Chamanculo, Maputo | Urban Design Analysis

CHA MAN CULO Agnieszka Kilian, Aurora Bosia, Jhower Emanuel Sanchez Pinela, Kristina Mirković, Laura Kovačević

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Image 1 Family of Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo)

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INDEX

CHAPTER 1. Historical background 1.1 Independence and civil war 1.2 Natural disaster 1.3 Chamanculo

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CHAPTER 2. Social tension 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Demographic data 2.3 Education and employment 2.4 Gender balance 2.5 Actors within society 2.6 Social access CHAPTER 3. Climate 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Climate Mozambique 3.3 Climate Maputo 3.4 Extreme events

3.4.1 The presence of water

3.4.2 Causes of flooding

3.4.3 Impacts of flooding 3.5 Natural disaster and violence

3.4.1 Humanitarian crises 3.6 Conclusion

3.6.1 Impact of natural disasters on violence in Chamanculo

INDEX

CHAPTER 4. Violence 4.1 Introduction on violence 4.2 Infrastructure

4.2.1 Mobility

4.2.2 Sewage

4.2.3 Waste management 4.3 Public spaces

4.3.1 Current programs

Case study 01: Education

Case study 02: Markets

Case study 03: Workspaces

Case study 04: Green spaces 4.4 Housing

4.4.1 Macro

4.4.2 Plots

4.4.3 Typologies

4.4.4 Architectural Elements

4.4.5 Materiality

4.4.6 Building Process

4.4.7 Gender and power relations in the home space CHAPTER 5. Conclusion BIBLIOGRAPHY & LIST OF FIGURES

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Image 2 Mozambican woman (Source: United Nations Photo)

CHAPTER 1.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1.1 INDEPENDENCE AND CIVIL WAR When we speak about Mozambique, we can’t avoid the turbulent history and constant fight for independence. The voyage of Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 marked the Portuguese entry into trade, politics, and society of the region.

Behind Mozambique is a long path to freedom that still lasts.

Mozambique gained independence from Portugal in 1975, and still suffers from the effects of 16 years of civil war that ended in 1992, the discovery of the gas field of Mozambique’s coast in 2011 transformed the nation into one of the poorest in all Africa, in fact despite the recent economic growth, more than half of the citizens that are 24 million continue to live under the poverty line. (IPSS, 2020) The contemporary history of the war in Mozambique started around 1960 when many countries in Africa gained independence while in Angola and Mozambique, political demands by people under colonial rule were severely suppressed by Portugal, whose dictator António Salazar insisted on the country’s colonies being considered as “overseas provinces”, and who was determined to defend and hold onto them to the last.

Inspired by the independence of other Africa’s Nations people in Mozambique organised themselves and began an armed struggle against Portugal’s colonial rule. It was the first large-scale armed liberation movement in Africa since the Algerian War of Independence in the late 1950s to early 1960s. At the

same time, the country had to face another problem about its border that were historically and culturally meaningless because they were artificially created during the “scramble for Africa” at the end of the nineteenth century. In the end, the liberation and independence of Mozambique were given a place in “the third wave of revolutions” and formed part of a new trend in world history that emerged in the late 1970s. (Classen, 2013 ) The governing party that gained independence was FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique), it was an independent and socialist movement and it manifested its intention to pursue socialism by adopting the People’s Republic of Mozambique as the name of the country on its independence on 25 June 1975. In 1977 started an armed conflict between the FRELIMO government and the anti-guerrilla movement MNR (Mozambique National Resistance) and it lasted for 16 years, the war was extreme, and it caused a million deaths, 1.5 million cross-border refugees and 4.5 million domestic refugees.

