CITY AND POLITICS ------
Compare Slum in Mumbai and Urban Village in Guangzhou ARC303 URBAN(HI)STORIES / JUNYI BAI / 140157297
INTRODUCTION CAUSE OF EMERGENCE LAND OWNERSHIP POLICY REGION INDUSTRY REBUILD CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
The world's knowledge of the Dharavi slum in Mumbai was focused by the 2008 British drama film ‘Slumdog Millionaire’1. The movie won eight Oscar awards and propelled the neighbourhood the largest slum in both Mumbai and Asia into our field of vision, it becoming a new tourist attraction virtually overnight. The area of Dharavi is only about 1.75 square kilometers with a population of over one million. According to UN-Habitat2, the term ‘slum’ is used to refer to areas with the worst housing conditions, the unhealthiest living environments, and characterised by a prevalence of crime and drug users. The residents often suffer safe water shortages, inadequate health facilities, and high population density. In 2013, around 50% of the world's population lived in urban areas, of which 32% occupied areas could be considered as slums. Slums are found in Brazil, Mexico and India amongst other countries. Britain and American had serious slums problems in the Nineteenth century. Seems to be slum phenomenon didn't appear in rapidly developing China. In fact, China does have slums which are called ‘Urban Village’3. The urban village is a ‘crack’ in the city, is a residential area in the highly developed city. Lagging behind the pace of the urban development, the urban village becomes detached from the modern city management. Guangzhou is the earliest developed Chinese city after Reform and Opening up, also the first in which an urban village appeared. According to statistics, there are now 138 urban villages in the city. Guangzhou has a resident population of nearly 6 million, of which about 5 million are immigrants. The area of the urban villages in Guangzhou is around 716 square kilometers, an area equivalent to the entire territory of Singapore4. 1
Boyle, D., Tandan, L., Beaufoy, S., Swarup, V., Patel, D., Pinto, F. and Shukla, S. (2016). Slumdog Millionaire (2008). [online] IMDb. Available at: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1010048/ [Accessed 14 Dec. 2016]. Unhabitat.org. (2016). Housing & slum upgrading – UN-Habitat. [online] Available at: http://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/housing-slum-upgrading/ [Accessed 14 Dec. 2016]. 3 En.wikipedia.org. (2016). Urban village (China). [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_village_(China) [Accessed 14 Dec. 2016]. 4 “A groundbreaking current affairs book documenting the largest population move in human history, as a third of the world's people migrate into cities, rupturing societies across the globe.” 5 Culture.ifeng.com. (2016). 知名记者桑德斯：政治应少介入城市文明 ( 图 )_ 文化频道 _ 凤凰网 . [online] Available at: http://culture.ifeng.com/1/detail_2012_04/25/14144793_0.shtml?_from_ralated [Accessed 14 Dec. 2016].
2
The slums and urban villages are all ‘arrival cities’ in the rapidly modernizing urban process. Doug Saunders, author ‘Arrival City: How the Largest Migration in History is Reshaping Our World’ 5, was born in a slum area. He said in an interview of a magazine Southern Weekend:" I came to understand that the pattern of this poor immigrant community is a mechanism to improve the lives of people around me." (April 2012) Being poor, crowded, and dirty are only the surface characteristics of the slum, and these conditions do not tell us why slums exist. In fact, a typical slum is a springboard for new immigrants to enter the mainstream of society, providing an affordable supporting refuge during the adaptation period. The people who have already adapted to the urban life may find it difficult to understand that nearly all aspects of life are different in rural areas, including dialects, living habits, values, ethics, ability evaluation standard, etc. If the new arrivals cannot get support from family members the acquaintances, it is hard for them to find a job or get along with the local people. The newcomers bring part of their original social relationships and cultural structure into the arrival city. Thus they can use familiar language, make friends, and gain help as well as have their belief system. Superficially, the appearance of Mumbai's slums and the urban villages in Guangzhou are the same -- low level construction, limited housing space, security risks, and rubbish-strewn; conversely, self-contained, with a low cost of living and often in an excellent location. But in fact, whether it is through causes of their emergence, land ownership, policy, or cultural industry there is a significant difference between the slums of India and urban villages in China. The place I grew up in Guangzhou is close to Guangzhou’s largest urban village. I remembered how friend invited me to his home in the village and I was curious about the scene and there could be such a contrast between urban street and village alley in such a small distance. Therefore, for this study, I have first-hand knowledge and photographs to provide a profound understanding of the subject of research. The essay will take the cities of Mumbai and Guangzhou as examples and examine the political aspects of the causes of emergence, land ownership, policy, and cultural industry, in an attempt to find the difference between slum and urban village.
