MG Road 8 Fig 8: Occupational data East District and Gangtok. 10 Fig 9: Demograpihic data Sikkim State 10 Fig 10: Occupational data Sikkim State and Districts 10 Fig 11: Migration data Sikkim State 11 Fig 12: Economy data Sikkim State and Districts 11 Fig 13: Schedule tribes population classification in Sikkim state 12 Fig 14: Religion data Sikkim State and Gangtok 12 Fig 15: Dance celebration of Maghey sankranti 14 Fig 16: Holy dip at Rangeet river 14 Fig 17: Mela at jorethang 14 Fig 18: Losar festival celebration 14 Fig 19: Losar Festival celebration 14 Fig 20: Pemayangtse monastery 14 Fig 21: Chham dance at monastry 14 Fig 22: Bhumchu festival celebration 15 Fig 23: Tashiding Monastery 15 Fig 24: Rai community performing bhumi pooja 15 Fig 25a: Lepcha people 16 Fig 25b: Lepcha house 16 Fig 26a: Bhutia people 16 Fig 26b: Bhutia house 16 Fig 27a: Nepalis people 16 Fig 27b: Nepalis house 16 Fig 28a: Limbu people 17 Fig 28b: Limbu house 17 Fig 29a: Tamang people 17 Fig 29b: Tamang house 17

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region Fig 1: Koppen Geiger Classification Map 21 Fig 2: Classification of the climate of Sikkim w.r.t. altitude 21 Fig 3: Maximum and minimum Temperature of Gangtok 22 Fig 4: Maximum and minimum Temperature Change of Gangtok 22 Fig 5: Mean monthly Rainfall and number of Rainy days 22 Fig 6: Amount of Rainfall Change of Gangtok 23 Fig 7: Mean monthly relative Humidity 23 Fig 8a: Wind rose Diagram at 0300hr 23 Fig 8b: Wind rose Diagram at 1200hr 24 Fig 9: Air temperature of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool 24 Fig 10: Wind speed of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool 24 Fig 11: Humidity of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool 25 Fig 12: Rainfall of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool 25 Fig 13: Sections through selected area 27 Fig 14: Relative area of each slope % category range 29 Fig 15: To illustrate the meaning of the terms Dip and Strike 30 Fig 16: Jaldhaka 33 Fig 17: Rangpo Chhu 33 Fig 18: Teestha River 33 Fig 19: Zemu Chhu 33 Fig 20: Sections across the Rani khola 35 Fig 21: Types of springs in the region 36 Fig 22: Landuse distribution in percentage 37 Fig 23: Percentage of degradation in year 1990 37 Fig 24: Percentage of degradation in year 2000 37 37 Fig 25: Percentage of degradation in year 2010 Fig 26. The varied types of forests in Sikkim-Mixed Conifers and Sal forest 38 Fig 27: Sal Forest 40 Fig 28: Chir Forests 41 Fig 29: Castanopis tribuloides 41 Fig 30: Schima Wallichi 41 Fig 31: Quercus Forests 41 Fig 32: Prunus symplocos 41 Fig 33: Viburnum plicatum 41 Fig 34: Rhododendron Scrub 41 Fig 35: Asiatic black Bear 44 Fig 36: Common Leopard 44 Fig 37: Clouded Leopard 45 Fig 38: Snow Leopard 45 Fig 39: Jungle Cat 46 Fig 40: Golden Cat 47 Fig 41: Red Panda 48 Fig 42: Blue Sheep 48 Fig 43: Plateau Pika 49 Fig 44: Kaiser-i-Hind Butterfly 50

Fig 45: Graph showing percentage of land under different potential area 52 Fig 46. Terrace farming of Rice 53 Fig 47. Rice 53 Fig 48: Terrace farming of Maize 54 Fig 49: Maize 54 Fig 50: Mandarin orange cultivation 54 Fig 51: Orange 54 Fig 52: Cardamom being grown as an understorey crop 54 Fig 53: Cardamom 54 Fig 54a: Sericulture as a mixed cropping activity 54 Fig 54b: Silk worm 54 Fig 55: Agro forestry practice 55 Fig 56: Farms are placed in the pockets of forests 55 Fig 57. Water bodies and catchments are preserved 55 Fig 58. Forest produce provides firewood and fodder 55 Fig 59. Animals are tied in the fields in winter so their droppings fertilise it 55 Fig 60 : Domestic peak period 62 Fig 61 : Yearly arrival of domestic tourists 62 Fig 62 : Length Of Staying At Sikkim 62 Fig 63 : Team Pattern Of Tourists 62 Fig 64 : Purpose Of Visiting Sikkim 62 Fig 65 : Team Pattern Of Tourists 62 Fig 66 : International peak period62 Fig 67 : Yearly arrival of international tourists 62 Fig 68 : Current distribution of hotels in Sikkim 63 Fig 69 : Current distribution of beds in Sikkim63 Fig 70: Tourist spots in East district 64 Fig 71: Tourist spots in West district 65 Fig 72: Tourist spots in North district 66 Fig 73: Tourist spots in South district 67

Chapter 4: Development Plam by SURBANA Fig 1: Framework for Developing the State Strategic Urban Plan 75 Fig 2&3: Key Issues to be addressed in the State Strategic Urban Plan 76 Fig 4: Habitable Area represented by grey 76 Fig 5: Slope profile 76 Fig 6:. Developable land within Sikkim. 76 Fig 7: Potential road developments 78 Fig 8: Diagram showing proposed facilities in the urban towns 80 Fig 9: Existing land use 82 Fig 10. Planning Constraints. 82 Fig 11. Landuse concept. 82 Fig 12: Proposed road networks 83 Fig 13: Proposed ropeway stations and towers 83 Fig 14a: Proposed communities. 83 Fig 14b: Proposed Land use. 84 Fig 15: Proposed Cultural zone. 84 Fig 16: Proposed Natural zone. 84 Fig 17: Existing settlements in South Gangtok Bazaar area. 85 Fig 18: Green corridors along the streams 85 Fig 19: Proposed land use of South Gangtok Bazaar area. 85 Fig 20: Schematic section showing land use of South Gangtok Bazaar area. 85 Fig 21: West Gangtok area existing plan 86 Fig 22: Green corridors along streams 86 Fig 23 Proposed West Gangtok area land use 86 Fig 24: Proposed internal road 8m wide and Pedestrian pathway 6m wide. 86

Chapter 5: Proposals Fig 1: Conceptual diagram 88 Fig 2: Conceptual diagram 89 Fig 3: Conceptual diagram 90 Fig 4: Conceptual diagram 91

LIST OF TABLES Chapter 1: Introduction Table 1: Villages under catchment area, with more than 50 % of ST population

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region Table 1: Chart showing change in Sunrise, Sunset, Dawn and Dusk time through the year 23 Table 2: Air temperature, Wind speed, Humidity and Rainfall Data of Kabi and Ranipool 26 29 Table 3: Comparative analysis between each slope % category range Table 4: Matrix for the recharge potential 52 Table 5: Agricultural zones 53 Table 6: Crops and seasons 53 Table 7: Types of silkworm rearing and production 55 Table 8: Types of farming practices-local terminologies 56 Table 9: Climate change impacts on crops 56 Table 10: Local knowledge of rainfall patterns 57 Table 11: Elevation wise classification of agricultural systems 58 Table 12: Inference table 59 Table 13: Issues in villages 59 Table 14 : Inferences 60 Table 15: Important tourism spots 61 Table 16: Peak period rooms projections - Domestic 63 63 Table 17: Peak period rooms projections - International Table 18: Peak period projections - Domestic 63 Table 19: Peak period projections - International 63 63 Table 20: Visitors projections in 2015, 2025 and 2040 Table 21: Types of hotels in Gangtok 71 Table 22: Destinations within Gangtok city 71 Table 23: Destinations around Gangtok city 71

Chapter 4: Development Plam by SURBANA

Table 1. Land Required for Growth of Towns by 2040. 77 Table 2: Land area required for expansion 78 Table 3: Projected population and land area for Sikkim towns 80 Table 4: Gangtok ward population. 81 Table 5: Showing community area and population 83 Table 6: Table showing Land use. 84 Table 7: Table showing land use of South Gangtok Bazaar area. 85 Table 8: Showing West Gangtok area land use 86

LIST OF MAPS Chapter 1: Introduction Map 1: Location of the state of Sikkim 3 Map 2: The study region is well connected with major cities by road with National Highway 3 4 Map 3: District Map Sikkim, India, showing four district North, East, West and South. Map 4: Map Showing Watershed of Teesta Basin. 4 6 Map 5: Progressive evolution of Sikkim kingdom over three centuries Map 6 . Evolution of Gangtok city over time. 9 Map 7: Sacred groves and ethnic tribes in Sikkim 13

Chapter 2: Defining the study region Map 1: Study region map 19

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region Map 1: Map showing Average annual rainfall of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool 25 Map 2: Map showing Moisture content of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool 25 Map 3: Map showing Humidity of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool 25 Map 4: Map showing Snow depth of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool 26 Map 5:Elevation map 27 Map 6: Aspect Map 28 Map 7: Slope map (Source: Author) 29 Map 8: India Earthquake Zone Map 30 Map 9: Geology Map of Study Region 31 Map 10: Soil 32 Map 11: Sikkim Water Shed 33 Map 12: Showing East District and selected water shed region 33 Map 13: Water Shed of the Region 34 Map 14: Springs location and their contact area 36 Map15: Landuse map 37 Map 18: Elevation 39 Map 19: Slope 39 Map 20: Types of Forests 40 Map 21: Fauna types 43 Map 22 : Erosion Susceptibility 51 Map 23: Water Recharge Potential 52 Map 24: Soil and depth 59 Map 25: Hydrology 60 Map 26: Aspect 60 Map 27: Slope 60 Map 28: Elevation 60 Map 29: Tourism Map For Sikkim-Important Tourist Spots 61 Map 30: Showing tourist spots in East district 64 Map 31: Showing tourist spots in West district 65 Map 32: Showing tourist spots in North district 66 Map 33: Showing tourist spots in South district 67 Map 34: Showing tourist spots in East district 68 Map 35: Showing tourist spots district based 69 Map 36: Showing buddhist corcuit 69 Map 37: Showing ideal tourism travel plan 69 Map 38: Showing trekking routes 69 Map 39: Gangtok tourism circuits 72 Map 40: Gangtok ropeway circuits - existing and proposed 73

Chapter 4: Development Plam by SURBANA Map 1: Altitude profile 76 Map 2: Protected areas profile 76 Map 3: Potential Profile of Land Availability in Sikkim represented by yellowish-green shaded area 76 Map 4. Proposed 16 Urban Centers for State Strategic Plan â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Inclusive of 8 Established Towns and 8 Additional Towns 77 Map 5: Illustration of the extent of land required per town for expansion by 2040. 78 Map 6: Proposed linkages in 2040. 78 Map 7: Map showing potential developments 78 Map 8: Map showing proposed facilities in the urban towns 79 Map 9: Possible growth direction for Gangtok. 81

LIST OF Plates 01. Plate - Introduction 02. Plate - Climate 03. Plate - Elevation 04. Plate - Aspect 05. Plate - Slope 06. Plate - Geology 07. Plate - Soil 08. Plate - Surface hydrology 09. Plate - Springs 10. Plate - Land Use 11. Plate - Flora 12. Plate - Fauna 13. Plate - Erosion Susceptibility 14. Plate - Rechrage Potential 15. Plate - History & Evolution 16. Plate - History & Evolution 17. Plate - Demographics 18. Plate - Festival & People of Sikkim 19. Plate - Agriculture 20. Plate - Agriculture 21. Plate - Sikkim Tourism 22. Plate - Sikkim Tourism 23. Plate - Sikkim Tourism 24. Plate - Sikkim Tourism 25. Plate - Gangtok Tourism 26. Plate - Gangtok Tourism 27. Plate - Proposed Development Plan 28. Plate - Proposed Land use and Sub region 29. Plate - Conceptual diagram 30 - 37. Plate - Proposal 1 38 - 45. Plate - Proposal 2 46 - 60. Plate - Proposal 3 61 - 68. Plate - Proposal 4

(from 93 page onwards)

CONTENTS Aim, objectives and methodology

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Location 1.2 Connectivity 1.3 Context and Regional Setting 1.4 History and evolution 1.5 Demographics 1.6 Festivals of Sikkim

03 03 04 05 06 07

Chapter 2: Defining the study region

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region

3.1 Natural layers

3.1.1 Climate 3.1.2 Elevation map 3.1.3 Aspect Map 3.1.4 Slope map 3.1.5 Geology 3.1.6 Soil 3.1.7 Water Shed 3.1.8 Springs 3.1.9 Landuse 3.1.10 Flora 3.1.11 Fauna diversity 3.1.12 Erosion susceptibility 3.1.13 Water Recharge Potential

3.2 Agriculture 3.3 Tourism

21 27 28 29 31 32 33 36 37 38 43 51 52

53 61

3.3.1 Sikkim tourism 3.3.2 Gangtok tourism

61 70

Chapter 4: Development Plam by SURBANA

4.1 State Strategic Urban Plan 4.2 Gangtok Strategic Urban Plan

75 80

Chapter 5: Proposal

5.1 Proposal 1 5.2 Proposal 2 5.3 Proposal 3 5.4 Proposal 4

88 89 90 91

Appendix

Plates

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Aim: To study, understand and analyse the Gangtok region and look into issues pertatining to region and address it through appropriate solutions.

objectives: • • • • •

To study natural resources of the Gangtok region. To assess the landscape character of Gangtok region. To understand culture and lifestyle of people of sikkim. To identify critical areas of the region. To evaluate ecological values and strengthen the same for sustainable development of the region.

methodology: 1. Study of Gangtok region with respect to - history, climate, topography, hydrology, geology, soil, flora, fauna, land use. 2. Analysing and drawing inferences by overlaying layers. 3. Proposals and guidelines for issues identified.

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

chapter 1: Introduction

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

1.1 location The state of Sikkim lies in North-East of India bordering the state of West Bengal on its South and sharing priviledged international boundaries - Nepal on its West, Bhutan on its East and China on its Northern and Eastern fronts. The area of the state is 7096 km2 which constitutes 0.22% of countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s geographical area. Sikkim is a small beautiful state situated in the Eastern Himalayas spread below the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s third highest mountain Kanchenjunga (8585 metre). It is the twenty second state of the Indian union and is the smallest and the youngest state of India. It is bounded in north by the vast stretches of Tibetian Plateau in west by Nepal, in east by Bhutan and Chumbi valley of Tibet. Darjeeling district of West Bengal stretches along its southern boundary. As per Census 2011, the population of the state is 0.61 million, within which the rural population constitutes 75.03% and urban population constitutes 24.97%. The study area is located in the Eastern district of Sikkim state.

1.2 connectivity Gangtok, a hill-station in Sikkim state lies at 75 km distance from West Bengal border. Most of the tourists come to this region from Kolkata, West Bengal. This region is becoming a famous tourist destination, and attracts people from all-over India during Festive holidays. This area has significant ecological importance comprising of East Himalayan Sub-Tropical Wet hill forests in lower altitudes and East Himalayan Sub Alpine Birch forests in higher altitudes.

Map 1: Location of the state of Sikkim Source: www.commons.wikimedia.org

This area is well connected with major cities by road. National Highway 31 leads to Gangtok via Siliguri town in West Bengal. The nearest railway station to Gangtok is about 148 kilometres away in New Jalpaiguri in Siliguri. The station is well-connected to major cities like Kolkata and New Delhi. From New Jalpaiguri Gangtok is 5 hours by road. Bagdogra Airport, located about 16 kms, west of Siliguri town in northern West Bengal is the gateway airport to hill station towns of Darjeeling, Kalimpong and the state of Sikkim. The airport is a major stop in the region with flights connecting Kolkata, New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai and Guwahati. The airport also offers regular helicopter flights to Gangtok, the capital of Sikkim.

Map 2: The study region is well connected with major cities by road with National Highway 31 passing through the region and nearest Railway station being Siliguri in West Bengal state. Source: Global Mapper distance of study region from major towns:

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Siliguri: 114 kms

kolkata: 700 kms

darjeeling: 100 kms

kalimpong: 75 kms

Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

1.3 context and regional Setting 1.3.1 districts of Sikkim The state Sikkim is primarily the catchment of Teesta drainage system representing unique geological and geomorphological features. The main drainage system of Sikkim is the great Teesta River which originates from Chho Lhamu in North Sikkim (5,488 m) and divides the state into two geographical units following north to south. The river rises in the north district fed by snows from Khangchen zonga its other tributaries join it from Lhonak, Zemu, Talung, glacier from Khangchendzonga group in west. The chief tributary of Teesta â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the great Rangit river is fed from snow of Narsingh and Kabru peaks, south Khangchendzonga. Zones of Sikkim North Sikkim West Sikkim South Sikkim East Sikkim Subzones (major towns/villages) South Namchi East Ravong Gangtok Pakyong Rongu West Geyzing North Soreng Mangan

1.3.2 watersheds in teesta Basin

Map 3: District Map Sikkim, India, showing four district North, East, West and South. Source: Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt of India

Based on geomorphic features in association with geology, altitude and slope, Teesta Basin in Sikkim have been divided into 17 watersheds. east district Rangpo Chhu, Rani Khola, Dik Chhu north Sikkim Lachung Chhu Yumthang Chhu Chhombo Chhu Zemu Chhu Rangyong Chhu and Lachen Chhu west Sikkim Prek Chhu Rel Chhu Rathong Chhu Kalej Khola Ramam Khola Rangit River South Sikkim Manpur Khola

Map 4: Map Showing Watershed of Teesta Basin. Source: Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt of India

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Chapter 1: Introduction

1.4 History and evolution 1.4.1 Sikkim

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

formally annexed by India in 1975 and it became one of the states of India. In culture and religion, it was linked closely with Tibet, from which its first king migrated, and Bhutan, with which it shares borders. The presence of a large ethnic Nepali popu

1.4.1.1 Introduction Sikkim is a landlocked state in the north-eastern region of India. It is the second smallest state in terms of area after Goa and the least populous state of the country. The state shares international borders with China, Nepal and Bhutan, and state boundary with West Bengal. The geography of Sikkim is diverse owing to its location in Himalayan mountain regions. It is one of the prosperous states of India owing to its political stability and economic growth. The state has varied geographical features in form of high mountain peaks and steep river valleys. The state of Sikkim has rich cultural heritage which reflects in its traditions and customs. The culture of Sikkim is accentuated by many art and craft forms practiced by the people. The people of Sikkim also are divided into three main groups residing together in harmony. The people also celebrate many festivals of Sikkim throughout the year. In addition to that, there are different graceful dance forms which are performed during festivals and occasions. The cultural essence of Sikkim is also reflected in the different cuisine types which are prepared by the local people. The state has also become one of India’s preferred destinations for nature lovers. The land is replete with forests, mountains, lakes and Buddhists monasteries. 1.4.1.2 early history Sikkim was inhabited in pre-historic times by three tribes namely Naong, Chang and the Mon. The Lepcha who entered Sikkim sometimes later absorbed them completely. The origin of Lepchas is shrouded in mistery but it seems that they belonged to the clan of the Nagas of the Mikir, Garo and Khasia hills which lie to the south of the Bramaputra valley. The Lepchas were a very peace loving people, deeply religious and shy, which characteristics they still have retained. They were in fact the children of nature, and worshipped nature or spirits of nature. These Lepcha lived quite close to the nature by way of leading sustenance. Some of them practiced shifting cultivation and raised grains like maize and millets. They led a tribal life at the beck and call of their tribal leader. The Tibetan migrants (the Bhutias as they came to be known) who were followers of the sect of ‘Red Hats’ tried to convert these Sikkimese “Worshippers of nature” to Buddhism. They succeeded to some extent, though the Lepchas tried to keep themselves aloof as far as possible. In order to avoid any possible opposition from the Lepchas, these immigrants now chose one venerable person Phuntsok Namgyal as the temporal and spiritual leader of Sikkim, whose ancestry they traced from a legendary prince, who founded the Kingdom of Minvang in eastern Tibet in 9th century A.D. This dynasty ruled in the Chumbi and Teesta valley for a long time. The Kingdom of Sikkim was a hereditary monarchy from 1642 to 16 May 1975 in the Eastern Himalayas. It was ruled by a hereditary Chogyal (Kings). In the mid-18th century, Sikkim was invaded by Nepal (then the Gorkha Kingdom) and was under the Gorkha rule for more than 25 years. Meanwhile, the British Empire sought to establish trade routes with Tibet, leading Sikkim to fall under British suzerainty until independence in 1947. Between 1785 and 1815, almost 100,000 ethnic Nepali people from Eastern and Central Nepal migrated to Sikkim and settled down after pledging allegiance to the Chogyal. However, with the arrival of the British in neighbouring India, Sikkim allied itself with them as they had a common enemy – Nepal. The infuriated Nepalese attacked Sikkim with vengeance, overrunning most of the region including the Terai. This prompted the British East India Company to attack Nepal resulting in the Gurkha War in 1814. Under the 1861 Treaty of Tumlong it became a British protectorate, then an Indian protectorate in 1950. Sikkim was Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 1: 1849 Map of Sikkim and Eastern Nepal Source: www.pahar.in