(Darch, 2017)

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Image 3 Public parade commemorating the victory of the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique in the War of Independence (Photo: José Chasin / Wikimedia)

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Although ostensibly an internal civil war, the conflict was a proxy war between the Soviet Union which backed the Mozambican government and the United States which supported the insurgents. By 1990 neither side seemed to be winning the war, they were losing the support of the rich country because also the Cold War ended, and both FRELIMO and RENAMO were losing their major supporters and arms suppliers. In 1990, Mozambique adopted a new constitution that included multiparty elections. October 4, 1992, a peace accord was signed in Rome which allowed UN peacekeepers to enter the country. (Momodu, 2018) Peace had remained elusive in the country, after the end of the civil war Mozambique experienced 10 years of peace and stability that made an economic growth of about 8% per annum becoming one of the ten fastest-growing economies in the world and was forecasted to continue at this promising growth trajectory. In the past decade, the country has now begun facing multiple challenges one of which is that it has one of the world’s lowest Human Development Indexes (0.437). More than half of its 29.5 million population lives in poverty. More-

over, it is characterised by a deplorable socio-economic situation and high rates of illiteracy and youth unemployment, especially in rural provinces. (Momodu 2018) From 2013 a low-intensity conflict re-emerged between the government and RENAMO, and still today there are some conflicts also in the city of Maputo. The security situation n since then has been aggravated by an Islamist militia group that came up in October 2017 and has since gained traction in northern Mozambique. In mid-August 2020 the Islamic State-affiliated militants captured the northeastern port city of Mocimboa da Praia in Capo Delgado province, during the last four years the group had attacked more than thirty times. Since 2017, Mozambique’s northeastern region has witnessed horrific brutality in the form of kidnappings, massacres, and beheadings. Fifty young men were killed in early April, more than 2000 people have been killed and 500000 were internally displaced. According to the World Food Program, hundreds of thousands of civilians in the northern region will soon also suffer from severe food shortages. (Hamming 2021)

Image 4 The past is not erased (Source: kathimerini.gr)

We have gone through three wars. We know war is still on … Conflicts haven’t disappeared yet. We, women, are not allowed to get a word in … Before we go to sleep at night, we decide on which direction our feet should face so that we can escape at any time …

Peace and prosperity in the name of independence hasn’t arrived yet. (From an interview with a woman in Maúa, 1999)

According to Human Rights Watch after the March 24, 2021 attack by Ansar al-Sunna more than 88 thousand civilians have been displaced from the embattled Palma district, most of them have sought refuge in Quitunda village, which is five kilometres from the town of Palma, where they lack water, food, and other basic services. (Human rights watch 2021)

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T I M E L I N E 10

1498

Portuguese expedition led by explorer Vasco da Gama drops anchor off Mozambican coast.

16-17th century

Portuguese venture into interior.

Following military campaigns, colonists set up trading posts and mining enterprises and parcel-out land to European settlers.

18-19th century

Mozambique becomes major slave-trading centre.

1842

Portugal outlaws slave trade from Mozambique, but clandestine trade continues for decades.

19621974

Independence struggle: Front for the Liberation of Mozambique formed.

VIOLENCE TIMELINE Image 5 Image from the school book (Source: flickr.com)

Image 6 Slave traders (Source: wikipedia. org)

Image 7 1898 Mozambique Histori- Image 8 Slave traders (Source: wikipedia.org) cal Map (Source: etsy.com)

Image 9 Mozambique Liberation front (Source: United Nations Photo)

1975

Independence: FRELIMO rules under single-party system with leader Samora Machel as president.

19761992

Civil War.

Image 10 Mozambique Liberation front (Source: United Nations Photo)

Image 4 The past is not erased (Source: kathimerini.gr) Image 11 Tempo Nr. 204 Tempografica (Source:artsandculture.google.com, JSTOR)

1990

Constitution amended allowing multy-party system.

Image 12 Mozambique Liberation front (Source: United Nations Photo)

T I M E L I N E

1992

UN brokered peace deal ends fighting between FRELIMO and the Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO).

1994

First multi-party elections, Joaquim Chissano is re-elected president.

2004

President J. Chissano steps down after 18 years, succeeded by Armando Guebuza.

2011

Discovery of natural gas set to transform Mozambican economics.