Fig1. SLUM OF DHARAVI Fig2. GUANGZHOU URBAN VILLAGE
CAUSE OF EMERGENCE
MUMBAI During the process of urbanisation in Mumbai, the economic boom attracted a massive influx of rural population into the city. The urban infrastrycture could not absorb the increase in population, but the migrants who had left their farms had nowhere to return to. Compared to the depressed rural areas, the city can provide employment opportunities for migrants. However, these are not sufficiently lucrative to enable them to settle and enjoy a normal life in the city. Therefore, to meet the minimum requirements of human existence, these settlers can only use scrap metal, fabric, blankets, plastic sheeting and pieces of bamboos to create a humble shack as a shelter. In the course of time, such basicallyconstructed housing settlements began to spread within the city and gradually form huge slums. With the increasing population and rising real estate prices, the housing problem in Mumbai is deteriorating. Dharavi is the largest slum in Mumbai, and is only ten minutes' driving distance from Mumbai Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport. It is in the center of Mumbai, with two main suburban railways line (the Western and Central Railways) laying to the south-east and south-west. Because of its geographical advantage and cheap rental cost, Dharavi soon became denser in population than any other slums area. Among other professions, doctors, lawyers, accountants and white-collar workers gathered here. People live in overcrowded spaces with narrow alleys, usually less than 30 cm wide. Shelters do not exceed two stories, and each story is less than two meters high, giving a per capita living area of two or three square meters6. Often ten people are crowded into a twenty square meters shelter with a rent of only 2000 Rupees per month (equivalent to £24). This compares with rent for houses in the neighbouring urban community – possibly in the street beside the area of Dharavi -- which is charged at least four or five times higher.
6
Culture.ifeng.com. (2016). 知名记者桑德斯：政治应少介入城市文明 ( 图 )_ 文化频道 _ 凤凰网 . [online] Available at: http://culture.ifeng.com/1/detail_2012_04/25/14144793_0. shtml?_from_ralated [Accessed 14 Dec. 2016]. 7 Jstor.org. (2016). Externalities and Land Economics on JSTOR. [online] Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3144968?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents [Accessed 2 Dec. 2016]. 8 Zhuanlan.zhihu.com. (2016). urban village experience. [online] Available at: https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/20152261 [Accessed 2 Dec. 2016].
GUANGZHOU
With the expansion of the city, more suburban land is needed to provide living space. The village land belongs to the homestead, only through the collection by the country can change the original village land into the state-owned land resource using for the expansion of urban space. However, the land collection for property transfer is highly cost, and often violent demolition becomes headlines across the nation. The government often skips over the collection of the homestead, only transfer the farmland, which led to urban construction surround the villages. In these situations, the surrounded rural villages become, in effect, urban villages. Because of the externality effect of the economy7, even though the urban villages are poorly constructed and have inadequate facilities, they are able to rely on the public services and infrastructure of the wider city beyond. But this leads to two consequences: high-density housing constructed by villagers to earn more rent; and a large number of migrants using the urban villages as ‘arrival cities’. The proportion of the migrant population and the established resident population exceeded 10:1 in the urban village8. These two consequences significantly increase the living density and worsen the living condition inside urban villages. Also, due to the nature of land ownership in urban villages, road widths, construction heights, and other regulations cannot be controlled by the government, which makes these neighbourhoods incompatible with the surrounding urban spaces.
Fig3. INDIAN FAEMERS Fig4. CHINESE MIGRANTS GOING BACK TO HOMETOWN DURING VACATION
LAND OWNERSHIP
MUMBAI Since life in urban is difficult, it might be asked why migrants do not return to their rural farmlands? In fact, if the rural areas were able to reintegrate the migrants and ensure a freedom of migration, the slum problem could be greatly alleviated. ‘Private ownership of land’ and ‘land tenancy’9 has long been the main characteristics of agricultural production in India. Once the majority of the Indian farmers leave the rural areas they are completely cut off from the farmland tenancy relationship. After all, they have no direct ownership, so it is impossible for them to move freely between the rural and urban spaces. It can be said that it is the characteristics of land tenancy that gives rural India its lack of social and geographical mobility. Without a place to return to in the countryside, starving peasants can only depend on the poor wages and slums of the city to solve the problem of living. This kind of situation makes the slum no longer a simple economic problem, but a profound reflection of national state of development in India.