Fig 2: Ancient Silk route passing through Sikkim Source: www.slideshare.net

Fig 3a: Old Nepali woman Fig 3b: Monks in a Sikkim monastery Source: 3a: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikkimese_people#/media/File:Old_ lady_from_Darap(Sikkim).jpg 3b: www.travel2cities.wordpress.com

Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Map 5: Progressive evolution of Sikkim kingdom over three centuries Source: Author Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Fig 4: A systems chart generated out of the social, political and cultural history of Sikkim in a timeline backdrop. It also shows particular events affecting the history and evolution. Source: Author

lation, mainly from the Eastern and Central Nepal, also leads to cultural linkages with Nepal. 1.4.1.3 Systems chart The above shown systems chart is generated out of the social, political and cultural history of Sikkim in a timeline backdrop. It also shows particular events affecting the history and evolution. It also shows the relationships internally of different factors such as the present dominance in Nepalese population can be explained by the event of British company encouraging migration from Nepal for cheap labor for their revenue generating cultivation in 1861. 1.4.1.4 Inferences • The Nepali ingress of population started around 1861 due to the British ecouragement of migration for cheap labor for revenue oriented cultivation. • This brought in population pressure on Darjeeling which might have aroused the need to shift the British base to Gangtok as the infrastructure was already developing. • Gangtok became a major stop over for British Tibet trade due to its strategic location. • Roads and other infrastructure started to develop in Gangtok due to the British expansion. • The tourist population increased after the reopening of Nathu La pass for visitors.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

1.4.2 gangtok 1.4.2.1 city History • Gangtok has found its mention as a part of the old silk route in the first century which carried silk from China to the western Part s of the world. • Gangtok was a small hermitage town in the early 18th century, alongwith old rumtek Monastery. • Thereafter Gangtok gained importance in 1840 with the construction of Enchey Monastery as a Buddhist pilgrimage town. • The state of Sikkim allied with the British in order to fight off invaders from Nepal. This involved the intervention of English officials in the region. It was in the 19th century that the British understood its military and trading prospective in the region. By the early 1900s, colonial India wanted to establish its bilateral relationship with Tibet. • During 1903 and 1904, Tibet was invaded by the British on the pretext of preventing the Russian Empire from capturing the region. The British officials had set up a military garrison in one of the districts of Tibet. Gangtok during this time became a regular halting point among merchants travelling between Tibet and Colonial India. During this period, Gangtok was a flourishing town. Apart from the growth in trade, the town’s infrastructure and communication sectors also grew. • By the end of the nineteenth century, the city saw constructions of roads and buildings and the installation of a telegraph centre. • Thutob Namgyal, who was the reigning ‘chogyal’ (emperor) during that period, shifted his capital in the year 1894, to Gangtok. This, in turn, raised the significance of Gangtok. The king of Sikkim then ordered the construction of a palace and other state buildings in Gangtok. • After India’s independence in 1947, the state of Sikkim including the territory of Gangtok was considered to be a ‘geo-political entity’ commonly known as a ‘nation state’. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru signed a treaty with the royal chogyal monarchs in the region stating that the place would remain suzerain to India if Sikkim was allowed to maintain its independency. The ‘Nathula’ and ‘Jelepla’ passes located near Gangtok were responsible for the growth of the silk trade in the region. The path leading to these two passes was called as the ’silk route’ and connected to several countries in Europe, North Africa and West Asia. In 1962, when the Sino-Indian war took place, the trading mountain passes where closed until 2006, due to the rising hostility present in the area. • By 1975, the monarchy of Sikkim was withdrawn and Sikkim became an Indian state with Gangtok as its capital. • In 1980s the road upgradation from Gangtok to New Jalpaiguri took place. This led to Gangtok being recognised as a tourist destination • In 1990-2015 development of multiple tourist locations took place alongwith pedestrianization of MG Marg in 2008.

Fig 5: 1919 Sketch of MG Road Source: www.sikhim.blogspot.com Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 6: A systems chart generated out of the social, political and cultural history of Gangtok in a timeline backdrop. It also shows particular events affecting the history and evolution. Source: Author

Fig 7: 1977 MG Road Source: www.sikkimarchives.gov.in

Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Map 6 . Evolution of Gangtok city over time. Source: Author

1.4.2.2 gangtok Present context • Gangtok is bounded by 2 rivers namely the Rorochu river and the Rani Khola rivers on the East and sides respectively. • It has expanded in a linear manner along the NH31A. With mixed landuse. • It constitutes of 15 wards and has a population of 94,145 as per structure plan proposed by Surbana report. • The city has grown on relatively gentle slopes in a linear manner along the roads and initial developments were noticed on the ridge followed by valleys with gentle slopes. • The population ingress needs to be addressed and the possiblity of de-nucleating the tourist center can be considered.

1.4.3 Sources Books: -West Bengal & Sikkim, Census Operations; Census of India 1961. Vol.16 : West-Bengal and Sikkim : Part.2-B(i) : general economic tables, Delhi,Gujarat etc Census Operations; 1964. -Bhadra, R. K. Ed.; Ethnicity, movement and social structure : contested cultural identity; Jaipur,New Delhi etc Rawat Pubs; 2007 Websites -http://dfp.nic.in/siliguri/Siliguri%20at%20Glance.pdf -https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim -https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Sikkim -http://sikkim.nic.in/sws/sikk_his.htm

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

1.5 demographics 1.5.1 Population data Sikkim According to the 2011 census, the total population of Sikkim state stands at 610,577 which is the accumulation of 43,709 belonging to North district, 136,435 belonging to the West district, 146,850 belonging to the South district and the highest proportion, 283,583 belonging to the East district. Out of this total population 74.85 per cent of the state population lives in the rural areas while 25.15 per cent of the state population lives in urban areas in 2011 census. In the case of the East district56.81 per cent population lives in rural area while 43.19 per cent in the urban areas at Gangtok, Singtam, Rangpo and Rhenock. Higher percentage of urban population in the East district reflects the reason that all the four urban centres fall in the jurisdiction of East District. There has been decadal growth of -4.99 per cent and 156.52 per cent, rural and urban population respectively during the decade 2001-2011 census. east Sikkim • East district is the third highest (954 sq. km.) in area but in term of population and literacy rate has reflected the highest population with (283,583) and (83.85) per cent in the district level during according to the 2011 census. • East district also recorded the highest proportion both in scheduled caste (15,305) and Scheduled Tribes (78,436) population in this census. Besides this, the highest economy with respect to population in the state is also in this district. • The Gangtok Municipal Corporation has population of 100,286 of which 52,459 are males while 47,827 are females, according to Census India 2011.

Fig 9: Demograpihic data Sikkim State Sources: Census of India 2001,2011

1.5.2 occupational data Sikkim • High percentage of population residing in rural areas • Literacy rate is fairly high in both rural and urban areas • The East District is highly populated in comparision with the other districts east Sikkim • High percentage of female population engaged in marginal activities • The non- working population also constitutes of higher female population • The Main working class majorly constitutes of male population both in Sikkim as well as the East district. • High percentage of female population not employed • Working popoulation engages in Government jobs, in urban areas, and cultivation in rural areas • A substantial population hence is dependent on agriculture and work as labourers in rural areas

Fig 8: Occupational data East District and Gangtok. Sources: Census of India 2011. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 10: Occupational data Sikkim State and Districts Sources: Census of India 2011.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

1.5.3 economy data Sikkim • Sikkim has recorded steepest fall in poverty level in the country on account of increase in per capita consumption. • The reason mainly being due to inclusive and equitable development of the entire state. • Sikkim remained marginalized from the development activities that characterized mainstream India. Prior to its merger with India, its very political economy did not, in fact, permit Sikkim to entertain development interventions of a democratic variety. • Only in the last 25 years, the philosophy of growth with equity and self-reliance in the planned development of the State has become important. • The income level that defines poverty line is Rs. 930 /month for Rural areas and Rs. 1230/month for Urban areas in Sikkim. east Sikkim and gangtok • The rural areas do not receive more economic benefit from their occupational activities as income mostl ranges below Rs. 5000/- per month. • Tourism has generated more amount of part-time services. • Income generation is uniform across the districts in rural areas • Gangtok, being the State Capital, raises the income slab, with a part proportion earning better.

1.5.4 migration data Sikkim • In-migration to Sikkim became more conspicuous after 1975, when Sikkim became a constituent State of India and large amounts of resources were allocated for developmental purposes. • According to the Census data on migration, which primarily covers migration by place of birth and last residence,between 1971 and 1981 Sikkim recorded a very high level of in-migration (35 per cent). east Sikkim • Migration increased drastically when Sikkim established itself as an independent state. • The migrants dominate the East district.belong to the Scheduled castes, are a major proportion is un-employed • The migrating population is largely young which is huge amount of potential working force. • The major migrating population hence constitutes marginal workers which is around 30% of the total population.

decadal growth in population in 20th century Fig 12: Economy data Sikkim State and Districts Sources: Census of India 2001,2011.

Fig 11: Migration data Sikkim State Sources: Census of India 2011.

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

1.5.5 religion data Sikkim • After the merger of Sikkim in India in 1975, as the state had a large percentage of Nepali migrants, belonging to the Hindu religion, population of the original habitants of Sikkim, i.e. the Lepcha and Bhutia tribes, were gradually observed to be reduced in the 20th century. • The higher migrant population of the Nepali community, makes, Nepali the most commonly spoken language in the city overcoming the local language of the Lepcha’s. • Therefore, Hinduism is also seen to be spreading widely along with Buddhism in the State • The Scheduled Tribe (ST) population (Lepcha and Bhutia including Chumbipa, Dopthapa, Dukpa, Kagatey, Sherpa, Tibetan) constitutes over 34% of the population, whereas Scheduled Caste (SC) population (Kami, Damai, Lobar, Sarki and Majhi) constitutes only 5%. • Hinduism has been the state’s major religion since the arrival of the Nepalis; an estimated 57.75 per cent of the total population are now adherents of the religion. There exist many Hindu temples. • Sikkim’s second-largest religion is Buddhism, which accounts for 28.1 per cent of the population. Sikkim has 75 Buddhist monasteries, the oldest dating back to the 1700s. Religion data: Population % of Gangtok

• Christians in Sikkim are mostly descendants of Fig 14: Religion data Sikkim State and Gangtok Lepcha people who were converted by British missionaries Sources: Census of India 2011. in the late 19th century, and constitute around 10 per cent of table 1: Villages under catchment area, with more than 50 % of St the population. population • As of 2014, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church of Sikkim is name Population St population % the largest Christian denomination in Sikkim. • Other religious minorities include Muslims of Bihari ethnicity and Jains, who each account for roughly one per cent of the population.

Lingdum

2589

Pam

Assam

1686

• The traditional religions of the native Sikkimese account for much of the remainder of the population. Villages in East sikkim mainly consist of tribal population

Nandok

3604

• Although tensions between the Lepchas and the Nepalese escalated during the merger of Sikkim with India in the 1970s, there has never been any major degree of communal religious violence, unlike in other Indian states. The traditional religion of the Lepcha people is Mun, an animist practice which coexists with Buddhism and Christianity.

18.49% 34.13%

Bhutia Limboo Lepcha

21.04%

Tamang

26.34%

Fig 13: Schedule tribes population classification in Sikkim state Sources: Census of India 2011. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Rongyek

3169

Shyagyong-Rumtek

1897

Samdong

2125

Rawate-Rumtek

1573

Temphyak Mendu

552

Lingzey (Assam)

2055

Aho

1240

Changey Senti (Tsaney)

951

Pakyong Forest Block

Sumen

1305

Lingzey (Sumen)

962

Chhota Singtam

1574

Rapdang

424

Tirkutam

327

Martam

3720

Phengyong

1256

Nazitam

810

Sangtong

822

Luing

2019

Tathangchen

936

Naitam

1265

total population Sources: Census of India 2011.

21863

Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Map 7: Sacred groves and ethnic tribes in Sikkim Sources: Sacred groves of Sikkim, www.sikkimforest.gov.in

1.5.6 Sacred groves

The ethnic communities are spread all over Sikkim, with the Lepcha community, residing all over the State. The communities preserve the forests around considering them as sacred groves which either have significance with respect to religious, historical event, water, or around a monastery. Sacred groves are considered to be forest where Evil gods rather known as protectors of the community reside. So preserving these forests hence becomes a mandatory phenomena for the villagers around to prevent any evil comings. Groves around monasteries mostly situated on hill tops are believed to be protecting the monasteries, hence are conserved. Groves with religious or historical significance are preserved in significance to the spiritual value associated and also considering te tourism importance of the places. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Groves associated with springs or round river confluence are preserved considering its sacred importance as protectors of the natural source of drinking water. Policies abiding conservation of sacred groves: Groves around springs are called as Devithanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s,. The water from the springs is used for drinking and irrigation purposes in most cases. Hence the groves are prohibited for grazing or littering of the place by human interventions. Non-wood resources generated from groves are utilized as revenue in some cases. Any case of development around or inside the groves is strictly prohibited even in case of projects of Public benefit such as hydro-power projects. Sources: Arora, Vibha, Anthropology of knowledge and being in sacred landscapes

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.6 festivals of Sikkim The people of Sikkim also celebrate many festivals throughout the year. In addition to that, there are different graceful dance forms which are performed during festivals and occasions. The cultural essence of Sikkim is also reflected in the different cuisine types which are prepared by the local people.

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

losar It is the Tibetan New year and is marked with a lot of gaiety and festivity across the State.Lho means year or age and Sar means new or fresh.The word Lhosar means New Year or beginning of new era. Tamang community celebrates their new year. This festival is celebrated in month of February.

Following are the important festivals of Sikkim : maghe Sankranti Maghey Sankrati is celebrated all over Sikkim as one of the major festivals of the Hindu community. However, it is not confined to only one religious group. People of different religions come together to take part in this festival. There are fairs in almost all parts of Sikkim. People gather to take a holy dip in the rivers of Teesta and Rangit. One of the biggest celebration of this festival is in Jorethang,South Sikkim, which lies on the banks of river Rangit. The main activities during this mela are sale and exhibition of local handicrafts and handlooms, floriculture and horticulture products, cultural programme and competitions in local dance and music. The festival carries on for almost a week.

Fig 18: Losar festival celebration

Fig 15: Dance celebration of Maghey sankranti Fig 19: Losar Festival celebration

dragmar chham Dragmar Chaam, the monk dance performance at Pemayangtse monastery.The main event of the year at Pemayangtse falls on the 28th-29th of last month of Tibetian Lunar Calendar. The Chaam is a danceform that represents the Mahakala. The festival ends up on the third day, with unfurling of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Gyokoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;-gigantic embroidered scroll of Buddha Sakyamani. This festival is celebrated in the month of March.

Fig 16: Holy dip at Rangeet river

Fig 20: Pemayangtse monastery

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Fig 21: Chham dance at monastry

Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Bhumchu (tashiding) festival

Hee Bermiok kalej Valley tourist festival

The water contained in the sacred Bhumpa or vase is measured into 21 cups of equal measure. The level of water is studied to divine the fortunes of Sikkim for the next year. Devotees from Nepal, Bhutan and the neighboring hills all come for blessings. This festival is celebrated in month of March

Hee Bermiok Tourism Development and Heritage Conservation Society have been successfully organizing Tourism Festivals in the month of May duly showcasing their art and craft, cultural heritage and traditional cuisine. Saga dawa Saga Dawa is a very important festival for the Buddhists. This day is considered to be the holiest of the holy Buddhist Festival. On this day Lord Buddha took birth, achieved Enlightenment and passed away attaining Nirvana. drukpa tshechi This festival celebrates Lord Buddha’s first preaching of the Four Noble Truths to his first five disciples at Saranath.This festival is celebrated in August. tendong lho rum faat

Fig 22: Bhumchu festival celebration

Tendong Lho Rum Faat is one of the oldest festivals of indigenous Lepchas. The festival is related with a legend of deluge. This festival is celebrated in month of August. Pang lhabsol Every year Pang Lhabsol is celebrated at Rabong, South Sikkim. Pang Lhabsol, a festival unique to Sikkim is celebrated to offer thanks to Mt Khanchendzonga, the Guardian Deity of Sikkim and to Yabdu, the Supreme Commander. This festival is celebrated in month of September. dasain ( durga Puja)

Fig 23: Tashiding Monastery

flower tourist festival

Durga Puja, this fortnight long Hindu festival usually falls in the month of October.

ravangala tourist festival Gangtok is the venue for the Flower Festival. The flower festival begins with the Orchid Show in March during which competi- Ravangla stages the Pang Lhabsol festival in a grand manner tions are held in different sections. This festival is organized every year around August-October. The festivities last for three especially for tourists in month of March. days, culminating in the traditional dances known as ‘Chaam’ on the last day. lampokhari tourist festival namchi mahostav The Lampokhari Tourism Festival is held during end of May, around the time of the Hindu Festival Ramnawami. The In October each year for the annual Namchi Mahotsav,a unique major attraction of the Festival is adventure sports. There is the festival showcasing the traditional culture of Sikkim. This leisurely boating in the Lampokhari Lake, horse riding around festival is espically celebrated for the tourists. the Lake, traditional archery competition. tihar (diwali) Sakewa Tihar is the “Festival of Light “and symbolizes the return of Lord Sakewa is celebrated with great fervor by all the Kirat Ram to his hometown from exile after victory over Ravana and Khambu Rai community. Also known as Bhumi/ Chandi Puja covers a period of five days. The festival honors certain animals or land worshipping ceremony it is celebrated all over the on successive days. This festival is celebrated is celebrated all State. This indicates sowing season of cucumber, pumpkin over the Sikkim in month of November. and other kharif crops. Various traditional dishes like Wachipa, Bongchipa, Arakha Hengmawa, Baksa and Okrukma are Pelling tourist festival served. This festival is celebrated in month of May. There are numerous tourist spots in and around Pelling .A weeklong festival includes cultural extravaganza, sale of local handicrafts, handlooms and local cuisine. This tourist festival is celebrated in month of December. Gangtok food and cultural festival December is the month for the annual Gangtok Food and Culture Festival organized by the Sikkim Tourism department. Sikkim’s multi-cultural cuisine, along with traditional music and dance performances are presented for the tourist. Food stalls Fig 24: Rai community performing bhumi pooja decorated in ethnic style are put up in the Titanic park at MG Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Marg and a cultural show is presented in the huge set erected 1.6.1.2 Bhutia tribe opposite the Tourism and Civil Aviation Department. The first day usually begins with a carnival that moves across town. Origin: The Bhutias are purely of Tibetan origin who migrated to Sikmangan music festival kim from Tibet somewhere after the fifteenth century. Bhutia population inhabits North Sikkim in the villages of Lachung and A three day music festival is held at Mangan in North Sikkim Lachen. The Lachungpas and the Lachenpas still retain their from the 12th to the 14th of December every year. Bands from age old village administrative system called the Dzumsa with an the region as well as from the Northeast states entertain the elected village chief called the Pipen. huge gathering and compete for the main prize. Mountains, music and the cold weather create an enthralling event. This is Houses and traditions a tourist festival. A traditional Bhutia house is called a “khim” and is usually rectangular. The Bhutias have a stone structure outside the house which is used for burning incense. It is used for burning teyongsi Sirijunga Sawan tongnam festival incense, a sacred offering to the deities. It is the birth anniversary of Teongsi Sirijungha Singthebe he was a great social awakener of Limbus who revived reading and writing of the Limbu language. The puja is performed for long life and prosperity.this festival is celebrated in month of December. lossong Lossong celebrated all over Sikkim marks the end of the harvest season at the end of the tenth month of the Tibetan Year. the festival is marked by religious masked dances in Fig 26b: Bhutia house Enchey Monastery. Lossong has now become an important Fig 26a: Bhutia people festival where visitors from all over the world can get to see the local sporting events like archery, climbing of greased pole. This 1.6.1.3 nepalis tribe is celebrated in month of December. Origin: The Nepalese who migrated from Nepal from the mid1.6.1 People of Sikkim nineteenth century form the dominant population. These early Nepalese settlers introduced terraced farming in the region and Every human society has its own particular cultures which also brought the cardamom along with them which became a mould people’s knowledge, belief and behavior. The history of prized cash crop. mankind reveals that there has been a process of cultural interchange, cultural flow and cultural stimulation between societies Houses and traditions: of adjacent countries. Such occurrence is manifested in the cul- The Sikkimese Nepali is the inheritor of the legacy of Hindu tural evolution of Sikkim. The ethnic structure of Sikkim mainly traditions. The Nepalese form the majority constituting about composed of lepchas , bhutias and nepalis who settled down 70-80% of the Sikkim’s total population. The Nepalese are a in the land at the different periods of history. The following are conglomeration of different ethnic groups, socially selfthe main ethnic tribes which are important part of this ethnic contained. composition of the state. 1.6.1.1 lepcha tribe Origin: The Lepchas are the natives of Sikkim with very little known about their origin. A theory has it that the Lepchas moved in from the borders of Assam and Burma while another speaks of them migrating from Southern Tibet.The tribe were nature worshippers and belonged to the Bon faith. It was later that they converted to Buddhism and much later to Christianity. House and traditions: The traditional Lepcha houses are constructed over pillars for earthquake resistance and the open space below the house is used for storing the livestock. Lepchas are like magicians in bamboo crafts and produce a wide variety of aesthetically beautiful baskets and such other things. Once an agricultural community, the modern day Lepchas have versified their interests into many other vocations.