2015

Mozambique declares itself free of landmines - a legacy of the civil war.

Image 13 Joaquim Chissano (Source: wikipedia.org)

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Figure 1 Proven natural gas reserves (Source: OPEC-CLA & SPTEC 2011)

2017

The region has long experienced instability, but the insurgency involving Islamist militants began in 2017.

2019

FRELIMO won the general elections.

2020

There have been more than 570 violent incidents from January to December 2020 in the province according to the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (Acled).

Image 14 Landmine victim (Source: wikipedia.org)

Image 15 Women carry buckets on their heads as the walk through the refugee camp (Source: hrw.org; Alfredo Zuinga)

1.2 NATURAL DISASTER Mozambique is the third most vulnerable country in Africa to disaster risks (according to the UN’s Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction). During the last 35 years, there were 75 declared disasters: 13 drought events, 25 floods, 14 tropical cyclones and 23 epidemics (Instituto Nacional de Gestao de Calamidades, 2016). According to the Technical Secretariat for Food Security and Nutrition’s (SETSAN), 2.1 million Mozambicans had limited or uncertain access to food, approximately 80 per cent of the Mozambican relies on rain-fed agriculture for their subsistence, which is sensitive to the extreme climatic event. The country reported 23 natural disasters between 2013 and 2020, the most devastating natural disasters occurred in 2019 when Mozambique

was hit by two cyclones in only two months. On the night of 14 to 15 March, Tropical Cyclone Idai made landfall near Beira City, Sofala Province, in central Mozambique. The cyclone brought torrential rains and winds to Sofala, Zambezia, Manica and Inhambane provinces. Cyclone Idai continued across the land as a Tropical Storm and hit eastern Zimbabwe with heavy rains and strong winds. The storm caused high winds and heavy precipitation in Chimanimani and Chipinge districts causing riverine and flash flooding and subsequent deaths, destruction of livelihoods and properties. Idai left more than 600 people dead and an estimated 1.85 million people in need in Mozambique alone (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2019).

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Image 16 In the city of Beira, in Sofala Province, Central Mozambique, a Category 4 Cyclone named Idai made land fall wreaking havoc knocking out power across the province and impacting every resident (2019). (Photo by Josh Estey/CARE)

1.3 CHAMANCULO Maputo is divided into two cores based on its spatial and infrastructural characteristics: (1) “Cidade de Cimento”, meaning “concrete city” stands for the officially established part of the city with masonry constructions, asphalt streets, running water, electricity, and public services; while (2) “Bairros de Caniço”, meaning “reed neighbourhoods” stands for dense informal settlements characterized by poor public infrastructure, inadequate sanitation, electricity, and piped water. Chamanculo neighbourhood is categorized as a “reed neighbourhood” (Slegh, i dr. 2017). Bilato indicated that Chamanculo got divided into four parts, Chamanculo A, B, C and D in 1975. The land was sold to the rural newcomers who were searching for the employment in the central city. Mo-

reover, informal settlement was increased in the neighbourhood during the civil war that affected Mozambique. Today, Chamanculo is composed of people from all over Africa, with different nationalities, languages, and religions (Pastore, Del Bianco i Guevara 2020-2021).

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Image 17 Water and sanitation in the Xipamanine community, Nhlamankulu district, Maputo (Photo by Mário Macilau).

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Image 18 Women of Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo)

CHAPTER 2.

SOCIAL TENSION 2.1 INTRODUCTION Mozambique has faced major challenges after gaining independence in 1975. The exodus of Portuguese settlers and Asian traders, the adoption of central planning and nationalization of leading ventures was followed by the civil war from the late 1970s to the early 1990s. This has left scarring consequences on the local production, public services, and infrastructure. However, Maputo is experiencing rapid urbanisation and represents the country’s largest urban cluster. Local residents perceive Chamanculo as being congested, hectic, and dangerous place (Bertelsen, Tvedten and Roque, 2014 as cited in Slegh, i dr. 2017). High crime rates are often associated with the impoverished urban youth that is also a subject to structural and interpersonal violence. Violent crimes include car hijackings, armed assaults, and robberies of houses, banks, and commercial stores (Shabangu, 2013 as cited in Slegh, i dr.