9
News.ifeng.com. (2016).Indian land policy [online] Available at: http://news.ifeng.com/a/20160219/47490593_0.shtml [Accessed 14 Dec. 2016]. Baike.baidu.com. (2016). Urban-rural Dualism. [online] Available at: http://baike.baidu.com/link?url=qv6eizcRe5s1yMX8p2U7V6OlMpch7fvcM6dfdr05v5jzLrUsoPZSn3_chpheDftSKvM4lxMKdld0ie7xuNGGUmFwgh3OKIIUGsAidle9USrcdXNoIveZbsnqKa6qIGkBE2QVq4NJfLcP1D_YKNR8ytSZA1ObG-G8eJSeIywuL ae92mfPovDzBMKF7OCe4rL [Accessed 5 Dec. 2016]. 10
GUANGZHOU
On the surface, the reason why the urban villages emerge is due to rapid urbanization. However, it is in fact due to the deep-seated institution of China's urban and rural management system, known as "Urban-rural Dualism"10. This term relates to the fact that China's urban land is state-owned whereas rural land belongs to the village collective. The Urban-rural Dualism structure allows the villagers obtain the land ownership easily. They build density housing regardless of the building regulation. The forming of urban villages is the result of villagers maximising the rental income in a situation of rapid increasing land prices. Compared to the farmers in Mumbai, China does not have a situation of large-scale landless peasants living in the cities. As long as the farmer has a rural registration, the government will ensure that he owns the land. That is to say, if the quality of life in city is unsatisfactory, the farmer can always return to the rural area.
Fig5. FIGURE SHOWING THE CASTE SYSTEM Fig6. A MAN HOLDING A PROVE OF "HUKOU"
POLICY
MUMBAI Hinduism plays a major role in the formation of the Indian slums. From the perspective of the number of believers, the Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam. Approximately 80% of the population in India - that is, nine hundred and fifty million Indians – is Hindu. There are two core tenets to the Hindu religion: Firstly, the caste system11, and, secondly, the belief in reincarnation of life. The caste system is intended to divide people into different levels, or classes, depending upon the hereditary principle. The different levels are permitted different occupations and, enjoy different political and economic rights. The levels are not permitted to mix or, work across classes. Any violation is subject to strict punishment. In the slums, the ‘untouchables’ are the main residents. Because other Hindus believe that they are not clean and do not wish to live alongside with them. The ‘untouchables’ have generally no power or money and are cut off from changing their social status by religion. So, historically, they gathered together, and because of their poverty, the area became a slum. Thus, the Hindu religion is a prerequisite for the formation of the slums of India, in a way that is different from the urban villages of China. Because of the Hindu notion of the eternal life-cycle, low caste Indians accept the status quo, injustice and suffering, since, only by submission can they earn a happy afterlife. Whether through the caste system or life cycle, plays a familiar role in India Society: unconditional recognition and acceptance of life in India. Thus the society can be maintained in a stable condition and the status quo of the slums is unquestioned.
11
Tiwari, R. (n.d.). Caste System and Social Stratification in India. SSRN Electronic Journal. Chan, K. and Zhang, L. (1999). The Hukou System and Rural-Urban Migration in China: Processes and Changes. The China Quarterly, 160, p.818 13 Branigan, T. (2014) China reforms hukou system to improve migrant workers’ rights. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/31/china-reform-hukoumigrant-workers (Accessed: 19 January 2017). 12
GUANGZHOU China also has a system that divides its population, namely the so-called ‘Hukou’ 12 or household registration system. ‘Hukou’ shows the legitimacy of person living in certain city and ensure the right of education and medical care. ‘Hukou’ strictly limits the farming population who moved to cities, and the free flow of the population within the territory of China. It creates a political wall to separate urban and rural areas and generates the Urban-rural Dualism structure, which has caused the inequality of social and economic development between the two environments. The main function of the ‘Hukou’ system is to prevent migrants from enjoying the local public welfare in order to save government spending and social resources. In fact, Chinese decision makers have a clear understanding of the nature of this policy. They know that the development of urban infrastructure must rely on the availability of cheap labours, but the government is not willing to provide the primary benefits of the city for these people. The official rhetoric is that large urban centres cannot cope with the large population pressures, so the ‘Hukou’ system is used to prevent the population moving into the city centre. But in fact the ‘Hukou’ system is not able to play such role, because the development of the country is very uneven, a significant number of people from backward areas are still coming to the cities, even though they have no ‘Hukou’ and no welfare. They are willing to pay by themselves in order to earn more money and have better social resources. This policy is certainly not fair to migrants13. They work in the city, create value for it, and even pay local taxes, but they cannot enjoy the benefits of the city. Without a ‘Hukou’, they cannot buy an apartment in the city, so they can only rent. Some landlords seize the opportunity to increase the rent. So the migrants can only afford to live in the urban village with their low incomes. Sadly, they often spend their most productive years there and, when they get older and face the problems of children's education, huge medical costs and pension income, they are likely to give up their accumulated years of residence in the city and return to the rural area.