Fig 27a: Nepalis people Fig 27b: Nepalis house

1.6.1.4 limbu tribe Origin: The Limbu are of Mongolian descent and speak a dialect of Kiranti called Limbu, which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language family.They live primarily in the area between the high Himalayan Mountains and the plains of northern India. Houses and traditions: Limbu family lives in a house made of mud or bamboo with a straw roof. At the front of the house, there is usually a verandah that faces a large courtyard. The courtyard is used as a place to carry out family chores and to spend leisure time. In The Limbu are almost exclusively farmers, growing rice, corn, and millet as staple crops.Limbu follow a combination of Buddhism and their traditional beliefs.

Fig 25a: Lepcha people

Fig 25b: Lepcha house

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

1.6.2 Inferences Peak tourism period: May, October, December Peak agriculture period: March to June Probable period of migration: After June

Fig 28a: Limbu people

Fig 28b: Limbu house

1.6.1.5 tamang tribe

Sikkim has varied culture. The people here harness their cultural resources. But due to urbanization and modernization the western culture is overpowering. Hence conscious efforts have to be taken to protect their culture which is very unique. Tradition and culture of a society should be subjected to change and modification but the care should be taken that in the process their culture is being protcted. In order to preserve these tribes and their culture government has declared protected zones in which no development is allowed. The zones are as follows:

Origin: The Shamya tribe who came to Nepal from Tibet on horseback during the region of Tibetan King Raton Chong Gyampo and 1. Lepcha: Dzongu area, Lachung established their permanent settlement there finally came to be 2. Bhutia: Lachen and Lachung area 3. Limboo: Yuksam area called Tamangs. Houses and traditions: Tamangs, in generally ,follow Buddhism. Tamanghouses are built in stone and wood with the main living area wasa raised above the storage area and accessible via wooden ladder. Some houses also have little porch like structure.They are in general very skilled at a number of crafts, which they have preserved for ages in their traditional ways. Widespread is the making of woolen jackets of sheepâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wool.

Fig 29a: Tamang people

Fig 29b: Tamang house

1.6.1.6 gurung tribe Origin: Gurungs consider themselves as the descendent of King Gochan of the Surya Dynasty.They are Buddhists and large minority of Hindus. Centuries of cultural influence from Tibet and its northern neighbours â&#x20AC;&#x201C; which adopted the Tibetan culture to a heavy extent resulted in many Gurungs gradually embracing Tibetan Buddhismâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;particularly among Gurungs. Houses and traditions: In ancient times, young Gurung and Gurungni would gather at a common place to carry out their business of wool, but with the passing of time, the very same place turned out to be a place for amusement and entertainment as well, and came to be called Rodhi Ghar.

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Chapter 2: Defining the study region

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Chapter 2: Defining the Study region

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Map 1: Study region map Source: Center for Inter-Disciplinary Studies of Mountain and Hill Environment, University of Delhi, Delhi. District Census Handbook-2011, Directorate of Census Operations, Sikkim. Gangtok Structure Plan report, 2009, Surbana and Google Earth

Rani Khola and Dik Chu, watersheds define the study region. These two watersheds feed the primary river, Rani Khola and its tributaries passing through Gangtok. Also, Gangtok, situated at 1650 m is the capital of Sikkim state and is home to 15% of the stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population. Gangtok is the base for tourists travelling to Sikkim. Hence influence of these natural resources and statistics, were taken into consideration while defining the regional boundary.

Introduction to Study Area

Area of Region: 336 sq.kms Town Area (Municipal Boundary): 17.8 sq.kms The region has Gangtok city as the Capital city of Sikkim state, along with 53 villages Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

chapter 3: Analysis of the region

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Chapter 3: Analysis of the region

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

3.1 natural layers

Namchi (1,500 m) in South Sikkim receives barely 1550 m of annual rainfall. • In the subtropical climatic zone, the humid period is very 3.1.1 climate long, extending for almost six months from April to September. Night time showers are common in the summer months, thus Sikkim has its own climatic peculiarities caused by its geographrendering cool nights even in hottest summer days. Winters are ical location, relief and altitudinal variation. As such, temperausually cool and dry. ture conditions vary from sub-tropical in the southern lower parts to that of cold deserts. It is the most humid place in the 2. Semi temperate Type- This type of climatic condition is whole of the Himalayan range because of its proximity to the experienced in areas lying between 1,500-2,000 m. Mean annuBay of Bengal and exposure to the effects of the moisture laden al temperature ranges from 80 C in winter to 260 C in summer. southwest monsoon. Rainfall is usually heavy, with annual mean of 2400 mm. • It is exceptionally heavy in June, July and August when the World map of Koppen Geiger Classification south-west monsoon breaks. • At Gangtok (1,800 m), the mean minimum temperature is 20 C while the mean maximum temperature is 260 C. The average annual rainfall is very high, about 3500mm and snowfall is very rare. 3. Temperate Type- The hill slopes lying between 20003000 m come under this type of climate. Here the annual temperature ranges from freezing point in winter to 150 C in summer. Precipitation is medium to heavy, which occurs both in the form of rain and snow. At Lachen (2,697 m) and Lachung (2,633 m) valleys of north Sikkim, the average annual rainfall is 1700 mm. Within this zone, the summer months are never hot and the winter months are always very cold. Winter snow is common. Frost is also common at nights almost round the year. Fig 1: Koppen Geiger Classification Map Sources : en.climate-data.org/

The Köppen-Geiger climate classification is Cwb. Subtropical highland oceanic climate.(Winters are dry and summers very rainy. In the tropics the rainy season is provoked by the tropical air masses and the dry winters by subtropical high pressure. Temperate temperatures are the consequence of altitude which become cooler year-round.) The summers are much rainier than the winters in Gangtok. The temperature here averages 16.5 °C. Precipitation here averages 2578 mm.

3.1.1.1 Classification of the climate of Sikkim

4. Alpine Snow-Forest Type- This climate is experienced between 3000-4000 m. Temperature remains very low for more than five months of the year. Rainfall begins from the end of May and continues till the end of September. In winter months, precipitation occurs in the form of snow. Tsangu (3,840 m) in the east Sikkim records 2900 mm of annual rainfall. The precipitation decreases at regular pace towards the north, for example Yumthang (3,673 m) records annual precipitation of about 1400 mm while Thangu (3,812 m) records only 800 mm. The major part of this area is uninhabited due to harsh climate. 5. Alpine Meadow- This climate is prevalent only around the peripheries of the snow-capped areas in the extreme northern, eastern and western sections of Sikkim. The average elevation is more than 4000m. • Here air temperature is always very low, night temperatures often dropping below the freezing point. Atmospheric pressure is also low and uncomfortable for living. Precipitation is mainly through snowfall, except in the summer months. • Summer is brief, barely of three months duration, when alpine shrubs and grasses appear in the region. The ground remains snow covered and the soil remains frozen about four months of the year. No permanent settlement is found in this region. 6. Arctic Type- This type of climate is prevalent only in the extreme northwestern part of the state where a number of snow peaks soar above 6,000 m. • The snow peaks of the Khangchendzonga, Kabru, Siniolchu and all snow clad peaks are located within this climatic zone. The entire zone is bare of vegetation and animal life.

Fig 2: Classification of the climate of Sikkim w.r.t. altitude Sources : en.climate-data.org/

monthly mean minimum and maximum daily temperature

The climate of Sikkim is divided in the following types according • The temperature varies with the altitude and slope aspect. The maximum temperature is usually recorded during July to the altitude. August and minimum during December-January. 1. Subtropical Humid Type - Such type of climatic condition • Fog is a common feature in the entire state from May to prevails in the areas lying below 1500m. At Namchi in South September. Sikkim, the summer maximum is 350 C while the winter mini- • Biting cold is experienced at high altitude places in the winter mum is 60 C. The average annual rainfall is high, but it varies months and snowfall is also not common during this period. from place to place (1500-3500 mm). While Tadong (1,500 m) • Climatic factors are entirely influenced by altitude. Although in East Sikkim receives more than 3000mm of annual rainfall, snow does not fall within city limits during winter, it does fall Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

within a kilometer of the city, on slightly elevated areas. During mum temperature would mean a reduction in the diurnal variparticularly cold winters, the lows sometimes drop below freezing. ation that is decreasing at many locations globally. Decreases in the Diurnal Temperature Range, where large-area trends to show that maximum temperature has remained constant or has increased only slightly, whereas minimum temperature has increased at a faster rate. The possible reason could be increase in cloudiness possibly with an increase in the aerosols quantity in the atmosphere.

Fig 3: Maximum and minimum Temperature of Gangtok Sources : pdf - CLIMATE CHANGE SYNTHETIC SCENARIO OVER GANGTOK by K. Seetharam

3.1.1.2 change in temperature Human activities like agriculture, production factories, burning of fossil fuels for transportation, deforestation, urban development are changing the micro climate that in turn is changing the climate. Keeping the base line period to 1951-1980, in the next 30 years period 1961-1990 the annual maximum temperature dropped by 0.6 deg C and on monthly scale the decrease is maximum in March (0.8 deg C) and minimum in monsoon months of June and August (0.1 deg C) when this decrease in maximum temperature has implications about relative humidity and cloudiness. The reasons for increase in cloudiness or humidity need to be ascertained considering the weather systems influence or due to presence of aerosols that scatter the solar radiation back to space. The fall in maximum temperature may also indicate the warming in 80s or prior. The fall in maximum temperature in comparison with the average maximum temperature noticed in the period 1957-2005 substantiate the view the climate change is evident and visible and the continuance of trend and the magnitude of fall in maximum temperature is more. However, the fall in maximum temperature is quiet steady with an annual maximum temperatures dropping by 0.2 deg C in all the months after the period 1961-1990 even if the base line climate is taken as the latest one. The projected figures indicate likely continuity of the same trend with some decades or 30 years period showing more rapid fall in maximum temperatures. The drop in maximum temperature indicates cooler day time. Similar inferences can be drawn in case of minimum temperature also. In the 30 years period 1961-1990 in comparison with the 30 years period 1951-1980, the minimum temperature showed a falling trend with a drop in annual minimum temperature of 0.5deg C along with maximum drop in minimum temperature in the month of April (0.7deg C) and with a minimum drop in minimum temperature in the month of June and August (0.3deg C).The 80s were quiet warmer and subsequently the warming has slowed down. In comparison with the minimum temperature the minimum temperatures rose between 0.1deg C â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 0.3deg C except in the month of April. Comparing the average figures of 1961-90 and 1951-1980 there is again an increasing trend in minimum temperatures and the rise in minimum temperature is faster ranging from 0.5deg C â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 0.8deg C. The projected figures based on 1957-2005 indicate further rise in minimum temperature that could be again a result of increase in humidity, increase in cloudiness or presence of greenhouse gases during night either locally generated or transported from elsewhere. The decrease in maximum temperature and increase in miniMasters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 4: Maximum and minimum Temperature Change of Gangtok Sources : pdf - CLIMATE CHANGE SYNTHETIC SCENARIO OVER GANGTOK by K. Seetharam

3.1.1.3 mean monthly rainfall and number of rainy days

The driest month is December. The greatest amount of precipitation occurs in July, with an average of 696 mm. There are two maximum rainfall areas: (i) South- East quadrant, including Gangtok (ii) South- West quadrant. In between these two regions, there is a low rainfall region . There is an area in north - west Sikkim which gets very little rainfall (even less than 4.9 mm/). This area is mainly snow-covered mountains. Rainfall is heavy and well distributed during the months of May to early October. July is the wettest month in most places. The highest annual rainfall for individual stations may exceed 5000 mm/ and average number of rainy days (days with rain of 2.5 mm/ of more) range from 100 at Thangu to 184 at Gangtok.

Fig 5: Mean monthly Rainfall and number of Rainy days Sources : pdf - CLIMATE CHANGE SYNTHETIC SCENARIO OVER GANGTOK by K. Seetharam

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

3.1.1.4 change in the amount of rainfall

Humidity is related to rainfall and windspeed. Though rain is high in the months from march to may but due to wind speed In case of rainfall, 1951-1980 and 1961-1990 indicate decrease being high reduces the humidity. And when rain is less the in rainfall amount in the months of January, March, May, June, moisture laden slow speed SE winds increase the humidity. July and August and increase in rainfall in other months with an overall decrease in annual rainfall amount. This is indicative table 1: chart showing change in Sunrise, Sunset, dawn and dusk of the higher amounts of rainfall in 50s or less rainfall in 90s time through the year and overall decrease later in winter months, monsoon months and post monsoon months. The average annual rainfall in the period 1957-2005 is higher by 73 mm in comparison with that of the average annual rainfall in 1961-1990 indicative of the fact that the higher annual rainfalls in 50s with an increased winter rainfall, monsoon rainfall and post monsoon rainfall. However, monthly rainfall showed both increase and decrease with substantial increase in rainfall in the month of June. Again, 19511980 and 1957-2005 suggest an increase in annual rainfall in the early decades of the 21st century. The projected data is also indicative of the fact that the annual rainfall amounts will continue to rise further with increased rainfall activity especially in the monsoon months of July, August and October. The increase in annual total rainfall would indicate increase in thunderstorms in the months of April and May and heavy showers or thunderstorms again in July and August.

Sources : www.gaisma.com

3.1.1.6 wind direction analysis

Fig 6: Amount of Rainfall Change of Gangtok Sources : pdf - CLIMATE CHANGE SYNTHETIC SCENARIO OVER GANGTOK by K. Seetharam

3.1.1.5 mean monthly relative Humidity (in %)

Fig 7: Mean monthly relative Humidity Sources : weather-and-climate.com Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 8a: Wind rose Diagram at 0300hr

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

3.1.1.7 comparing climatic data of gangtok, kabi and ranipool Air temperature (in deg. c)

Fig 9: Air temperature of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool Sources : AWS Data

The air temperature of gangtok varies widely. This is due to the fact of its location also the temperature varies with the altitude and slope aspect. Kabi being on the windward receives most of the cold air from the northern side whereas Ranipool receives moist winds from southern side and hence warmer. wind speed (in mps) Fig 8b: Wind rose Diagram at 1200hr Sources : Department of Tourism and Civil Aviation (www.rites.com)

Generally, light to moderate winds prevail throughout the year. Minimum and Maximum Wind speed during last 30 years has varied from 0 to 14m/s. Least wind speed is in the month of august and September. And highest wind speed during the month of feb, march and april.

Fig 10: Wind speed of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool Sources : AWS Data

Kabi receives turbulent winds from the Himalayas being on the windward side. Whereas, ranipool receives mild winds from the plains of Bengal. The wind speed increases from march to May and again in Oct. and November due to winds from Bay of Bengal.

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Humidity (in %)

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Average annual rainfall

Map 1: Map showing Average annual rainfall of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool Sources: Multiple hazard waste and vulnerability assessment of north, south, east and west Sikkim - Govt. of Sikkim

moisture content map

Fig 11: Humidity of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool Sources : AWS Data

Humidity is very evidently related to rainfall and wind speed. (Refer page no. )

rainfall (mm)

Map 2: Map showing Moisture content of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool Sources: Multiple hazard waste and vulnerability assessment of north, south, east and west Sikkim - Govt. of Sikkim

Humidity map

Fig 12: Rainfall of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool Sources : AWS Data Map 3: Map showing Humidity of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool Sources: Multiple hazard waste and vulnerability assessment of north, south, east and west Sikkim - Govt. of Sikkim SNOW DEPTH MAP SNOW DEPTH MAP

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Snow depth map

Map 4: Map showing Snow depth of Gangtok, Kabi and Ranipool Sources: Multiple hazard waste and vulnerability assessment of north, south, east and west Sikkim - Govt. of Sikkim SNOW DEPTH MAP SNOW DEPTH MAP

3.1.1.8 Inference The best time to travel to Gangtok and months that support agriculture are : - Hot season / summer is in April, May, June, July, August and September. - A lot of rain (rainy season) falls in the months: June, July, August and September. - Gangtok has dry periods in January, February, November and December. - The warmest month is May. - The coolest month is January. - July is the wettest month. - December is the driest month. - The most wind is seen in March. - The least wind is seen in September. - August is the most humid. - April is the least humid month. Also from the comparison with ranipool and kabi we see that gangtok has a more dynamic and varying climate as compared to the others. which tells us that gangtok can support a range of activities.

table 2: Air temperature, wind speed, Humidity and rainfall data of kabi and ranipool

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3.1.2 elevation map

Paragraph 10pts regular - Gangtok is the capital of the northern Indian state of Sikkim. Established as a Buddhist pilgrimage site in the 1840s, the city became capital of an independent monarchy after British rule ended, but joined India in 1975. Today, it remains a Tibetan Buddhist center and a base for hikers organizing permits and transport for treks through Sikkimâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Himalayan mountain ranges.

Map 5:Elevation map (Source: SRTM Topography Data amd ARC GIS) 1650-2100 300-750 750-1200 1200-1650 Elevation in meters

3000-3450

2100-2550

3450-3900

2550-3000

3900-4350

The lowest elevation in the watershed region is 300m above sea level and the highest is 4350m above sea level. The city of Gangtok lies at an elevation of 1650m above sea level. The lowest elevation is in the south-west region of the watershed and the highest elevation in the north-eastern most region of the watershed. The permanent snow line in Himalayas lies at an elevation of 5700m, which is not included in the watershed area of the study.