2017). Urban poverty, uneployment, extreme density and unequal household relations largely intersect with violence among people of Chamanculo (Slegh, i dr. 2017).

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2.2 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA According to INE-Delegação de Maputo Cidade projections for 2019 Maputo Cidade has a total of 1 122 607 habitants. From which 132 059 habitants are living in Distrito Municipal 2, Nlhamankulu (Chamanculo). Therefore, Nhlamankulu has the 4th biggest population of all the Districts in Maputo Cidade (INE-Delegação de Maputo Cidade, 2019).

It is relevant to understand the ratio of habitants per square kilometres. In total, within the Maputo Cidade area there is a density of 3249 hab/km2. Chamanculo has 16 507 hab/km2, and it is one of the most densified areas in Maputo. It can be compared to KaMaxaquene, which is the densest district within Maputo Cidade with 16 936 hab/km2 (INE-Delegação de Maputo Cidade, 2019).

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Density (hab/km2)

Figure 2 Density comparison among Maputo Districts 2019 (Created from date collected by INE during 2017 census)

Figure 3 Figure 2 Density comparison among Maputo Districts 2019 (Created from date collected by INE during 2017 census)

Age ratio and gender One of the most important data for the analysis of the population of a certain area is its habitants’ age and gender composition.

The examined groups are children (0-14 years), young in working age (15-64 years) and elders (+65 years).

The Figure 4 shows the distribution of population according to gender and age groups. The data demonstrates that in 2019 the population of Maputo Cidade is composed of 1 122 607 inhabitants, where 544 766 are men and 577 841 are women. From which, 347 273 are children within 0-14 years old which represent the 31% of its totality.

On the other hand, only 45 178 are people over 65 years old, which represents 4% of Maputo’s population.

Hence, 65% of the population in Cidade de Maputo belong to the working age group (15-64 years), who make the majority of the inhabitants in Maputo (INE-Delegação de Maputo Cidade, 2019).

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Figure 4 Population in Maputo divided by gender and age groups in 2019 (Created from data collected by INE during 2017 census)

2.3 EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT This chapter analyses the rates of Cahamanculo’s habitants enrolled in primary, secondary, and professional education. The charts provided have been developed taking gender into consideration and are always compared to Maputo’s educational data in order to understand why education might justify the possible social tensions existing in Chamanculo.

2.3.1 Public education | Primary school | Ensino Primario Primary education in Maputo is divided into 2 phases; 1er Grau, meaning years 1-5 and 2do Grau, representing years 6 and 7. From Figure 5 we can visualize that out of 101 schools existing in Maputo, only 15 are available to cover 1er Grau

at Distrito Nlhamankulu. Similarly, only 12 out of 95 schools in Maputo serve to educate 2do Grau students in Chamanculo.

According to the data collected by INE during the 2017 census, in 2019, 14 226 male students are enrolled in 1er Grau, while only 6 876 are female students, less than 50% when compared to men in primary education. This tendency will deepen as we carry on analysing the educational background of Chamanculo.

Only 7 114 students continue their studies in 2do Gradu, from which 4 722 are men and 2 392 are women. When looking at Male and Female professors available to teach in primary school, we can appreciate a decreasing disparity in gender balance, especially in 1er Grau professors.

Public education | Primary school | Ensino Primario

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Figure 5 Primary school education in Maputo and Nlhamankulu divided by gender in 2019 (Created from data collected by INE during 2017 census)

2.3.2 Public education | Secondary school | Ensino Secundario and finish until the 2o cycle. For this purpose, only 3 schools are available to provide secondary education in Chamanculo.