Fig7. INDIAN PORTORY INDUSTRY Fig8. A FAMILY RESTAURANT INSIDE URBAN VILLAGE
REGION INDUSTRIES
MUMBAI The ceramic, leather, textile and recycling industries are the four main sources of employment in the slums of Mumbai. Here, thousands of small businesses are operated. In a dusty waste recycling workshop, in dim light, four or five workers carry out the work without wearing any protective equipment. There was a charity organization that tried to donate masks and gloves to the workers, but they refused. Gloves would affect the efficiency of their work, and masks are not useful at all: the temperature in this small dark workshop is close to 40 degrees, and the dust soon soaks into the sweaty mask, making breathing difficult. Workers work 10 hours a day, except on important religious festivals, in exchange for an income of 5000 rupees (equivalent to 60 Sterling Pounds) per month. For the people from the rural areas, the income they earn by working in the factory for two or three months is equivalent to their annual income from farming. There are approximately 15,000 family workshops in Dharavi. Early residents of Dharavi established their factories by primitive accumulation and recruit new arrvals for work. Some places are famous for leather production, others for the production of pottery. These places have gradually developed into an industrial district with slum characteristics, but their contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Mumbai is more than $600 million annually, and they provide hundreds of thousands of jobs.
14
Blog.sina.com.cn. (2016). stories in Dharavi. [online] Available at: http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_6cde0a350102e1d4.html [Accessed 5 Dec. 2016]. Wu, F. (2016) ‘Housing in Chinese urban villages: The dwellers, conditions and tenancy informality’, Housing Studies, 31(7), pp. 852–870. doi: 10.1080/02673037.2016.1150429. 15
GUANGZHOU In Guangzhou, inside the urban villages there are a variety of shops at ground floor level along the main road. Fast food outlets, manicure stalls, convenience stores, and other modern commercial business aggregate, and even form a commercial street. The nightlife of some large urban villages is very popular. Inexpensive space and high density gives birth to a number of low-cost industries, small commodities, resident services (Barber and repair), food and beverage sales, so that many urban villages have become a complete living space with life services and industrial agglomeration. Sometimes, the white-collar workers from surrounding affluent urban areas come to the urban village to buy cheap food and daily necessities. Urban villages become a kind of self-sufficient place. Also, many original villagers rely on rental housing as a source of income. Although the urban village has many disadvantages, the convenience of the location and relatively low price attract many migrant workers and even young white-collar workers like to live there. Compared to nearby neighbourhoods with rent in equivalent to hundreds of Pounds, in the urban villages fifty Pounds is enough for them to get a place to live in the centre of the city15. In Guangzhou, the price of real estate can be lower than Beijing and Shanghai because of the choices of inexpensive house, the buffer role of the urban villages cannot be underestimated. In recent years, some individuals or businesses sensed an economic opportunity. They brought the ownership of housing in urban villages from villagers and became second-hand landlords. Zhang, who is a second-hand landlord from the Tangxia urban village, owns more than 50 village houses. He said: "Usually a master bedroom charges the rent of 1200 Yuan(100 Pounds), a secondary bedroom charges the rent of 1000 Yuan. An en-suite with a window rent for 800 Yuan, one without window is 500 Yuan. At the moment I have stable long rental customers, so even if I do nothing I can earn at least 2000 Yuan per day".
Fig9. BEAUTY OF SLUM Fig10. LIEDE VILLAGE AFTER REBUILD
REBUILD
MUMBAI
As early as 1995, the Mumbai government had developed a five year rebuilding plan16 for 900 thousand households in slum areas. But after that period only 6000 households completed the transformation and become new homes. According to another renovation plan17 introduced by the Mumbai government in 2007, part of the Dharavi slum area would be demolished, replacing approximately 57,000 slum houses with a new residential area on the site. But many residents did not believe the government's plan. They worried about being cheated out of their homes and, whether they would still be able to return to the new residential area in the future. Because of the opacity of the government policy on these issues, the workers in the slums also worry whether the redevelopment will shut down small factories and workshops and they will lose their jobs.