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3.1.3 Aspect map

Map 6: Aspect Map

Aspect - the direction towards which a slope faces. Exposure - the relation of a site to weather conditions, especially sun and wind. Both determine the amount of insolation received by a hill slope. In Nepal, southern slope is warmer than the northern slopes and consequently temperature differs. We can see different species on different aspect of a hill. Similarly, different aspects receive insolation differently. The eastern slope is exposed to the sun in the earlier part of the day and so dew is seen. In the morning, soil moisture has not melted resulting in seedlings being killed. Whereas, the western aspect has desiccating effect due to noonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sun Vegetation also depends on the aspect of the place, in northern hemispheres the north slopes are colder and more moist, whereas the southern slopes are brighter and receive more sun.

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3.1.4 Slope map

Map 7: Slope map (Source: Author)

High altitude, folded structure, local disturbances alongwith the sculpturing effects of glacio-fluvial and fluvial processes are the determinant factors in the development of higher degrees of slope in Rani Khola watershed. The slope class(slope in degree) ranges from strongly sloping (10-15 degree) to very steep (36-40 degree). Steep slope (26-30 degree) is dominant which coveres 109.7 ha (43.2%) area in Rani Khola Watershed. table 3: comparative analysis between each slope % category range

3.1.4.1 Inferences • 75% of the area has slopes ranging from steep slopes to escarpments. • It is very difficult to establish vegetation on such steep slopes; conservation of existing vegetation on these slopes is critical to control soil erosion. • Recharge is extremely difficult due to high runoff as area under 25% slope is considerably less in the valley regions. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 14: Relative area of each slope % category range

• North-eastern sides of the region consist of slope ranging from 5% to 150% which is from moderate to very steep, whereas the south western region consists of slopes from 5% to 80% majorly. • Flat areas are in the valley regions and main ridges on the top. More than 50% of the area is prone to erosion. And only about 10-15% of the area is suitable for agriculture. Slope above 25% would require soil conservation measures to prevent soil erosion by water. Slope of the hill tops are also vulnerable to soil erosion as the soil cover is thin and depletion of vegetation cover is happening to them. Strategies to reduce runoff velocity are must for soil conservation. Areas with steep inaccessible slopes have low inhabitant values. Establishing vegetation on such slopes can improve the recharge. The LANDSLIDE SUSEPTIBILITY: about 90% area on northern side to Gangtok has slope percentage majorly ranging from 3550% which is extremely prone to landslides. AGRICULTURE: probability of agriculture happening in the valley region - east, south and west to Gangtok city is present bit there is very minimal area that has slope less than 25% suitable for the same. CONSTRUCTION, SETTLEMENT, ROAD NETWORK: can be extended in the north-eastern side to Gangtok as suitable slopes of 80-125% are present on ridge lines which can be suitable for settlemen in that direction. RECHARGE POTENTIAL: is possible in valley regions and especially in south western side to Gangtok. EROSION SUSEPTIBILITY: major slopes responsible for erosion range from 25-50% slope which are in the north-eastern side to Gangtok in about 80% of the region. 29

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

3.1.5 geology 3.1.5.1 Introduction Sikkim region geology is an archean geology which the youngerst in age.The Sikkim-Daijeeling geological complex has a more or less persistent lateral extent, with Himalaya occasional pinching and local truncation, due to Sedimentary facies change and tectonic overlaps respectively. Three well-defined tectonic belts are identified in the Sikkim-Daijeelingarea. From south to north, these are: 1. The Foothill belt - comprising Siwaliks, Gondwanas and impersistent Buxas. This belt is characterized by frequent repetitions of the stratigraphic units by dosespaced thrusts, thus representing a belt of Schuppen. The main Tectonic datumin in this belt is the Main Boundary Fault between the Siwaliks and the Gondwanas. This dislocation zone often, as well, defines the contact of the Siwaliks and the Buxas, or the Dalings; 2. The Inner Belt - Comprises the Metamorphites of the Daling-Darjeeling sequent Besides, it also contains isolated ‘Tectonic window’ in areas of deep erosion along zones of structural culminations. moreover, there are number of thrust controlled and highly tectonised granitoid gneissic bodies, which occupy differetn tectonic and stratigraphic levels in the low to medium grade metamorphics of dalings. the present area, falling in part of the inner tectonic belts, also contains isolated occurrences of this type of gneisses. Map 8: India Earthquake Zone Map 3. The Axial belt-is defined by the highest grade of Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_zones_of_India metamorphites and gneisses represented by the Chungthang formation and Kanchendzonga gneiss and tourmaline bearing gneiss occuring in the highest topographic levels of this region. 3.1.5.5 for landslide The bet is seperated from the inner belt by the main central thrust, which is an important identifiable zone of seperation all The slope of the region is one the major reason for landslides. The steepness of the slope is the indicator for the landslide along the Himalayas. prone areas. Rock material which is weathered and is loose standing at the steep slope is vulnerable to landslides. The region of the study comprises majorly of metamorphic The fault line areas are the dangerous areas for the rocks. Both gneiss and schist roacks have the propoerties of landslides. The igneous rocks are not easily weathered or erodgranite in strength and hardness. the study region consist of ed. The deeply weathered or partially weathered rocks with many minerals with basic structure framework of gneiss and over the 15° or 10° slopes, they will be vulnerable to landslides schist. All the gneiss are of granitic nature and schist are mostly especially on the event of earthquakes. of amphibole (hornblend and granitic basalts) which tells about 3.1.5.6 dip and strike the igneous nature of rocks

Structures not be built in the direction on the dip as it has the susceptibility for rock slipping in that same direction on the events of earthquake and landslide.Slopes of the area has to The geology is good for structures, but avoid steep sided slopes. be taken in consideration for the direction of dip.

3.1.5.2 for Structures

3.1.5.3 for water recharge Due to the nataure od rocks, the primary percoaltion of water is not possible but only only secondary percolation(intra granular) is observed which happens only through fractures and joints which are limited because they die down as the depth increases. For water levels to be checked – observation wells are made at such locations (faults /fractures- where water percolation is possible)where water is being measured twice a year, once at the onset of monsoon(June month for the lowest level) and other in October month for max. Levels.

Fig 15: To illustrate the meaning of the terms Dip and Strike Source: Principles of Physical Geology by Arthur Holmes

3.1.5.4 for earthquake As the Sikkim state falls into the zone 4 as of India earthquake zone map and has neighboring states with zone 5 which are the highest damage risk zone. Due to orogenic movements of the eurasian plate which result in the rising of the Himalayas and thus making them the active zones of earthquake.

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Map 9: Geology Map of Study Region

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3.1.6 Soil

Map 10: Soil Source: CISMHE Centre for Inter-disciplinary Studies of Mountain & Hill Environment University of Delhi, Delhi

3.1.6.1 Soil

3.1.6.3 Soil suitability for rice

Rani Khola soils are found to be moderately to marginally suitSoils of Rani Khola watershed have been mapped in to 31 soil able in 5,132 ha areas and marginally to moderately suitable in mapping units at the level of soil series associations. They oc- 1,973 ha. It is found to be mostly unsuitable or in association curres predominantly on slide slope of mountains. of unsuitable and marginally suitable in rocky cliff, escarpment, landslide zone, mid. mountain to high mountain with higher 3.1.6.2 Soil depth: slope. Eight soil depth classes have been identified and mapped in 3.1.6.4 Soil suitability for maize Rani Khola watershed as the association of soil depth classes, ranging from very shallow to deep Rani Khola soils are moderately suitable in 15,859 ha areas and moderately to marginally suitable in 2,355 ha, marginally to • Deep- moderately deep class covers area of 11,990 ha moderately suitable in 2,193 ha and only marginally suitable in (47.3%) 1,785 ha. It is almost unsuitable in few areas due to very severe • Moderately deep-deep covered an area of 4,080ha (13%) to severe limitations of topography and soil. • Moderately shallow -deep 3,302ha (13%) • Deep-Moderately shallow 3,074ha (12.1%)

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3.1.7 water Shed 3.1.7.1 Introduction Sikkim displays a number of contrasts with respect to water resources with waterfalls, springs, rivers and lakes that attract tourists and revenue on one hand and recurring landslides, blocked roadways, water contamination and water scarcity, on the other. However, due to rapid growth in population and industry, water scarcity is increasing day by day adding stress on these resources, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Rainfall remains the principal mode of recharge of surface water. Due to mountainous slopes, most of the precipitation causes surface run-off resulting in streams, springs and kholas. They are further tapped through pipelines and distributed by the gravity method for domestic use. Teesta river originates as Chhombo Chhu from a glacial lake Khangchung Chho at an elevation of 5,280 m in the northeastern corner of the state. The glacial lake lies at the snout of the Teesta Khangse glacier descending from Pauhunri peak (7,056 m) in north western direction. Teesta Khangse glacier and Chho Lhamo are also considered as the source of Teesta river by many authors. Along its traverse from its origin to the plains, the river receives drainage from a number of tributaries on either side of its course. The tributaries on the eastern flank are shorter in course but larger in number whereas the tributaries on the western flank are much longer with larger drainage areas, consequently contributing much more amount of discharge to the main Teesta river. The major tributaries of Teesta river are listed below. For better understanding of Teesta river system, it has been divided into a number of river sub-systems which are described in the Wsucceeding paragraphs. These sub-systems are: i) Chhombo Chhu/ Teesta river upstream of Zemu Chhu-Teesta confluence, ii) Zemu Chhu, iii) Teesta river between Lachen and Chungthang, iv) Lachung Chhu, v) Chungthang-Mangan and Chakung Chhu sub-system, vi) Rangyong (Talung) Chhu, vii) Dik Chhu, viii) Teesta river between Mangan and Singtam, ix) Rani Khola,x) Teesta river between Teesta-Rani Khola confluence and Teesta-Rangpo Chhu confluence, xi) Rangpo Chhu, xii) Rangit River, and xiii) Jaldhaka River. After perambulating a distance of about 40 km from Melli in hilly terrain, the river enters into the plain of West Bengal at Sevoke near Siliguri. Further ahead, it fans out and attains the width of 4 to 5 km at places. In the Sub-Himalayan plains, it is again joined by a number of tributaries viz. Leesh, Geesh, Chel, Neora from the north-eastern end and the Karala from the north-western end. After traversing a length of about 414 km in India and Bangladesh, it meets the river Brahmaputra (Jamuna) in Bangladesh at an elevation of 23 m. In the mountain gorges, the width of the river Teesta is not much. At Chungthang, the width of the river is 30 m and at Singtam 40 m during autumn. The average depths of water are 1.8 m and 4.5 m, respectively. From Chungthang to Singtam, the bed slope varies from approximately 35 m/ km to 17 m/ km. From Rongpo to Teesta Bazar, the average slope is approximately 3.8 m/ km. The velocity of flow in the hilly region is a high as 6 m per second while in the terai, the velocity is 2.4 to 3 m per second. The banks are alternately steep and sloping according to the position of main current.

Map 11: Sikkim Water Shed

Fig 16: Jaldhaka

Fig 17: Rangpo Chhu

Fig 18: Teestha River

Fig 19: Zemu Chhu

3.1.7.2 water Supply to gangtok The water resources from where Gangtok gets its supply of water is abundant and of very good quality. The main source of PHED water supply is the Rateychu River, located about 16 kms from the city (water works complex at Selep) at an altitude of 2621 meters. The discharge of the source stream is about Map 12: Showing East District and selected water shed region 20 cubic meters per second (cusecs) (48.5 mld) during the dry pipe of 350 mm, one 200mm GI pipe and three 150mm GI pipes. season and 40 cusecs (97 mld) during the monsoon. Raw water The river Rateychu is snow fed and has perennial streams with is supplied through five pipelines, comprising of a cast iron (CI). alpine characteristics. Since there is no habitation in the catchMasters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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Map 13: Water Shed of the Region

taries of Rani Khola are Taksom Chhu and Re Chhu, which respectively joins it on the left and right banks.While several small streams join Rani Khola all along its course on either side. Rora Chhu originates from the western slope of a peak (3,924 m) in East Sikkim. Rora Chhu is joined by Yali Chhu at 1,400 m, and Rishi Khola at 1,240 m on its left bank. Further downstream, Lah Chhu near Pam on the left bank and Tarang Rang Chhu (Kali Khola) join it on the right bank. Downstream of the confluence of Tarang Rang Chhu, Rora Chhu flows as Rani Khola. After flowing for about 1 km Rani Khola join it on the right bank. After the confluence of Rani Khola on the left bank at 390 m, Rongni Chhu confluences with Teesta river on its left bank at 350 m near Singtam. Gangtok, the capital town of Sikkim, is developed on the wedge between the Rani Khola and Taksom Chhu channels. The drainage network indicates that the stretch of Rani Khola 3.1.7.3 rani khola water Shed downstream of Ranipul (where Taksom Chhu and Re Chhu Rani Khola is 36 km long and in its initial stretch it flows as confluence) will have high water availability. Rora Chhu. This is a canoe-shaped basin covering an area of This is one of the most disturbed watershed in Teesta basin, 25,331.1 ha and is aligned in NE-SW direction with elongation with Gangtok, the capital of Sikkim situated in this. Therefore, ratio of 0.62. It is bounded by the Dik Chhu watershed in the more than 19.3% area of the watershed is under habitation or north, Rangpo Chhu watershed in its south and southeast and cultivation landuse . The forests are either found in the upper Teesta (lower part) watershed in the west. catchment or in the vicinity of Rumtek monastery in Fabong Lho The main river draining this watershed is Rani Khola also known sanctuary and constitute about 49% of total watershed area. as Rongni Chhu which flows from NE to SW covering elevation Further, scrub landuse also constitute 23.9% of watershed. range of 3,772 m (from 4,122 m to 350 m). Two major tribuKhola receives water from Aho Khola and Andheri Khola on its left bank. Chhuba Khola, Pagh Khola, Martam Khola and Sang ment area except for a small army settlement, there is very little environmental degradation and the source is of very good quality. 40 seasonal local springs sources are used by the RM&DD for water supply. As stated above three treatment plants of 4.5 mld, 9.14 mld and 22.68 mld capacities have been installed under three project phases since 1973. All the three plants are located within the same area at Selep. A fourth small treatment plant of 1 mld capacity was also installed some time back, to serve a locality at an elevation higher than Selep. Though the 22.68 mid plant has not become fully operational, water is allowed to flow through it, and the clarifier is operating without chemical dosing. The old treatment plants are in reasonably good condition. Their structures appear sound, and their mechanical equipment, although in need of some rehabilitation, appear usable.

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The cross profiles are taken across the river north-west to southeast direction. In each of the profiles, the river valleys, including the right bank, left bank, wet channel as well as the dry channel are demarcated. These cross profiles, are tremendously useful in studying thevalley characteristics and form. From these profiles, it is quite clear that Ranikhola do not experience bank full discharge throughout the year and the wet channel flow is confined in a particular area. Valleys are comparatively wide in order to accumulate large volume of water during high discharge periods. From the cross profiles of the upper stretch of Ranikhola river one can notice a change in the river pattern, configuration of river changes. A change in bank slope and bank height is observable. During bank full discharge, the cross sectional area and mean flow depth of the river increases in turn increasing the wetted perimeter of the channel.

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Fig 20: Sections across the Rani khola

3.1.7.4 calculations: Total area of watershed - 332.72 sq km Yearly discharge (Q) Q = 9.10 m3/s Q = 289.54 billion m3/year Flash floods occur during the months of April- September. Average depth of rivers in the watershed area is 1.8-4.5m. The average slope is 17m/km - 35m/km. Design discharge: Peak flood discharge - 900 m3/s Average discharge - 48.93 m3/s 3.1.7.5 Inference: •From the flash flood hazard risk and vulnerability map, 4.08% of the area fell in very high risk zone with 5.43% of the total settlement to be affected. 95.92% of the area fell in very low risk zone with 94.57% of the total settlement to be affected. •The urbanisation has affected the watershed. The removal of vegetation has made the soil loser which leads to landslides. Landslides have increased by 30%. •Taping water for the upstream settlements will not be feasible as it will be against gravity. Hence the “jhorras” are tapped. •There is a pressing need to increase the capacity of many water main lines to facilitate transport of water to various water deficient areas.

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timeline

Map 14: Springs location and their contact area

3.1.8 Springs Springs are points in which groundwater comes into contact with the surface. Springs are common in the lesser Himalayan region due to the steep terrain. Springs can be perennial or seasonal. There are several different types of springs that occur in different geologic situations. Depression springs occur when there is a dip in topography (like in the mountains) that allows the groundwater to come into contact with the surface. Contact springs occur in between rocks of high permeability are in contact with rocks of low permeability. The water percolates down through the highly permeable rock and is stopped by the rock of low permeability. The water travels along on top of the impermeable layer until it reaches a change in the topography and comes in contact with the surface. Contact springs usually occur all in one line across this hillside because of this. Fault springs occur at faults, which can put impermeable rock in contact with an underground aquifer. Fracture springs occur when fractures or joints in the rock come into contact with shallow or deep aquifers. The land above a fracture spring is usually in the shape of a ‘V’ with the spring at the tip of the ‘V’. Traditional knowledge and beliefs are an essential part of the health of springs. Since the people of Sikkim are partially dependent on the water from springs for drinking and irrigation, there are many traditional beliefs in place to protect the springs. Springs are considered a community resource and not the property of the landowner. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 21: Types of springs in the region

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Map15

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3.1.10 flora 3.1.10.1 forests of Sikkim Forest is one of the richest natural resources of Sikkim. The total land area managed by and under administrative control of Forest Department is above 80% of the total geographical area of the state. Sikkim has a unique Bio-Diversity. The composition ranges from tropical Dry Deciduous Forests with Sal and its associates in the valleys of Teesta and Rangit to the Alpine Scrub and Grasslands in high altitudes.

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

The effect of altitude and rain fall has already been noticed in vegetational changes. It is generally noted that for every 270 m increase in altitude a fall of 1°C temperature up to 1500 m, above which the temperature fall is more rapid. The temperature fall is also pronounced in the lee side (sheltered from the wind) of the hill than on the windward side. The rain fall and duration have highest influence on the growth and development of various plants. The slope gradient and its location with reference to direction of monsoon have a significant effect on the type of flora. Generally South-East aspect facing monsoon winds has a much higher and better distribution of species than the opposite North-East aspect which is considered to be rain shadow. Regarding the temperature, Southern aspects receive more solar radiations than Northern in proportion to their latitude and gradient. Soil moisture mostly depending up on the soil thickness and has more explicit impact on vegetation. The shallow soil on steep slopes easily dries up and hence can harbour only dried type of vegetation like Dry deciduous to thorny-scrub type of forests. b. Soil

Fig 26. The varied types of forests in Sikkim-Mixed Conifers and Sal forest Source: www.flickr.com

3.1.10.2 what is a forest type? Forest type is defined as a unit of vegetation which possess board characteristics in physiognomy and structure sufficiently pronounced to permit of its differentiation from other such units (Champion and Seth 1968). The major groups are further divided into sub-types on geographic basis because these forest types vary with locality owing to difference in floristic composition, minor variations in climate and environment. The State Forest Departments have also been following the classification of Champion and Seth (1968) for determining the forest types as it is more authentic based on climate, edaphic and past treatment of the forests. Judicious forest management of any area requires identification of different vegetation types because the impact of deforestation has got a strong bearing on the status of the forest. The appropriate prescriptions for improving the forest stock basically depends on the existing forest type. Vegetation and flora The vegetation with its quantitative structural characters is closely related to climate conditions, whereas the flora which enumerates the different types of plant species within a limited boundaries of an area forms a matter of quality and is closely dependent on the physiological aspects of individual species concerned.

Soil substructure being the nutrient medium supplying essential nutrients and water, studies on the soil chemistry and monitoring its changes on time sequential mode are indispensable in vegetation investigations.Most of the important forest species grow in black, red and lateritic soils. Black soils developed from ballistic rocks, crack widely and deeply in dry seasons and they are neutral to alkaline, poor in Nitrogen and Phosphorus, good in lime and potash. The dark colour is due to mineral constituents and humus. The major constituent of forest species favoring this type soil is Teak plants (Tectona grandis). Red soils associated with granites, gneisses and ferralitic in nature; they are typically coarse, often with ferric concentrations, neutral to acidic with poor organic/mineral nutrients. They tend to carry most of the evergreen and deciduous forest with Sal (Shore robusta) as a dominant species. Lateritic soil are characteristic of the tropics with monsoon rainfall and tend to cap the hill in most part of peninsula. The soils are developed from basic rocks and they are acidic with poor mineral and low silica/oxide ratio. Xylia xylocarpa is the characteristic species growing in such soils, often found Sal but not Teak. Tectona grandis (Teak) is ecologically characteristic and economically important species of Southern India forest and Shorea robusta (Sal) is predominantly in northern India while Terminalia species forms the most noticeable association in both.

3.1.10.3 factors determining the vegetation types The type of vegetation within a given locality depends on (i) climate (ii) Soil and (iii) Past treatment; so that study of these factors are important for better understanding the vegetation of the area under study. a. climate Temperature is the most obvious factor of climate. It can broadly be related to the latitude giving a rough differentiation into the following eight vegetational zones on either side of the equator with broad climatic characteristics as follows: 1. Equatorial zone: being 15° on either side of the equator 2. Tropical zone: extending from15°-23° 5’ 3. Sub tropical zone: from 23° 5’ - 34° 4. Warm temperature zone : from 34°-45° 5. Cold temperature zones: 45°-58° 6. Sub-arctic zone : from 58°-66° 5’ 7. Arctic zones: 66° 5’ - 72° 8. Polar zones: from 70° to the poles Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Map 16: Soil Map- Types and texture

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

c. Aspect

e. Slope

Aspect-the direction towards which a slope faces. Exposure-the relation of a site to weather conditions, especially sun and wind. Both determine the amount of insolation received by a hill slope. In Gangtok, southern slope is warmer than the northern slopes and consequently temperature differs.We can see different species on different aspect of a hill.Similarly, different aspects receive insolation differently. The eastern slope is exposed to the sun in the earlier part of the day and so dew is seen. In the morning, soil moisture has not melted resulting in seedlings being killed. Whereas, the western aspect has desiccating effect due to noonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sun.In northern hemispheres the north slopes are colder and more moist, whereas the southern slopes are brighter and receive more sun.

Slope affects run-off and drainage having a profound influence on the moisture regime of the soil. As a general rule, the steeper the slope, the greater the run-off and better the drainage. Slope modifies the intensity of insolation, temperature and moisture of the surface soil Slope also affects erosion and depth of soil as greater the slope, greater the erosion. The depth of soil in the hills varies with the increasing slope.Thus, slope affects vegetation of the site through afffecting the run-off, insolation, temperature, moisture and depth of soil.

Map 17: Aspect

Map 19: Slope

d. Altitude or elevation It affects vegetation through solar Radiation, temperature and rainfall.The intensity of radiation goes beyond optimum limit has a dwarfing effect on shoot, the growth of root being favored. Temperature as it is higher and lower the optimum level, affects the species composition and the site quality. Similarly, rainfall affected by altitude affects the temperature and moisture resulting in the change in the nature of vegetation. It has been estimated that about half the water vapor in the air lies below 2000m while three quarters lies below 4000m and so, high mountain range is a very effective barrier for the monsoons.

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Map 20: Types of Forests

3.1.10.4 types of forests a.Sal dry forest/Sal wet forest-100m-1100m 1. Sal forests have always been used also for grazing and collection of fodder, fuel wood, litter and many other products. 2. Canopy height is around 30-35m 3. Not a prominent second storey , minimal undergrowth. 4. In wetter areas, it is evergreen; in drier areas, it is dry-season deciduous, shedding most of the leaves in between February to April, leafing out again in April and May Flora species : Gauga pinnata Schima wallichi Albizia lebbek Terminalia crenulata Terminalia chebula

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Fig 27: Sal Forest Source: www.flickr.com

b.chir forest 1. Chir pine is widely planted for timber in its native area, being one of the most important trees in forestry 2. Canopy height is around 30-35m. 3. Usually, the accumulating carpet of needles on the forest floor under these trees makes it unsuitable (unfavourable condition) for many common plants and trees to grow. 4. Mostly evergreen 40

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Fig 31: Quercus Forests Source: www.flickr.com

Fig 28: Chir Forests Source: www.flickr.com

c. dry mixed forest-1100m-1700m 1. Chir pine is widely planted for timber in its native area, being one of the most important trees in forestry 2. Canopy height is around 30-35m. 3. Usually, the accumulating carpet of needles on the forest floor under these trees makes it unsuitable (unfavourable condition) for many common plants and trees to grow. 4. Mostly evergreen Flora species Castanopis tribuloides Dendrocalamus sikkimense Schima wallichi Betula cylindrostachya Terminallia belesica Toona ciliate Litsea Boehemeria rugulosa Ficus garica Heynea trijuga Grewia Michelia champa Cedrela Sp Under Storey: Eurya Macaranga Meliosma

e. eastern mixed conifer 1. Present in the colder region which might as well receive snowfall. Bark used as fuel in household. 2. Canopy height is 35-37m 3. Thick cover of under storey. 4. Climbers are also the part of dense under cover. f. Secondary temperate Scrub- 2500m-3000m The typical temperate forests consist of species of Pinus and Abies mixed with Picea, Tsuga and Juniperus covering extensive areas intermixed with species of OakRhododendron, Betula and Michilus sp. Pinus roxburghii is mostly confined to Rangit valley in East District. (Abies, Larix, Tsuga are dominant in North district. Flora species: Quercus Prunus symplocos Viburnum plicatum Maesa Under Storey Celastrus scandens Stephania cephalantha

Fig 32: Prunus symplocos Source: www.flickr.com Fig 29: Castanopis tribuloides Source: www.flickr.com

Fig 30: Schima Wallichi Source: www.flickr.com

d. Eastern Oak Forest-1700m -2800m 1. Oak wood has a density of about 0.75 g/cm3 (0.43 oz/cu in) creating great strength and hardness. The wood is very resistant to insect and fungal attack because of its high tannin content. It also has very appealing grain markings, particularly when quartersawn. 2. Canopy height is around 35m. 3. Has a under storey 4. It is evergreen forest. Flora species Quercus Castanopsis tribuloides Under Storey Symplocos theilfolia Rubia tinctorum Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 33: Viburnum plicatum Source: www.flickr.com

g. rhododendron Scrub- 3000-4000m 1. It is a genus of 1,024 species of woody plants in the heath family (Ericaceae), either evergreen or deciduous, and found mainly in Asia 2. Canopy height: the smallest species growing to 10â&#x20AC;&#x201C;100 cm, and the largest is 30 m. 3. No undercover. 4. The majority bloom from March through May with a smaller number of species flowering in June and July.

Fig 34: Rhododendron Scrub Source: www.flickr.com

Chapter

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

3.1.10.5 methodology The maps are based on the following drawings: • Landuse maps • Aspect map • Slope/ Elevation map • Factors responsible for degradation of forest are: • Biotic Factors like grazing, forest fires • Anthropogenic factors like clearing the forest to do agriculture and have settlements.

3.1.10.6 Analysis The working plan maps are generally prepared to represent the forest types and three density classes as dense/closed with more than 40 per cent, open forests with canopy cover density between 10 and 40 per cent and canopy cover less than 10 per cent under the category of degraded forests. However in the present investigation emphasis has been given to delineate open forests into two more categories as open forest with canopy cover between 20 and 40 per cent and degraded forest with canopy cover between 10 and 20 per cent. In addition to this tree canopy cover with less than 10 per cent has been represented as scrub forests. The prime objective to delineate forest into pure Sal forest, subtropical broad-leaved hill forests, temperate (conifers), oak/rhododendron and alpine forest types has been accomplished. Four density classes as closed (more than 40 per cent canopy cover), open (canopy cover between 20 and 40 per cent) degraded forests (canopy cover between 10 and 20 per cent) and scrubs with less than 10 per cent tree canopy cover in Sal forests, Subtropical broad-leaved hill forest and Himalayan Wet Temperate forests have been delineated. Further, the alpine forests were distinguished into alpine scrub and alpine barren. It was found that Sal forests, subtropical mixed broad leaved hill/ mixed forests, coniferous and alpine forests occupy an area of 0.17, 43.53, 11.78 and 13.89 per cent respectively ofthe total geographical area of the district. The scrubs with less than 10 per cent canopy cover and forest blanks within the reserve forest areas were recorded in 2.12 and 1.36 per cent of the total geographical area of the district reflecting the total wastelands to be developed into vegetative cover. The non-forest categories of snow, lakes, water bodies, sandy area, built-up and landslide areas contribute an area 3.72 per cent and agricultural area is reported to be 23.44 per cent. The total forest cover ofthe district was 55.47 per cent with 17.86 per cent covering closed forest and 37.61 per cent of open forest cover.

3.1.10.7 ecological Importance of Sikkim forests It is an ecological hotspot of the lower Himalayas, one of only three among the ecoregions of India. The forested regions of the state exhibit a diverse range of fauna and flora. Owing to its altitudinal gradation, the state has a wide variety of plants, from tropical species to temperate, alpine and tundra ones, and is perhaps one of the few regions to exhibit such a diversity within such a small area. Nearly 81 per cent of the area of Sikkim comes under the administration of its forest department. Sikkim is home to around 5,000 species of flowering plants, 515 rare orchids, 60 primula species, 36 rhododendron species, 11 oakvarieties, 23 bamboo varieties, 16 conifer species, 362 types of ferns and ferns allies, 8 tree ferns, and over 424 medicinal plants. A variant of the Poinsettia, locally known as “Christmas Flower”, can be found in abundance in the mountainous state. The Noble Dendrobium is the official flower of Sikkim, while the rhododendron is the state tree.

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3.1.11 fauna diversity

Map 21: Fauna types

3.1.11.1 fauna diversity in the region An overview

Due to the altitude that varies from sea level to summits that touch the skies, the fauna naturally covers a wide spectrum. Nowhere in the world in such a small area can one find the fauna of all varieties - Tropical to the Alpines. Sikkimâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s botanical and zoological richness is awe-inspiring, boasting of more than 4000 species of plants and 30% of all the birds found in the Indian sub-continent. This is complemented by the presence of red listed species like Snow Leopard, Red Panda, and Musk deer. The other important species present are Common Leopard, JungleCats, Asiatic Black Bear, Clouded Leopard and Blue Sheeps.1 Over 400 varieties of butterflies and moths adorn the forest with colour and life. Giant Lammergeier Vultures, Bearded Vulture, Eagle, Whistling Thursh, Minivet, Bulbul and Pheasant are some from among the 550 species of birds recorded in Sikkim, some of which have been declared endangered. Some other coloured birds are the emeral dove, fairy blue bird, kingfisher, ashy woodpecker, sultan tit and the emerald cuckoo. Many migratory birds like the Ruddy Shelduck also visit Sikkim. There are also a wide variety of pheasants in various colours. Blood Pheasant is declared as the State Bird of Sikkim. Various types of fishes are also found in the lakes and rivers of Sikkim.2 1 Mammals of the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim by S.Satyakumar & K. Poudyal. 2 http://www.trekkinginsikkims.com/sikkim-flora-and-fauna.html Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

map legends Asiatic Black Bear Common Leopard Jungle Cats Red Panda Kaiser-i-Hind Butterfly Snow Leopard Golden Cats Clouded Leopard Blue Sheep Plateau Pika

Sources: The map is made after referring following documents. 1. List of Endangered species-ENVIS Centre. 2. Mammals of the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim by S.Satyakumar & K. Poudyal. The Forest type map and Elevation Maps have also been superimposed to relate with the literature data.

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

There are 45 species of fish in sikkim which include the trout, salmon and carp. Fishing is allowed with a permit. There are 40 species of reptiles which include various types of lizards, snakes, krait and cobra.1

3.1.11.2 Species documented2: • Asiatic Black Bear common names

Asiatic black bear, Himalayan black bear Scientific Name

Ursus thibetanus Status

IUCN - Vulnerable

geographic location

Southeast Asia

Physical description The Asiatic Black Bear has a coat of smooth black fur and can be distinguished by a V of white fur on its chest. It is similar in appearance to the brown bear, but with a slighter build.

Fig 35: Asiatic black Bear Image Source: http://www.jattdisite.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/

ecology and Habitat Broad leaved and coniferous forests, in the region of study, to an elevation of 2,300m. threats Illegal hunting for body parts, specifically the gall bladder, paws and skin poses the main threat, together with habitat loss caused by logging, expansion of human settlements and roads. • Common Leopard common names

Common Leopard, Indo-chinese Leopard Scientific Name

Panthera pardus delacouri Status

IUCN - Near Threatened geographic location

Southeast Asia and southern China

Physical description A Common leopard is a panther-like cat of about 85.5 cm (33.7 in), with strong legs and a long well-formed tail, head as big as a panther’s, broad muzzle, short ears and small, yellowish grey eyes, light grey ocular bulbs; black at first sight, but on closer examination dark brown with circular darker coloured spots, tinged pale red underneath.

Fig 36: Common Leopard Image Source: http://www.wwfpak.org/species/images/

ecology and Habitat All leopards prefer dry evergreen and mixed deciduous forest with flat slope near water courses. Elevation ranges around 400-1,000 m. threats Hunting of Indian leopards for the illegal wildlife trade is the biggest threat to their survival. They are also threatened by loss of habitat and fragmentation of formerly connected populations, and various levels of human–leopard conflict in human–dominated landscapes.

1 2

http://www.trekkinginsikkims.com/sikkim-flora-and-fauna.html The information has been taken from the website www.wwf.panda.org

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• Clouded Leopard common names

Clouded Leopard Scientific Name

Neofelis nebulosa; Neofelis diardi (Bornean)Status Status

IUCN - Vulnerable

geographic location

Subtropical/Tropical Moist Forests

Physical description The clouded leopard is named after the distinctive ‘clouds’ on its coat - ellipses partially edged in black, with the insides a darker colour than the background colour of the pelt.

Fig 37: Clouded Leopard Image Source: http://www.animalspot.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/

The base of the fur is a pale yellow to rich brown, making the darker cloud-like markings look even more distinctive. The limbs and underbelly are marked with large black ovals, and the back of its neck is conspicuously marked with two thick black bars. ecology and Habitat Throughout its range, the clouded leopard spends most of the time in the tropical evergreen rainforests but can also be found in dry tropical forests and mangrove swamps. It has been found at relatively high altitudes in the Himalayas. threats 1. Habitat loss and defragmentation The species natural habitat has been fragmented and decreasing at a rate of 10% per year since 1997. 2. Poaching and illegal wildlife trade The clouded leopard is widely hunted for its teeth and decorative pelt, and for bones for the traditional Asian medicinal trade. 3. Human-leopard conflict Like many other big cat species the clouded leopard is often killed as retaliation for killing livestock. • Snow Leopard common names

Snow Leopard

Scientific Name

Panthera uncia, Uncia uncia Status

IUCN - Endangered

geographic location

Cold high mountains Physical description These rare, beautiful gray leopards live in the Himalayan mountains. They are insulated by thick hair, and their wide, fur-covered feet act as natural snowshoes. Snow leopards have powerful legs and are tremendous leapers, able to jump as far as 50 feet (15 meters). They use their long tails for balance and as blankets to cover sensitive body parts against the severe mountain chill.

Fig 38: Snow Leopard Image Source: http://media.treehugger.com/assets/images/2012/07/

ecology and Habitat Their range includes the Himalayan mountains of Tibet, Nepal, India, and Bhutan; Pakistan’s Karakorum and Hindu Kush; the high mountain ranges of Afghanistan, Mongolia, the People’s Republic of China, Russia and the former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Snow leopards are found at altitudes between 9,800 and 17,000 Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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feet in the high, rugged mountains of Central Asia. Within their mountain habitat, snow leopards like high, steep and rocky places where there are few plants, places that scientists call the alpine and sub-alpine zones. Snow leopards live in the alpine zone in the warmer, summer months of the year. threats Habitat loss, poaching and increasing conflict with communities have seen over a fifth of the world’s snow leopards disappear in the last 16 years. And climate change is now putting the future of their mountain home at even greater risk. 1. Poaching: Snow leopards have long been killed for their beautiful fur, but their bones and other body parts are also used in Traditional Asian Medicine. And the illegal trade in snow leopard parts appears to be increasing. 2. Conflict with communities: Herders sometimes kill snow leopards in retaliation for attacking their livestock. And the decline in the leopard’s natural prey - due to hunting, competition from increasing livestock herds, and habitat loss - is forcing them to rely more on livestock for food and increasing the risk of retaliatory killings. 3. Shrinking home: Snow leopards need vast areas to thrive, but expanding human and livestock populations are rapidly encroaching on their habitat. New roads and mines are also fragmenting their remaining range. 4. Changing climate: All these threats will be exacerbated by the impact of climate change on the fragile mountain environment - putting the future of snow leopards at even greater risk. It will also endanger the livelihoods of local communities and the tens of millions of people living downstream of these major watersheds. • Jungle Cat common names

Jungle Cat, Reed Cat Scientific Name

Felis chaus Status

IUCN - Least Concern geographic location

Tropical dry forests, and Reed beds along rivers

Physical description The jungle cat is the largest of the extant Felis species. It has a small tuft on the ears, a comparatively short tail, and a distinct spinal crest.1Because of its long legs, short tail and tuft on the ears, the jungle cat resembles a small lynx. The face is relatively slender. Fur colour varies with subspecies, yellowish-grey to reddish-brown or tawny-grey, and is ticked with black. Vertical bars are visible on the fur of kittens, which disappear in adult cats, although a few dark markings may be retained on the limbs or tail. The muzzle is white, and the underside is paler in colour than the rest of the body.2

Fig 39: Jungle Cat Image Source: Picture by Eyal Bartoy

ecology and Habitat Jungle cats are largely oriental in distribution and found in Egypt, West and Central Asia, but also in South Asia, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. In India they are the most common small cats found there. They inhabit savannas, tropical dry forests and reedbeds along rivers and lakes in the lowlands, but, despite the name, are not 1 Pocock, R. I. (1939). The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia. – Volume 1. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London, pp. 290–305. 2 Sunquist, M.; Sunquist, F. (2002). Wild cats of the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 60–66. ISBN 0-226-77999-8. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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found in rainforests. Although they are adaptable animals, being found even in dry steppe, they prefer wetland environments with tall grasses or reeds in which to hide. They do not survive well in cold climates, and are not found in areas where winter snowfall is common.4They have been observed from sea levels to altitudes of 8,000 ft (2,400 m) or perhaps higher in the Himalayas. They frequent jungles or open country, and are often seen in the neighborhood of villages.2 1

threats In the 1970s, Southeast Asian jungle cats still used to be the most common wild cats near villages and occurred in many protected areas of the country. But since the early 1990s, jungle cats are rarely encountered and have suffered drastic declines due to hunting and habitat destruction. Due to unselective trapping and snaring, jungle cats appear quite rare nowadays in comparison to sympatric small cats. Skins are occasionally recorded in border markets, and live individuals. • Golden Cat common names

Asian Golden Cat Scientific Name

Catopuma temminckii Status

IUCN - Near Threatened geographic location

Sub-tropical evergreens and Tropical rainforests.