16
Ashar, S. (2016) Mumbai slum structures have grown 40% since 1995: State. Available at: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Mumbai-slum-structureshave-grown-40-since-1995-State/articleshow/15382102.cms (Accessed: 19 January 2017). 17 BBC (2007) Mumbai slum dwellers fight development plan 2007. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6970800.stm (Accessed: 19 January 2017). 18 Liede people happy to move to new village next to CBD (no date) Available at: http://www.fjsen.com/r/2010-11/23/content_3864533.htm (Accessed: 19 January 2017).
Fig11. WHOLE VILLAGERS EATING OUTSIDE TO CELEBRATE THE NEW SETTLE DOWN.
GUANGZHOU
The government also has a plan for the demolition and reconstruction of the urban villages in Guangzhou. However, because of the large number of urban villages, there are issues relates to the allocation of profits and the resettlement of residents, so the reconstruction has shown slow progress. Liede Village is a successful example18 of the rebuilding of an urban village, and it has been improved from being the poorest village in Guangzhou to a residential area in central business district near the Pearl River. Liede Village has a history of more than 800 years, and there is ancestral hall and temple in the village. The government has attached great importance to the reconstruction of Liede Village. The land was auctioned to a listed real estate company in Hongkong for the highgrade residential area, and the auction funds were returned to the villagers for the development of the village economy. Innovative management methods have also been applied to Liede Village, and the village committee has established the Economic Development Co., Ltd., the company will provide management and services to the villagers. As the government gave profits to the villagers, a demolition which may have resulted in nail household (people who are not willing to move), became a happy event.
CONCLUSION
Although the living conditions in the slum and the urban village is harsh, they provide indispensable assistance to new migrants, as a form of ‘arrival city’. The causes of their formation, land ownership, industries and current situations of these areas are not similar, but better locations, lower cost of living and the provision of jobs play a buffer role in the process of economic development. Meanwhile, we should not ignore the social problems in the arrival cities: safety and health risks, confused urban management, the crime gangs, etc. Also, the impact on the image of the city, hinders the process of urbanisation. In the long run, besides rebuilding the arrival cities, the government should provide adequate social housing for new arrivals, ensure equal rights for the people who contribute to the city and improve community management and supervision. Thus we can enjoy the benefits provided by the slum and urban village without letting it affect the development of the city.
Fig12. SOCIAL HOUSING IN MUMBAI Fig13. SOCIAL HOUSING IN GUANGZHOU
PHOTOS TAKEN BY THE AUTHOR (06/09/2016)
Fig14-16
The small distance between buildings make the ground floor dark even in daytime. People call it the "shaking hands building".
Some remaining evidences of the old village's history.
Information about rental can always be seen in the village. Fig17-21
Fig22-23
Life within the urban village.
Fig24-26
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 https://www.allianz.com/en/about_us/open-knowledge/topics/demography/articles/150316-top-20megacities-by-population.html/ Figure 2 http://www.toutiao.com/i6228102990700478977/ Figure 3 http://www.yinews.cn/article/4280816.shtm Figure 4 http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/100000-travelers-were-stranded-chinese-trainstation-180958016/ Figure 5 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-35650616 Figure 6 http://english.caixin.com/2014-07-31/100711516.html Figure 7 http://www.huffingtonpost.com/randall-kempner/dharavi-the-most-entrepre_b_834300.html Figure 8 TAKEN BY THE AUTHOR, 2015-6 PLACE IN GUANGZHOU \\\\\ Figure 9 http://www.jonasbendiksen.com/National-Geographic/Dharavi/2/ Figure 10 http://www.baike.com/wiki/%E7%8C%8E%E5%BE%B7%E6%9D%91 Figure 11 http://news.gz.fang.com/2012-03-25/7332838_all.htm Figure 12 http://www.lafargeholcim.com/sites/lafargeholcim.com/files/thumbnails/image/pl043938_affordabehousing_collective-social-housing.jpg Figure 13 http://archcy.com/focus/native/96642e4b059f0ba3 Figure 14-26 TAKEN BY THE AUTHOR, 2015-6 PLACE IN GUANGZHOU \\\\\