Physical description The Asian golden cat is heavily built, with a typical cat-like appearance. It has a head-body length of 66 to 105 cm (26 to 41 in), with a tail 40 to 57 cm (16 to 22 in) long, and is 56 cm (22 in) tall at the shoulder. The weight ranges from 9 to 16 kg (20 to 35 lb), which is about two or three times that of a domestic cat.3

Fig 40: Golden Cat Image Source: http://amazon.clikpic.com/benw/images/

The pelage is uniform in color, but highly variable, ranging from red to golden-brown, dark brown to pale cinnamon, and gray to black. Transitional forms among the different colorations also exist. It may be marked with spots and stripes. White and black lines run across the cheeks and up to the top of the head, while the ears are black with a central gray area.4 ecology and Habitat Asian golden cats live throughout Southeast Asia, ranging from Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, India and Bangladesh to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Southern China, Malaysia and Sumatra. They prefer forest habitats interspersed with rocky areas and are found in dry deciduous, subtropical evergreen and tropical rainforests. Sometimes, they are found in more open terrain such as the grasslands of Assam’s Manas National Park.[6] In altitude, they range from the lowlands to over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in the Himalayas.5 In Laos, they also inhabit bamboo regrowth, scrub and degraded forest from the Mekong plains to at least 1,100 m (3,600 ft).Surveys in Sumatra and in the Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area in northern Laos indicated that they are more common than sympatric small cats, suggesting that they are more numerous than previously believed. Surveys in Thailand, northern Myanmar and India’s western Arunachal Pradesh revealed fewer individuals. 1 Mukherjee, S., Groves, C. (2007). “Geographic variation in jungle cat (Felis chaus Schreber, 1777) (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae) body size: is competition responsible?” 2 Blanford, W. T. (1888–91). The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Volume I, Mammalia. Taylor and Francis, London. 3 Sunquist, Mel; Sunquist, Fiona (2002). Wild cats of the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 52–56. ISBN 0-226-77999-8. 4 Allen, G.M. (1938). The mammals of China and Mongolia. New York: American Museum of Natural History. 5 Baral H.S. and Shah K.B. (2008). Wild Mammals of Nepal. Himalayan Nature, Kathmandu. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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threats Asian golden cats inhabit some of the fastest developing countries in the world, where they are increasingly threatened by habitat destruction following deforestation, along with a declining ungulate prey base.1 Another serious threat is hunting for the illegal wildlife trade, which has the greatest potential to do maximum harm in minimal time.It has been reported killed in revenge for depredating livestock, including poultry but also larger animals such as sheep, goats and buffalo calves. Asian golden cats are poached mainly for their fur. Numbers were significantly greater than those of non-threatened species. Among the observed skins was a specimen with ocelot-like rosettes — a rare tristis form. Effective implementation and enforcement of CITES is considered inadequate. • Red Panda common names

Red Panda, Lesser Panda Scientific Name

Ailurus fulgens Status

IUCN - Vulnerable

geographic location

Rainy, High altitude forests

Physical description The red panda is dwarfed by the black-and-white giant that shares its name. These pandas typically grow to the size of a house cat, though their big, bushy tails add an additional 18 inches (46 centimeters). The pandas use their ringed tails as wraparound blankets in the chilly mountain heights. ecology and Habitat The red panda is endemic to the temperate forests of the Himalayas, and ranges from the foothills of western Nepal to China in the east. Its range includes southern Tibet, Sikkim and Assam in India, Bhutan, the northern mountains of Burma, and in south-western China. It may also live in south-west Tibet and northern Arunachal Pradesh, but this has not been documented. Locations with the highest density of red pandas include an area in the Himalayas that has been proposed as having been a refuge for a variety of endemic species in the Pleistocene. The distribution range of the red panda should be considered disjunct, rather than continuous.A disjunct population inhabits the Meghalaya Plateau of north-eastern India.2

Fig 41: Red Panda Image Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/

threats The following conservation issues are faced by Red Panda: 1. Habitat fragmentation and degradation. 2. Predation by feral dogs. 3. Occasional hunting and poaching. • Blue Sheep common names

Bharal, Naur

Scientific Name

Pseudois nayaur Status

IUCN - Least Concern geographic location

Grassy mountain slopes in Eastern Himalayas

1 Sanderson, J., Mukherjee, S., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Hearn, A., Ross, J., Khan, J.A. (2008). “Catopuma temminckii”. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. 2 Choudhury, A. (2001). “An overview of the status and conservation of the red panda Ailurus fulgens in India, with reference to its global status”. Oryx (Flora & Fauna International) Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 42: Blue Sheep Image Source: http://www.cknp.org/cms/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/

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Physical description This medium-sized sheep is 115 to 165 cm (45 to 65 in) long along the head-and-body, with a tail of 10 to 20 cm (3.9 to 7.9 in). They stand 69 to 91 cm (27 to 36 in) high at the shoulder. Body mass can range from 35 to 75 kg (77 to 165 lb). Males are slightly larger than females. The short, dense coat is slate grey in colour, sometimes with a bluish sheen. The underparts and backs of the legs are white, while the chest and fronts of the legs are black. Separating the grey back and white belly is a charcoal colored stripe. The ears are small, and the bridge of the nose is dark. The horns are found in both sexes, and are ridged on the upper surface. In males, they grow upwards, then turn sideways and curve backwards, looking somewhat like an upside-down moustache. They may grow to a length of 80 cm (31 in). In females, the horns are much shorter and straighter, growing up to 20 cm (7.9 in) long.1 ecology and Habitat Bharal are active throughout the day, alternating between feeding and resting on the grassy mountain slopes. Due to their excellent camouflage and the absence of cover in their environment, bharal remain motionless when approached. Once they have been noticed, however, they scamper up to the precipitous cliffs, where they once again freeze, using camouflage to blend into the rock face. Population densities in Nepal were found to be 0.9–2.7 animals per square kilometer, increasing to a maximum of 10 animals per square kilometer in the winter, as herds congregate in valleys.Bharal are mainly grazers, but during times of scarcity of grass, they switch to herbs and shrubs.2A high degree of diet overlap between livestock (especially donkeys) and bharal, together with density-dependent forage limitation, results in resource competition and a decline in bharal density.Where they overlap, they are the favored prey of snow leopards and leopards, with a few lambs falling prey to foxes or eagles.3 threats The bharal is listed as least concern under the IUCN Red List. • Plateau Pika common names

Pika, Black-lipped Pika Scientific Name

Ochotona curzoniae Status

IUCN - Least Concern geographic location

Scrublands in Eastern Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau Physical description It is a small diurnal and non-hibernating mammal weighing about 140g when full grown. The animals are reddish tan on the top-side with more of a whitish yellow on their under-belly. ecology and Habitat Plateau pikas are considered to be a keystone species as they play a role in recycling nutrients in soil, providing food to predators such as; foxes, weasels, falcons, Asia pole cat, upland buzzard, and owls. They also provide microhabitats by increasing plant richness and their burrows provides nests for small birds and reptiles. Ochotona curzoniae prefers to make burrows in flat to gently sloping terrain and silty to sandy-soiled meadow lands with few rocks and good drainage at elevations up to 5300 meters.4

Fig 43: Plateau Pika Image Source: Picture by Andrew Smith

1 Bharal, Himalayan blue sheep. Ultimateungulate.com. Retrieved on 2012-08-23 2 The great and small game of India, Burma and Tibet, p 93, Richard Lydekker (1900) 3 Lovari, Sandro; Som Ale (2001). “Are there multiple mating strategies in the blue sheep?”. Behavioural Processes 53 (1–2): 131–135. Schaller, G. 1998. Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 4 Schaller, G. 1998. Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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threats The plateau pika is an herbivore that eats plants such as; bog sedge/krobesia, grasses, perennial, turf, etc. Farmers believed that a good method to manage pikas and stop them from foraging in their land was to start poisoning programs which began to cause secondary poisoning which was believed to lead to loss of biodiversity. However the attempts in poisoning the pikas did not have a long term affect as they would repopulate within the next breeding season and would return to the same population size. A second form of management is fencing, which also did not prove to be very successful in preventing foraging by the plateau pika. It is generally agreed that a solution will need to include improving livestock management and pest control, biologist believe that a way to accomplish this would be to gain a better understanding of how populations of pikas respond to control programs so that they can change the patterns of livestock grazing. Therefore because of their rapid growth pikas are considered to be an animal of least concern. â&#x20AC;˘ Kaiser-i-Hind Butterfly common names

Emperor of India Scientific Name

Teinopalpus imperialis Status

IUCN - Near Threatened geographic location

Eastern Himalayas

Physical description With its shimmering greens, bright yellows and delicate blacks, this rare butterfly is a visual delight. Upperside black, densely irrorated with green scales. Forewing: an outwardly oblique, slightly concave subbasal band and a narrow terminal edging jet-black due to the ground-colour there being devoid of the green scaling; beyond the subbasal band the irroration of scales a much brighter green, especially along the outer edge of the subbasal band itself; but along obscure, broad and convergent discal and postdiscal transverse bands and along a subterminal much narrower band, the green scaling thins out and the black ground-colour of the wing shows through; in some specimens, owing to the transparency of the wings, the rich ochraceous-brown colour of the underside gives the black on these bands a reddish tint.1

Fig 44: Kaiser-i-Hind Butterfly Image Source: Picture by Huidrom Harmenn

ecology and Habitat This magnificent butterfly is found along the Eastern Himalayas (West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Sikkim and Manipur) in India. In these areas, it occurs at medium and higher elevations from 6000 to 10,000 feet in well-wooded terrain. threats Although the butterfly is protected under Indian law it is hunted to be supplied to butterfly collectors.

1 Bingham, C. T (1907) The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies Volume 2. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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3.1.12 erosion Susceptibility

Map 22 : Erosion Susceptibility Source: CISMHE Centre for Inter-disciplinary Studies of Mountain & Hill Environment University of Delhi, Delhi

3.1.12.1 Soil erosion: The watershed was characterized by different landforms viz. ridge, rocky cliff, side slopes at different elevations and were subjected to soil erosion mainly caused by intensive rain. About 15747.6 ha (62.1%) area was subjected to only moderate erosion alone. Moderate - severe (M-S) erosion class association counted for 23.6% area of the watershed. In spite of steepness of slope and high intensity of rain, erosion of hill to some extent was checked by thick vegetative covers. Three types of erosion class are moderate, severe, very severe were identified. 62.1% area of watershed is subjected to moderate erosion 23.6% area is subjected to moderate severe erosion. At few places inspite of steepness of slope and high intensity of rain, erosion of hill to some extent was checked by thick vegetative covers.

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Figure 1: 1849 Map of Sikkim and Eastern Nepal Source: www.pahar.in Map 23: Water Recharge Potential

3.1.13 water recharge Potential

table 4: matrix for the recharge potential

Recharge potential was an outcome of overlaying of slope map, soil map, springs map, geology map and land-use map. One of the prime factors considered while developing the recharge potential map was based on dips and strikes in the catchment areas. Even though some areas have high recharge potential and can be considered as a source, the presence of fractures in the rock strata leads to eruption of water on lower levels, making them springs and thus forming jhoras in the region. And the catchment of these springs needs to be preserved as these are the major and at time the only source of water for people in the rural areas and they also feed the river. However the jhoras and there spill over influence have not been considered for recharge potential because of the velocity of water and the slopes of the site. Apart from that certain jhoras are a seasonal phenomenon. While the river bed and the pill over influence have been considered as good recharge potential in the region. Another factor that was considered was the amount of rainfall in the region. Very steep slopes, despite vegetation cover and deep soil have not be considered for good recharge potential.

Fig 45: Graph showing percentage of land under different potential area Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region

3.2 Agriculture 3.2.1 Introduction east Sikkim - with an intro to general practices in Sikkim Sikkim is a part of a globally significant biodiversity hot spots of the world within the greater quadri-national junction of Kanchendzonga landscape in the Eastern Himalayas. The region is an assemblage of sacred landscapes called Deyjong(the valley of rice) or the Shangrila(the hidden paradise on earth). The range of landscape and ecosystem diversity extending from the rice cultivation systems along the valleys of glacier fed river Teesta and Rangit in the sub tropical zones(above 300m), traditional agro forestry such as alder-cardamon and farm-based systems in the subtropical and warmer temperate zones(600-2200m),extreme subsistence farming in the cool temperate zones (2300-4000m) , to the trans-Himalayan nomadic Tibetian agro-pastoral landscape and ecosystems in the alpine plateaus(4000-6000m) of the Kanchendzonga in the Eastern Himalayas. the characteristics and functioning of the agricultural ecosystems can be categorized into three broad systems: • Agro-Pastoralism of the Nomadic Tibetan Herders • Traditional Agricultural systems • Valley Rice Cultivation systems

3.2.2 categorisation of agricultural zones table 5 : Agricultural zones

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

The upland farmers have developed protective belts along the edges of the terraces of their farmland using a number of multipurpose agro-forestry species such as Schima wallichi, Engelhardtia spicata, Bridelia retusa, Bischofia javanica, Bombax ceiba, Rhus semialata, Castanopsis tribuloides, C. hystrix, C. indica, Ficus sp., Duabanga grandiflora, Erythrina arborescens, Gynocardia odorata, Juglans regia, Jambosa formosa, Litsea polyantha, Morus indica, Quercus sp., Terminalia chebula, Symplocus theifolia, Saurauia punduana, Toona ciliata, Betula cylindrostachys, Acer oblongum, Beilschmiedia roxburghiana, Cinnamomum impressinervium, Engelhardtia acerifolia, Ehretia wallichiana, etc. Lower hills of South district and some parts of West district of Sikkim fall in the rain shadow of the Darjeeling Hills. In the last ten years farmers have introduced nitrogenfixing species (Flemmingia sp., Indigofera sp., Erythrina sp., Gliricidia sp., Desmodium sp., Albizia sp. Alnus sp.) and stabilised the steep farmlands by designing contour hedge-rows. Recently farmers have introduced permanent crops such as banana, mandarin orange, plums, pears, guava, fodder species such as broom grass and trees with a variety of pulses and cereals as under-storey crops.

3.2.5 rice based farming system Paddy (main crop) followed by maize, mustard, field pea, potato,wheat,vegetables as secondary crop. With the improvement of living standard of the people of Sikkim, food habits were changed and they could no longer relish the upland rice- ‘Ghaiya’ and started WRC. The bench terraces are made on hill slopes up to 80% or even more. The bench terraces are watered through perennial seasonal springs tapped from higher elevation.

3.2.3 types of crops

Fig 46. Terrace farming of Rice

3.2.4 crop rotation table 6 : crops and seasons

Fig 47. Rice

In Sikkim, farmers intercrop rice with traditional varieties of soybean, rice bean and black gram on bunds. Yield Most of the area is under cultivation of local rice varieties, which yield 15.47 Qtl/ha. 15220 Ha land is under rice cultivation in entire Sikkim, with 6720 Ha in the East district itself. The agriculture is practiced on sloped ,by cutting terraces and making bunds. farmers usually depend on rainwater or tap springs water for irrigating their fields. Their is a need for stabilising the terraces, as terrace fall is frequent.So farmers grow other species on these bunds to stabilise and supplement income. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Varieties The popular local rice varieties are: Attey, Masseey, Sikre, Krishnabhog, Kalshanti, Bhuidhan, Darmali, Tasrey and Dutkatti. 53

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

3.2.6 maize based farming system Maize (main crop) followed by Rice, Finger millet, Urd, Soybean, Field Pea, Cluster beans, Mustard, Vegetables, Ginger, Turmeric. Maize is easily grown in dry and sloping lands which are not suitable for growing rice.

Fig 51: Orange

3.2.7 cardamom based farming system

Fig 48: Terrace farming of Maize

It is a high value cash crop in about 30000 Ha of Sikkim himalayas. The cultivation s economical as compared to other crops and has high international market potential.It is an understorey crop and is grown along with Alnus nepalensis(Alder) and Albizia sp. in the shade and humid environment.

Fig 49: Maize

Yield It is the chief cereal crop in Sikkim. Average yield is about 15.67 Qtl/ha. 39,900 Ha land is under maize cultivation in entire Sikkim, with 9700 Ha in the East district itself. Varieties The available landraces of maize in Sikkim can be grouped into four groups namely: i) primitive, ii) advanced or derived, iii) recent introductions and iv) hybrid races The primitive group comprised several races of popcorn such as Poorvi Botapa,Tirap Nag-Sahypung,Arun Tepi and Alok Sapa. Poorvi Botapa, the most primitive race, is found in pure form in North Sikkim

3.2.6 mandarin based farming system

Fig 52: Cardamom being grown as an understorey crop

Fig 53: Cardamom

Yield Mandarin platation (main crop) intercropping with Ginger, Maize, It is about 2.31 Qtl /ha. Buckwheat, Mustard, Field Pea, Vegetables, Finger millet, It is the most important and high return crop. Sweet potato, Potato and Yam ,etc. 3.2.8 Sericulture

Sikkim is bestowed upon with congenial climate for the sericulture and enjoys practicing three types of sericulture viz. mulberry, eri and muga culture in parallel.The agro-based sericulture begins with land related activities to grow silkworm food plants, and utilise the leaf crop in silkworm rearing to get the cocoon crops.

Fig 50: Mandarin orange cultivation Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 54a: Sericulture as a mixed cropping activity

Fig 54b: Silk worm

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region table 7 : types of silkworm rearing and production

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Farmers regularly convert wastelands/degraded lands or vabandoned lands into agroforestry.

3.2.9 Agro forestry based farming system The agro forestry based plants and the fodder plants are the major crops along with spices crops like large cardamom, fruit crops like pine apples, etc. The Himalayan Alder is the most prominient fodder tree species.

Fig 57. Water bodies and catchments are preserved

Fig 58. Forest produce provides firewood and fodder

Fig 59. Animals are tied in the fields in winter so their droppings fertilise it

farm forest-based Agroforestry Fig 55: Agro forestry practice

The farm forest-based agroforestry practices are agro-silvopastoral/agro-silvocultural systems comprising a diversity of multipurpose tree species required for local construction and repairs, fuelwood, fodder for stall-fed livestock, bamboo groves, and pasture areas for seasonal grazing within the marginal landholdings. The forest-based practices of agroforestry are developed as support land. Farmers often collect minor forest products such as fruits, fibers, medicinal plants, tubers, other wild vegetables. In the last 10 years, most of the barren slope lands have been converted into broom grass plantations (amliso-bari) under multipurpose tree species to overcome shortage of fodder.

3.2.10 Productivity and income Fig 56: Farms are placed in the pockets of forests

farm-based Agroforestry

The farm-based agroforestry practices are primarily agrisilvicultural systems (home gardens, traditional beekeeping and livestock), multipurpose trees on terrace edges, terraces for growing a variety of traditional and under-utilized/lesser known crops as nutrient/protein banks. ............comprises of multilayer tree gardens with fruit crops where trees act as wind breaks and function as protective belts to the terrace risers along the edges of the crop production slopes called sukha-bari or terrace paddy fields. Hedgerows of Thysanolaena agrostis and other ground grasses are grown for fodder and for supporting the terraces. It is important land-use system for sustaining the agricultural practices in slope lands, recycling of organic dry matter for soil fertility maintenance, resource utilization, and improvement of the agroecosystem functions and services. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Average land holding in the state is 1.42 Ha. Rs 13,330 per Ha Rs 18,928 per holding Maize var.HQPM-1 Rs 67,900 per Ha Rs 96,418 per holding Ginger var Gorubathaney Rs 5,90,000 per Ha Rs 8,37,800 per holding Tomato var. Avatar Rs 30,625 per Ha Rs 4,34,87 per holding Pea Rs 2,52,000 per Ha Rs 3,57,840 per holding Large cardamom Rs 6,03,000 per Ha Rs 8,56,260 per holding Income in crop rotation: two crops a year, Avg land holding = 1.42 Ha Rice + Maize = Rs 1,15,346 Maize + Ginger = Rs 9,34,218 Rice + Pea = Rs 3,76,768 Maize + Pea = Rs 4,54,258 Rice Bhalum 4

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

3.2.11 Local classifications of agricultural practices

The management of agro diversity by the indigenous communities is for a variety of reasons. The land use types, land use stages, aspect, soil fertility, availability of water and shade trees etc. are essential variables which an indigenous farmer considers while cultivating a diversity of traditional landraces in the farm for food security. The diversity of land use types and land use stages is related to drought-tolerant varieties, disease tolerant varieties, crop residue (for farm animals), market potential, agronomic productivity, taste and also for customs and rituals. Sikkim Himalaya is unique owing to elevation gradients forming different agro-climatic zones at short distances. Thus, nature has bestowed perfect environments for agro diversity, which is supported by cultural diversity of communities practicing customs, traditions, rituals and Traditional Ecological Knowledge Systems (TEKS). The diversity of landscape, land-use stages and specific land use category at temporal and spatial scales has provided opportunities to manage agro-biodiversity and intrinsic human-nature relationship. The agro diversity is an assemblage of high value mountain niche products, medicinal plants, agro forestry systems, integrated watersheds, springs and local water sources in the cultural landscapes in the region. Table 8 : Types of farming practices-local terminologies

3.2.12 climate change impacts

Due to untimely rainfall, fodder production has reduced with Climate change is impacting the growing zones of crops and an stunted growth of branches. This is followed by emergence of increase in dieseases can be noticed. pests eating up the green foliage of trees (Table 1). The impact of climate change due to untimely precipitation is visible on the table 9 : climate change impacts on crops phenology of fodder species of both subtropical and temperate agro-climatic zones. Also lack of adequate food resources in the nearby forest areas has caused wild animals to invade crop lands. In the croplands, clearing invasive species involves labour input for land preparation for cultivation and management. Sikkimese farmers have observed crop-environment relations and associated changes at different intensities and have evaluated potential risks and uncertainties. • The India Meteorological Department (IMD) records reveal that between 1958 and 2005, there were slight changes in the climate of Gangtok. • The maximum temperature has been falling by 0.3 °C per decade, and the minimum temperature has been rising by 0.2 °C per decade. • The annual rainfall has been increasing by 49.6 mm per decade Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region

• Our interaction and subsequent interview with farmers and herders revealed that they are experiencing warmer summer months in recent times. • They informed that temperature rise has caused vertical shift of some horticultural crops and those grown earlier in the lower altitudes can be grown at higher altitudes now. • Climate change events observed and recorded here have given rise to mudslides in terrace risers (in khet and bari systems) and productivity decline of crops (e.g., cardamom, ginger, orange, paddy, maize, wheat and buckwheat etc.) resulting in emerging food insecurity in the mountain region (mainly to those farmers living in highly inaccessible areas). • Farmers remarked that the sowing of maize in the sub-tropical zone has shifted by 15-20 days, while sowing at temperate zones remains the same. • Similarly, the harvest of maize remains the same in the sub-tropical zone while harvest time has shortened by 15-20 days in the temperate zone. • Information on temperature rise and untimely rainfall and its impact on agriculture have been reported by the farmers of the Sikkim Himalaya.Ecosystem services trade-off is a matter of concern due to land use change. • The farmers of the Sikkim Himalaya have lost the comparative advantage of large cardamom; the production of this commertable 10 : local knowledge of rainfall patterns

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cial traditional crop has declined drastically in the last 10 years. • Cardamom in high altitudes is growing well with no signs of diseases, while the low altitude plantations have severely declined. • Sikkim mandarin orange has declined both in terms of productivity and plantation area.

3.2.13 local knowledge of rainfall patterns table 6 : rainfall patterns of sikkim

Local communities of Sumbuk-Kartikey, Aho-Yangthang, Sumik Linzey and Linkey-Tareythang Gram Panchayats revealed that there are local names assigned to rainfall patterns called Jhari (continuous rain for two to several days). Previously Titey Jhari, the rain that continues for about a week during the flowering time of Titeypati (Artemisia vulgaris) was very common.

Chapter

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

3.2.14 Agro bio diversity systems Sikkim Himalayan-agriculture is an adaptive management system that offers economically valuable crop varieties and multipurpose plant species in agro-ecologically sound productive zones. The diverse indigenous communities house traditional ecological knowledge in adapting, monitoring and responding to ecosystem resilience and services. Table 11 : Elevation wise classification of agricultural systems

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3.2.15 Elevation wise crop classification table 12 : Inference table

Source : Village developement action plan

table 13 : Issues in villages

Source : Village developement action plan

3.2.16 Analysis of villages based on natural layers Villages are marked in yellow dots.

Map 24: Soil and depth Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Chapter 3: Analysis of the region

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Map 25: Hydrology

Map 27: Slope

Map 26: Aspect

Map 28: Elevation

Inferences from overlaying the maps table 14 : Inferences

Sources : Ghanashyam Sharma and Lalit Kumar Rai, Climate and sustainability of agrobiodiversity in traditional farming of the Sikkim himalayas; Ghanashyam Sharma and Tara Devi Dhakal, Opportunities and challenges of the globally important traditionalagriculture heritage systems of the sikkim himalaya.

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3.3.1 Sikkim tourism

Map 30: Showing tourist spots in East district Source: Sikkim tourism map

1: Directorate of handlooms

2: Bakthang falls

3: Hilley Barsey

4: Aritar lake

5: Banjhakri falls

6: Enchy gompa

7: Flower exhibition

8: Epcs church

9: Ganesh Tok

10: Rumtek monastery

11: Namgyal institute

12:Ropeway

Fig 70: Tourist spots in East district Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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Map 31: Showing tourist spots in West district Source: Sikkim tourism map

13: Dentam

14: Dubdi Monastery

15: Hilley Barsey

16: Khecheopalri lake

17: Khongri

18: Legship

19: Rabdentse ruins

20: Richenpong

21: Singshore bridge

22: Soreng

23: Tahsiding

24: Uttarey

Fig 71: Tourist spots in West district Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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Map 32: Showing tourist spots in North district Source: Sikkim tourism map

25: Choptha valley

26: Chungatang

27: Hilley Barsey

28: Gurudongmar

29: Kabilungchok

30: Lachen

31: Lachung

32: Mangan

33: Phensang monatsery

34: Phodang monastery

35: Seven sister waterfall

36: Singhik

Fig 72: Tourist spots in North district Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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Map 33: Showing tourist spots in South district Source: Sikkim tourism map

37: Bon monastery

38: Borong hot spring

39: Namchi flower festival

40: Kewzing

41: Maenam hill

42: Phurtsachu

43: Rabongla

44: Ravangla

45: Rock garden

46: Sai mandir

47: Samdruptse

48: Siddeshwara dham

Fig 73: Tourist spots in South district Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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Map 34: Showing tourist spots in East district Source: Sikkim tourism map

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Map 35: Showing tourist spots district based

Map 36: Showing ideal tourism travel plan

Map 37: Showing buddhist corcuit

Map 38: Showing trekking routes

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chapter 4: development Plan by SURBANA

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Chapter 4: Development Plan by SURBANA

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4.1 State Strategic urban Plan

various time scale to review the growth progress.

Sikkim is a growing state with an increasing population from 200,000 people in the 1970s to 580,000 by 2006. It is projected that the State population could expand to as much as 1.1 million by Year 2040. In response to such rate of growing population, the Government of Sikkim sees the importance of formulating a State Strategic Urban Plan as a structured development blueprint to guide how Sikkim should be developed over next 30 years.

For the purpose of this Strategic Urban Plan, 3 stages are proposed as follows: • Short Term By Year 2015 • Medium Term By Year 2025 • Long Term By Year 2040

4.1.2 Preface The Government of Sikkim (GoS) and the Building & Construction Authority (BCA) of Singapore signed a MOU in June 2006 in which BCA agreed to assist in forming a consortium to undertake various important projects in Sikkim. In Dec 2007, Surbana International Consultants Pte Ltd, led by BCA and in collaboration with other Singapore-based specialists, Master Consult and Institute of Environmental Science & Engineering of Nanyang Technological University, were commissioned to carry out urban planning consultancy services for preparation of Master Plans for 4 selected towns in the State of Sikkim. The project team has commenced work since. This consultancy service covers 2 key components: • Develop a State Strategic Urban Plan to guide development of Sikkim in next 25 - 40 years - A State Strategic Plan 2040 is a planning guide for long term growth of the State of Sikkim to ensure structured and coordinated development. • Prepare a Master Plan (or Development Guide Plan) for each of the 4 District capitals: namely, Gangtok, Namchi, Mangan, and Geyzin - A Development Guide Plan is a Land Use Structure Plan that guides different uses of land within the Urban Area. As part of the interactive planning process to brainstorm and to develop a State Strategic Urban Plan, a workshop was held in late January 2008 among the Steering Committee, senior Sikkim Government Officials, and the Consultants to deliberate the possible scenarios and strategies so that a right direction was set for the strategic study. The workshop was followed up by the Stakeholders’ Meeting at Chintan Bhawan of Gangtok in September 2008 to deliberate the draft Strategic Urban Plan for the State of Sikkim. The Honourable Chief Minister, Shri Pawan Chamling, together with other Ministers, high level officials of Government of Sikkim, Sikkim residents and business community, attended the meeting and shared their views on the proposed plan. Thereafter, Surbana International Consultants has reviewed and refined the proposed Strategic Urban Plan.

Fig 1. Framework for Developing the State Strategic Urban Plan

Based on the defined time scale, analysis will first focus on the projected growth and scale of population over time since population is the fundamental factor dictating urban development. The following 4 key areas will be deliberated in the report. Rural development is however not within the study scope of this Strategic Urban Plan. Population and distribution Analyze possible scenarios for geographical distribution of the population across the State based on the projected population size and expected growth of individual towns.

urban land Area/township Hierarchy Upon setting of the population model, analyze and evaluate the possible hierarchy of township and related scale of urban land To enable a right focus on the Strategic Urban Plan for the requirement to accommodate the targeted population over next State, the analysis is divided into three broad categories: • Socio-economic sector analyzing what Sikkim can do and 5 - 10 yrs, 15 – 20 yrs and 30 – 35 yrs. how to do it. • Urban planning and transport sector studying city hierarchy connections While urban land development is determined, explore possible and roles, connectivity and development patterns. • Environment sector tackling issues relating to water supply, efficient routes of connections among key centers and towns to waste disposal and management and environment manage- be developed by 2015, 2025 & 2040. ment to support the State development in short and long terms. facilities Different Scenarios will be illustrated and weighted Take a further step to ascertain various facilities requirements considering the implications. Policies will then be formulated to based on the proposed town hierarchy & population threshold, set appropriate framework to steer toward realization as well as relevant planning standards in India.

4.1.3 Approach and methodology

of the goals. As the Strategic urban Plan is a visionary planning document setting a long-term direction for the State in next 30 years, physical development will be gradually implemented and hence it is essential to define development milestones at Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Map 3: Potential Profile of Land Availability in Sikkim represented by yellowish-green shaded area

Slope Difficult terrain imposes significant development constraints. In addition to the altitude factor determining suitability of land for development, slope gives another dimension of constraint. Developments should be maximized in areas with gentle terrain. As the existing habitable profile includes substantial land area classified as Steep Area (30 -50% slope), it is necessary to ascertain the Moderately Steep Area (15 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 30% slope) within the Habitable region as development priority area. Fig 2&3 . Key Issues to be addressed in the State Strategic Urban Plan

4.1.4 constraints: Altitude The physical terrain is entirely hilly with diverse range of altitude from 213m to 8500m. The Princeton Altitude Study indicate that land above 3000m amsl inhibits human habitation. As the harsh climate restrict extent of human habitation within attitudes of 3000m. However, large portion of Sikkim area lies above and much beyond 3000m, thus limiting the land mass available for human activities. Fig 4: Habitable Area represented by grey

Fig 5: Slope profile

When the slope constraint layer is superimposed on the existing habitation profile as shown in Figure 4.2, an additional profile of 7% of moderately steep area within the habitable region may emerge and it will be considered as high priority area for urban development. The areas are marked by yellow in the map below.

Map 1: Altitude profile

Map 2: Protected areas profile

When different constraints are overlaid, the possible land area available for urbanization is apparently limited toward the southern part of Sikkim, as shown in Figure 3.2. The potential profile of land availability will further be examined for its suitability for urbanization. Fig 6:. Developable land within Sikkim.

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4.1.5 Identification of significant towns

north district planning area

While there are only 8 urban centers across Sikkim at present, 8 other potential areas can be identified as prospective urban centers in future due to their individual significant functions. These 16 towns (see Figure 5.) across the 4 districts will form the township framework within Sikkim for distribution of the projected urban population.

[Growth Driver : Hydel Projects, Tourism Development ]

east district planning area [Growth Driver : State Capital, Tourism & Urban Amenities : Education, Health, Cultural facilities, Administrative Center] • Gangtok Urban-Area: “State Capital with the highest level of Urban Amenities” to reinforce its current status as the State Capital. • Singtam Sub-Area: “State Trade Center” due to its strategic location along NH31A and presence of established industries. • Rangpo Sub-Area: “Fringe Center” which is selfcontained since it is a ‘welcoming town’ and all travelers to Sikkim will have to pass through the area; • “Institutional Development-University Town” to capitalize on the existing Engineering and Medical Colleges facilities. • Sherathang Sub-Area: “Border Trade Center” due to its proximity to the Nathu La Pass, China and Bhutan. • Pakyong Sub-Area: “Transport Hub” to create a multi-nodal transport system comprising the new State airport, railway and highway transit. • Rongli Sub-Area: “Local Trade Centre” to cater to the population in the far south of the East District.

• Mangan Urban-Area: “Northern Service Center, Hydro Electric Projects” to capitalize the possible hydro power generated along Tista River. • Phodong Sub-Area: “Tourism Development Zone” to capitalize on the attractions in the area. • Chungthang Sub-Area: “Tourism Development Zone” to capitalize on the attractions in the area South district planning area [Growth Driver : Industrial Development, Administrative Center] • Namchi Urban-Area: 2nd “Administrative Center” supporting Gangtok as a sub-Capital. • Jorethang Sub-Area: “Interstate Trade Center” due to its proximity to West Bengal. • Ravong Sub-Area: “Tourism Development Zone” to capitalize on the attractions in the area. • Melli Sub-Area: “Fringe Center” which is self-contained since it is seen as the face of Sikkim to welcome arrivals of visitors to Sikkim; potential to be another “Interstate Trade Center” due to its proximity to West.

4.1.6 urban land requirement 2040

The land required for growth of the towns is calculated and shown in figure 6. Gangtok & Namchi continue to become a west district planning area 1st Tier urban centers catering for higher level services such as State Universities, Specialized Health Services, State Defense, [Growth Driver : Geyzing – Pelling Tourism ] etc., to the towns around the region. Again, Gangtok is not proposed to see significant growth and therefore the major focus • Geyzing Urban-Area: “Tourism Development Zone” to capital- shall remain in redevelopment of the existing land uses while ize on the attractions in the area further expansion is limited to 2 sq km. Namchi shall continue to • Nayabazaar Sub-Area: “Interstate Trade Center” due to its grow to its planned scale of a mega town. It will require a total of close proximity to West Bengal 34 sq km of developable land by 2040. The west ward growth of • Soreng Sub-Area: “Local Trade Center” to cater to the popu- Namchi together with Jorethang and Nayabazaar may reform an lation in the south part of West District urban agglomeration to become a larger urban area. table 1. land required for growth of towns by 2040.

Map 4. Proposed 16 Urban Centers for State Strategic Plan – Inclusive of 8 Established Towns and 8 Additional Towns Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Chapter 4: Development Plan by SURBANA

Geyzing & Mangan will become the major urban centers for the surrounding rural, semi – rural communities in North and the West District. Singtam, Rangpo and Pakyong are expected to grow up to a physical size of about 11.1 sq km in total each. The other towns of Ravong, Phodong and Melli will require a significant expansion in developable land area up to 7 to 9 sq km of land. Soreng and Chungthang being located in the farwest and up-north may not see significant growth; however, they will remain as a prime activity node within their respective zone.

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

4.1.8 Rail Link Referring to Figure 8, the green line Local Rail Link is proposed as a separate mode of transportation for freight to lessen the heavy vehicle traffic load on the major roads and to divert the cross-border trade activities right from the source. This Local Rail Link shall connect Sherathang with the closest National Rail Service at Damdim in the State of West Bengal. 4.1.9 Airport The airport service shall be expanded depending on future flight demands. As mentioned earlier, Kathmandu-Pakyong, Lhasa– Pakyong and Thimpu–Pakyong are some of the potential air routes and could be phased as per the flight route demand.

Map 5: Illustration of the extent of land required per town for expansion by 2040.

table 2: land area required for expansion

Map 7. Map showing potential developments

4.1.7 road link

4.1.10 road schemes proposed

Referring to Figure 8, the shorter route for Pakyong- Namchi shall be upgraded to 12m wide road of which 7.5 meter is reserved for a 2-lane carriageway for two-way traffic. Shorter connections between all the towns shall be strengthened and upgraded to 6 meter wide road of dual one lane.

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Chapter 4: Development Plan by SURBANA

4.1.11 civic facilities State level facilities such as Socio Cultural Centre may not have a sufficient catchment as indicated in the Indian provision. However being a culturally rich State, they may be accommodated within Gangtok. The Museum under construction in Namchi shall hold the State significance and hence be upgraded if required. Similarly, facilities such as Cinema / Theater may not have sufficient catchment for multiple Cinema’s. As a source of entertainment commonly seen in urban areas other than India, it could be accommodated in both the major towns like Gangtok and Namchi. Head Post Office shall be provided in both Gangtok and Namchi as well. Major District facilities such as Fire Station, Recreational Club, Cultural Centre, Parks and Open Spaces, Playground, District Sports Centre etc, shall be provided in all 4 towns and Rangpo and Jorethang . Adequate land reservations shall be made for the most basic civic/ cultural facilities such as Religious Site, Taxi ground, Post Office, Police Station, Residential Unit Play Area, Neighborhood Play Area, Neighborhood Park, etc in all the 16 communities. Religious establishments are comparatively higher than the average Indian provisions, and therefore need to be extrapolated and adapted into the local requirements of Sikkim. Social Safety services such as Police Posts shall be provided in all rural areas.

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

State initiatives on provision of basic level of education is quite commendable. However, these facilities are yet to meet the national standards and require further upgradation. Other than the improvements of existing Schools, additional basic educational facilities such as nursery school, kindergarten, primary school, junior high school, secondary school and senior secondary school shall be distributed among all the 16 communities based on the population and commuting range. The seventh All India School Education Survey indicated the percentage of population who had access to primary schools within 1km walking distance, upper primary school within 3 km, secondary school within 5 km and the senior secondary school within 8km. However, based on other Indian practices, the comfortable commuting range of 1km for Primary School, 2km for Junior High School, 4km for Secondary School, and 6 km for Senior Secondary School is recommended to be considered for the distribution of schools in the State.

4.1.14 commercial facilities Adequate land reservations for District Centre shall be made in the major towns of Gangtok and Namchi. Other than Geyzing and Mangan, current commercially active towns of Singtam and Jorethang shall also be provided with the Community Centers.

Similarly, local level basic commercial facilities such as Sector Center shall be provided in all the 16 towns. The existing RMC’s shall be upgraded to become the Sector Centers as well. The Indian Practices require the General Hospital to be 500 bedded, Convenient Shopping facilities are distributed amongst all the Intermediate Hospital to be 200 bedded, Polyclinics to be 20 16 significant Towns and the RMC’s shall still be planned to cabedded and Nursing/ Child/ Maternity to be 25 bedded and Dis- ter the rural communities. pensaries to be 10 bedded respectively.

4.1.12 Health facilities

The distribution shown is based on the provisional Indian Practices of health infrastructure requirement indicated earlier. As illustrated, the preliminary idea is for health facilities such as General Hospital and Specialized Health Care to be distributed between the major towns of Gangtok and Namchi; with an adequate number of Intermediate Hospitals and Polyclinics provided in both of these towns as well as Geyzing and Mangan. Basic Town level health facilities such as Nursing, Child / Maternity care and the Dispensary shall be provided in all 16 communities. Hence, the Health infrastructure requirements bring about the significant health services opportunities particularly in Namchi. The Health Services Industry may further capitalize on the “Healing with Nature” factor which shall draw people from beyond the State catchment.

4.1.13 Institutional facilities State level institutional facilities such as Universities could be distributed between the major towns of East and West District. The existing Sikkim Manipal University in Gangtok has its Engineering and Medical Colleges in Majhitar near Rangpo. This educational infrastructure shall be further enhanced to accommodate additional faculties. A new University shall be explored in Namchi with additional Engineering and Medical Colleges including other Colleges, Institutional Facilities, University focusing on management, tourism, horticulture, bio technology etc. Other than the existing institutional facilities near Rangpo, Integrated Schools with Hostel, other Colleges and Research Institutes shall be provided in Gangtok, Namchi, Geyzing and Mangan. The earlier illustrated table provides a strong indication of potential opportunities for integrated schools and research facilities.

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Map 8. Map showing proposed facilities in the urban towns

Chapter 4: Development Plan by SURBANA

4.2 gangtok Strategic urban Plan The strategic Urban Plan has defined the functional hierarchy and scale of the 16 urban towns in the State of Sikkim. The Land Use Structure Plan for the Gangtok Township herein is developed according the planning framework and attributes set in the State Strategic Urban Plan. The structure plan explains the pattern of urban growth in the ultimate Gangtok Municipal Area (GPA) in the long term. To ensure that the Gangtok Land Use Structure Plan meets its planning objectives, a step-by-step planning process is adopted.

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

The state strategic urban plan has re-defined the heirarchy of the 16 urban centres within the State of Sikkim. The long term urban growth of Sikkim is to be guided by the adopted â&#x20AC;&#x153;Moderate Multiple nuclei structure â&#x20AC;&#x153;. It maintains the township of Gantgtok as the First Tier Urban Center in recognition that is the state capital.

While decentralization of urban growth away from Gangtok to Namcchi takes place over time, Gangtok will still be given space for growth though at a much slower rate. The township being the State Capital with major state level facilities would continue to carry the largest share of urban population. The GPA is expectStep 1: Expansion of Gangtok shall be assessed based on the ed to expand to an eventual size of 26.8 sq.km in the long term. potential land available for future development in the vicinity of the notified Gangtok Municipal Area. A critical analysis will table 3: Projected population and land area for Sikkim towns hence be conducted to identify and demarcate the planning area and boundary. Step 2: A contextual analysis on the physical conditions of the defined planning area will then be carried out to ascertain its SWOT. Step 3: Based on the SWOT analysis, specific planning concepts for the GPA will be established. Step 4: A development guide plan in the form of a land use structure plan for the GPA will be developed to illustrate the land use distributions and major road network. Step 5: Upon determination of the Land Use Structure Plan for the GPA, sub-area plans for the two local areas within the GPA will be formulated to illustrate the land use zoning, land use activities and their associated planning control parameters

Fig 8: Diagram showing proposed facilities in the urban towns

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Chapter 4: Development Plan by SURBANA

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

4.2.1 existing urban area and population Gangtok is located on a ridge with 2 rivers — Rongni Chhu-Rani Khola-Bakthang River and Roro Chhu River on the western and eastern sides. The current Gangtok Notified Municipal area of a total land area of 19.2 km2 covers 15 wards with a population of 94,145. table 4: gangtok ward population.

urban expansion In order to accommodate the long-term population of 160, 875 by Year 2040 and to maintain an optimal density of about 6,000 persons/sq.km, the municipality will have to expand to about 26.8 sqkm in size. Given the current size of the municipality of 19.2 sqkm, this would mean an additional land area of 7.6 sqkm and hence a new municipal boundary. Today, the eastern side of Gangtok close to Rorochu River has not been exploited and is thus a logical growth area for the future Gangtok. This urban expansion is consistent with the thinking of UDHD. To define a clear planning boundary for the longterm Gangtok Planning Area (GPA), physical attributes such as roads or rivers are used. So, the long-term GPA will be bounded by the following: • Rongni Chhu-Rani Khola-Bakthang River to the west; • Roro Chhu River to the east; and • the prevailing northern boundary of the Notified Gangtok Municipal Area. The southeastern corner near the confluence of Rongni Chhu-Rani Khola-Bakthang River and Roro Chhu River should be considered first. This area is deemed as the southern gateway of Gangtok. It may not only draw immediate support from the adjacent Ranipul, but can also benefit growing businesses and trades from the transportation route to the future new Pakyong Airport. The airport expected to be completed by Year 2011 is widely seen as a catalyst in fostering developments in the south of Gangtok. Further urban growth is anticipated to move toward the northeastern area near the highway to Nathu La Pass. The northeast is reserved for the last stage of development because the economic significance of the opening of Nathu La Pass is unlikely to be realized in the short and medium terms. The figures below show the growth direction and projected land area for urban expansion (the actual land area may vary from the projected area due to adjustments based on the physical ground conditions and plan scaling factors). Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Map 9. Possible growth direction for Gangtok.

Chapter 4: Development Plan by SURBANA

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

4.2.2 Planning concept proposed for gangtok

The planning structure for the Gangtok Planning Area (GPA), is derived primarily based on a constellation concept of multiple Keeping in mind the existing landuse of Gangtok and the growth regional and fringe commercial centers circling the established patterns, the proposed idea for landuse development and ex- commercial core, the CBD at M.G. Marg, in recognition of the pansion is given. There are 4 major aspects taken into consider- latter as a magnet in Gangtok. ation which help to understan the proposed landuse, ResidenFurther, two tourism-themed nodes are planted at the northern tial, Institutional, Special uses like military and Open spaces. and southern tips of GPA to support the commercial activities on the one hand, and on the other to serve as iconic gateways to Gangtok for entries from the north and the south. A number of green areas which integrate the highly constrained space into public parks are distributed across GPA to ensure easy reach of people. All these land uses are well connected by systematic ring roads constellation of commercial centers: 2 regional centers are anchored at the northern and southern ends of Gangtok, which align with the existing commercial core at M.G. Marg to form a N-S commercial axis. The southern regional center will be on par with the existing CBD in terms of development scale. It aims to allow for government regional offices and commercial/tourism activities to be closer to the coming Pakyong airport and also to be decentralized from the over-crowded CBD. The northern regional center however will be of a smaller scale, catering to the growing tourists in the area. 4 other fringe centers including the existing retail node at NH31A are smaller centers and are distributed at the inner ring road. tourism-themed iconic gateways : To capitalize on the Sikkimâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rich natural green and strong culture, 2 themes consisting of the Nature Zone and the Cultural Zone are showcased. The Nature Zone is planted in the northFig 9: Existing land use ern Gangtok to allow an extension of the existing zoo with naThe 4 aspects of constraints retained, unstable, non-develop- ture at Hanumantok, while the Cultural Zone in the south is more able and forest land when put together, give a very clear layer activity-oriented, forming an arts hub for street cultural perforof summary of all physical constraints affecting the planning of mances, musicals and cultural film displays, etc. These 2 zones GPA. will support the regional centers and serve to draw crowds to the areas.

Fig 10. Planning Constraints.

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Fig 11. Landuse concept.

Chapter 4: Development Plan by SURBANA

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

4.2.3 Proposed roads and other connections

4.2.4 Proposed communities

The proposed road structure needs to be translated to the actual ground environment in order to fit into the physical terrain. Despite the still meandering nature of the road schemes, the outer ring road will be realized with minimized sharp turns and hence higher speed of travel is enabled. The inner ring road which makes use of the existing Indra Bypass and Gangtok Bypass would serve as a traffic distributor from the national highway and main route for commuting in the inner town. Collector roads are added as connectors between the ring roads and the national highway such that the overall traffic circulation and movement within Gangtok will be greatly enhanced. However, these collector roads run against the terrain and are expected with slower speed of travel due to more turns.

To enable better sector planning for local facilities, it is proposed for the GPA to be divided into 7 planning communities. Sector planning will ensure a balanced catchment of facility users within each community, while still adopting the user ratio stipulated in the Indian Standards.

Fig 12: Proposed road networks

Fig 14a: Proposed communities.

The communities are characterized as follows: With largely even coverage of developable land area for each community and hence balanced population size, and With clear physical boundary defined by either existing or proposed roads.

table 5: Showing community area and population

Fig 13: Proposed ropeway stations and towers Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Chapter 4: Development Plan by SURBANA

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

4.2.5 Proposed land use Based on the layers studied the proposed land use is given which explains the development around Gangtok and the proposed expansion.

Fig 15: Proposed Cultural zone.

4.2.7 natural zone Fig 14b: Proposed Land use.

table 6: table showing land use.

The proposed natural zone aims at expansion of Himalayan zoo and upgrading it to international standards by revamping it to provide sights of rare animals that area indigenous to Sikkim. Attached zoological gardens, research facilities on zoology and horticulture can be set up. Over the years a Bird park orBbutterfly park can be developed to showcase the flora and fauna of Sikkim.

4.2.6 cultural zone A cultural zone by Year 2025 will capitalize on the higher spending power of the casino visitors and the increasing affluence of the locals. It is noted that currently, Sikkim has a Institute for Tibetology but there is no history museum, natural history museum, art museum or any other special interest museum of note. The proposed museum will signal an important investment from the Sikkim Government in meeting the cultural and educational aspirations of the Sikkim people.

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Fig 16: Proposed Natural zone.

Chapter 4: Development Plan by SURBANA

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

4.3 Sub-region proposal 4.3.1 South gangtok Bazaar area The South Gangtok Bazaar is found to the south of the Lower Syari army compound. The SGB is generally a greenfield (undeveloped) site with pockets of developments/dwellings along the existing NH31A. The National Highway cuts through the town of Ranipul which sits at the entry point into Gangtok. The prestigious Mayfair Hotel is located within the vicinity of Ranipul. Its prime location (ie. accessibility of NH31A and waterfront views of Tista River) provides suitable conditions for an exclusive hotel zone mentioned earlier. Apart from NH31A, the area has another important existing connection. Branching from NH31A, an existing local road leads to the Airport Town of Pakyong, However, this local road may result in a traffic bottleneck with the completion of the airport the lower vehicular capacity of the local road will be unable to cater to the projected surge of traffic heading to the airport. A new State Highway with a higher vehicular capacity is proposed as an alternative for easing traffic congestion on the existing road.

Fig 17: Existing settlements in South Gangtok Bazaar area.

4.3.2 thematic zoning

Fig 18: Green corridors along the streams

Fig 19: Proposed land use of South Gangtok Bazaar area.

table 7: table showing land use of South gangtok Bazaar area.

As Gangtok’s Green Tourism Gateway, South Gangtok Bazaar, will capitalize on its innate charm and natural features by creating prime nodes and activity anchors around a network of natural greenery. These anchors are then strung together by a Tourist-Commercial Belt — creating a spine of various visitor-oriented attractions and, activities. This spine will flow between nodes — contrasting between a busy urban fabric and a permeating network of green corridors. Organized as a series of tiers/bands of uses meshed with greenery, the scale and intensity of activity and development will diminish as one goes up the hillside — with urban commercial development slowly fading into tiers of residential communities.

Fig 20: Schematic section showing land use of South Gangtok Bazaar area. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Chapter 4: Development Plan by SURBANA

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

4.3.3 west gangtok area The WGA is largely an undeveloped area, scattered with houses. It spots an existing road to Rankra, and in the vicinity - the Jhakri Falls and a steep ridge. Unlike the SGB, the WGA covers relatively gentle land - with a slope profile of 30% and below. The existing slope condition facilitates development, thus urbanization, of the area. Land in the WGA is generally (approximately 75%) relatively unstable - indices ‘3’ and ‘4’ -where developments are allowed until 20 feet. This development parameter, however, can be stretched higher in the presence of more advanced construction methods.

Fig 23 Proposed West Gangtok area land use

Table 8: Showing West Gangtok area land use

Fig 21: West Gangtok area existing plan

Fig 22: Green corridors along streams Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Fig 24: Proposed internal road 8m wide and Pedestrian pathway 6m wide.

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

chapter 5: Proposals

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Chapter 5: Proposals

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Fig 1: Conceptual diagram

5.1 Proposal 1 (refer plate no. 30 - 37)

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Chapter

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

Fig 2: Conceptual diagram

5.2 Proposal 2 (refer plate no. 38 - 45)

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Fig 3: Conceptual diagram

It is good to have an end to journey toward; but it is the journey that matters, in the end.”- Ernest Hemingway.” The Gangtok city and the region around is best suited for travel expeditions because of its rich culture, traditions and its location in the magnificent Himalayas. Bountiful in abundant forest, flora, and natural landscape comprising of rivers, cultivated fields, valleys, ridges etc, it becomes “the perfect travel destination.” The proposal aims to enhance the experience of travelling of the tourists and the locals in the region around Gangtok. It intends to emphasize on the experiential values of the area through landscape interventions and to make the expedition more interactive for the natives and visitors. The aim throughout has been to connect different cultural destinations(the villages of different characters) to the Gangtok city and outskirts. An effort is aimed towards bringing the potential areas to the forefront. Since the objective of the proposal is to enhance the travel through cultural and scenic lenses an effort will be made to provide ways of experiencing the culture and the landscape around, through provision of pause points, trails, observation decks etc. The proposal also takes care of the critical areas and sensitively proposes ways to merge it into the travel expedition.

AccentuAtIng tHe VISuAl nArrAtIVe

Chapter

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Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

5.3 Proposal 3 (refer plate no. 46 - 60)

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Sichugan

Namnang

GANGTOK

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Fig 4: Conceptual diagram

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sin

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Martam

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Pachey

Pakyon

Athm il

Lin

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San

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Lachung

Namangteng

Pam

Luksh

Ti m

Nan

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Pilgrimage Tourism

Honeymoon Tourism

Eco Tourism

Cultural Tourism

Agri Tourism

Adventure Tourism

on Lin

sha

ran

Gao

Tad

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pd gt

Ra Sa n

Su Ru

khon

Jong

Rural tourism is particularly relevant in developing nations where farmland has become fragmented due to population growth. The wealth that rural tourism can provide to poor households creates great prospects for development.

Relevance in developing nations

Rural tourism allows the creation of a replacement source of income in the non-agricultural sector for rural dwellers.[citation needed] The added income from rural tourism can contribute to the revival of lost folk art and handicrafts.

• Rural tourism focuses on actively participating in a rural lifestyle. • Many rural villages can facilitate tourism because many villagers are hospitable and eager to welcome (and sometime even host) visitors. • Agriculture is becoming highly mechanized and therefore, requires less manual labor. This trend is causing economic pressure on some villages, which in turn causes young people to move to urban areas. • There is however, a segment of the urban population that is interested in visiting the rural areas and understanding the lifestyle. Benefits

Rural Tourism

The approach here for decentralization is here through ‘Rural Tourism’ (Refer diagram).

• Decentralisation, could offer greater efficiency and effectiveness in a number of different areas. • Territorial decentralisation, plans can be tailor-made for local areas using detailed and up-to-date information that is only available locally, and inter-organisational co- ordination can be achieved at the local level. • Experimentation and innovation can be fostered by decentralisation, and this can increase the chances of generating more effective development strategies. • Decentralisation may also help enhance the motivation of field level personnel, as they have greater responsibility for the programmes they manage.

Merits:

Territorial decentralisation involves a transfer of authority to perform some service to the public, from an individual or an agency in central government to some other individual or agency, which is closer to the public to be served.

Tourism is the world’s fastest growing industry. In many developing countries, tourism is the number one job and revenue generator. Within the tourism industry, ecotourism activities are also becoming more important and further growth is expected in the future.

Decentralization of Tourism

Chapter Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

5.4 Proposal 4 (refer plate no. 61 - 68)

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Burn

Appendix

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

3. Afforestation of degraded forests with following aims: Introduction of native floral species. Emphasis on minor forest produce. Introduction of bamboo as fast regenerating natural resource. Hill station Introduction of agroforestry practices. Soil erosion control and resilience. A town located at a higher elevation than the nearby plain or Improve moisture retention and recharge potential. valley. In the Indian Context most of the Hill stations are at an Improve habitat suitability for wildlife. altitude of approximately between 1000 and 2500 meters (3500 Protection buffer around critical zones, water bodies and road to 7500 feet) edges. 4. Improve water balance of the study region. Significance of Hills 5. Ensure sustainable development of Mount Abu hill station.

region type – Hilly terrains

• 1 / 4th of the total land surface • 1/10th of the population • 2/5th population occupies the watershed areas

History of hill stations Hills provide for various significant things including forests for high quality timber, Fertile soil for food production, water, many non- timber forest products, minerals to name a few. Thus man began to settle in the hills to satisfy his frugal needs, which initially did not strain the environment. Over a period a close amiable relation was established between man and nature , in some parts that relation still thrives and some regions are not as deeply or adversely affected.

major events Some human interventions though extended greater influences for instance the technological advancements during the industrial revolution. The population explosions and intensive utilization of resources lead to a pattern of extensive settlements even in the hills. The frugal needs turned into voracious pattern of use and also came to include tourism. During the British era then the Indian context saw the creation of “HILL STATIONS”. This in the long run lead to local climate changes that in turn influence regional environmental problems, this in the further course of time will affect the global climate and other natural ecological cycles of the world.

Some Indian Hill Stations in India • Simla, Himachal Pradesh • Mount Abu, Rajasthan • Saputara, Gujarat

Simla, Himachal Pradesh Hills Shivalik Range major concerns Tourist activities and increased Pollution levels Urbanization pressure (Political and administrative capital ) Education centre – added floating population Agricultural pressures due to unprecedented growth Erosion susceptibility in the areas of steep slopes – 3/ 4 th coverage by steep slopes Urban growth choking valleys and thus water sources Change in gradient due to construction of roads Intent • Conservation of existing vegetation and forests • Instilling checks on the number of tourists • Reduction in the areas open to tourists • Augmenting resources around areas of higher tourist in flow and floating population • Promoting a balance between economically profitable activities and the populace influx • Urbanization restricted to areas far from dense forests and along slopes lesser than 20% • Promote eco-tourism and alternate and sustainable forms of tourism • Segregate the concentration areas of administrative, educational and tourist significance to disseminate stress from one centre. table suggesting direct correlation between activities and various elements of any regional landscape

mount Abu, rajasthan Hills Aravali Range major concerns Human settlements & encroachments Agriculture and grazing practices Extraction of forest products & grass cutting Construction of roads & dams Tourist activities and increased water usage

other threats

Soil erosion 2nd&3rd order streams & high slopes

Inferences Land & Vegetation cover in case of hilly terrains play the most significant roles Economics of a certain place may become a pivotal component in the easy adoption of any change or new model of development proposed.

Intent

1. Conservation of existing vegetation. 2. Augmenting income through sustainable forest management practices. Masters program in Landscape 2015 | C.E.P.T University

Appendix

Regional Landscape Study - Gangtok, Sikkim.

comparison of factors across selected studied hill stations factors

mount Abu

Simla

Saputara

threats / concerns range

Aravali

Shivalik

Sahyadri

Altitude

1220 MSL

2195 MSL

882 MSL

total annual Precipitation (mm)

1554.2 mm

1575 mm

1273 mm

max rH

min rH

Preferred Period

April to Oct

Basic geology

Granitic

April-august Dec - Jan

March April Nov - Feb Igneous

total Area (Ha)

2500

1763.3

total Population

1,69,758

2,26,769

19 % 17% area 0-10%slope

20-30% 60% area 0-10% slope

% growth dominant Slope

29% area 0-10% slope

total run- off

540 mcm

reserved forest

92 %

55%

62%

dense vegetation

32 %

22%

22 %

Area under Settlements & agriculture

23%

Soil erosion (moderatehigh susceptibility)

56%

40%

Soil depth (major Areas)

Shallow

tourist Population

380 mcm

Shallow

Moderately Deep

33,59,769

threats & concerns common across the hill stations and respective proposals and intents

Threats & Concerns

Intents & Proposals

Forest fires

Fire stations, other means of controlling fire no burning of leaf litter, introducing forest lines.

Soil Erosion

Cultivation in steeper slopes restricted vegetation cover maintained , contour bunding

Decreased Land Fertility

Opportunity of humus generation

Contamination of Water & Air

Regulation over tourist activities, tribal privileges,

Excessive Run-off

Check dams along streams close to the settlements

Forest Depletion & degradation

Rotational Grazing, Regulation over procurement of forest produce prevention of ground level forest fires, tree felling

Poor Regeneration of Forest Cover

Prevention of ground level forest fires, rotation and regulated grazing, Control over timber extraction, control over extraction of other forest produce

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