Public education | Secondary school | Ensino Secundario

Looking at Figure 6, it can be concluded that the total number of students that decide to continue their studies is significantly reduced. However, it can also be determined that most of the students that start in the 1st cycle of secondary education will continue

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Figure 6 Secondary school education in Maputo and Nlhamankulu divided by gender in 2019 (Created from data collected by INE during 2017 census)

2.3.3 Public education | Professional - technical school | Ensino Profesional – Técnico Finally, we can appreciate the massive reduction of students finishing Secondary education and following up their professional studies in Chamanculo. In 2019, only 336 students enrolled further professional studies from 5 499 students enrolled in 2o cycle of secondary school. On the other

hand, 195 students are male, while 141 are female, making the gender disparity the smallest compared to the other educational phases in Chamanculo.

Public education | Professional - technical school | Ensino Profesional – Técnico Figure 7 Professional - Technical school education in Maputo and Nlhamankulu divided by gender in 2019 (Created from data collected by INE during 2017 census)

2.3.4 Adult education phabetization in Maputo 203 are inhabitants of Distrito Municipale Nhlamankulu. Hence, adults are getting educated in relatively higher rates than when compared to other group ages. Therefore, if the situation continues as shown in INE-Delegação de Maputo Cidade 2019 projection, the impact on socio-cultural issues and urban life will change and/or improve in the following years.

Adult education (3 years)

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To conclude this sub-chapter, it is also imperative to understand the alphabetization rates in Chamanculo. Out of 66 adult schools in Maputo, 11 are available in Nlhamankulu, which is important to note that is proportionally higher than any other educational infrastructure available in Chamanculu. Similarly, out of 1554 male adults being educated in Maputo 364 are based in Chamanculo. And out of 1259 female adults going through al-

Figure 8 Adult education in Maputo and Nlhamankulu divided by gender in 2019 (Created from data collected by INE during 2017 census)

Employment Within Chamanculo the largest amount of its population are students who represent 39%. Students are followed by the number of people working in the informal job sector who represent 23% of Chamanculo’s inhabitants. There are 12% of workers that have a formal job, meaning that they hold a contract with their employer. Similar to homemakers who also make 12% of the population. Unemployed people represent 7%, whilst retired workers only make 5% of the total residents of Chamanculo (Figure 9) (Bilato 2014).

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Figure 9 Employment percentages in Chamanculo in 2014 (Bilato 2014)

Image 19 Market in Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo)

2.4 GENDER BALANCE

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Image 1 Family of Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo)

Social dynamics between gender relations are largely associated with the external factors of socio-economic instability, war trauma, challenges of unemployment and poverty. Low levels of education, high rates of unemployment and underemployment, and high levels of participation in the informal economy characterize the work experiences of most men and women in Maputo. Men’s average monthly income is 62% higher than for women.

Additionally, more than a half of citizens experience economic hardship considering the cost of living in Maputo (Slegh, i dr. 2017). The IMAGES–Maputo study, conducted in 2015, provides insights into the dynamics of men and women from low-income urban communities in Maputo. Total number of people who have completed the interviews in household surveys was 1509 (1006 men and 503 women). Chamanculo was presented by 64 women and 96 men (Slegh, i dr. 2017). Relevant findings included statistics on the following topics: (a) Economic hardship, (b) Cultural traditions, (c) Gender dynamics in the home, (d) Exposure to violence.

(a) Economic hardship Challenging socio-economic conditions constrain men to live up to the cultural norms of manhood. Men reported that they

lost “authority” and “respect” at home when unemployed. In other words, they could not live up to their role of providers.

Figure 10 Economic hardship (based on Slegh, et al. 2017)

(b) Cultural traditions Sociocultural traditions, including strong belief in the role of ancestors and spirits, cultural practice of polygamy and lobolo (paying the price for the bride), greatly impact the dynamics between genders within society. Most of the people have positive attitudes towards lobolo (Figure 11) as an indicator of a man who is keen on taking dedicated care of his future wife and family.

However, traditional beliefs also cause unfavourable perception of a woman in the

family. For instance, the qualitative data of IMAGES–Maputo study revealed that men and women think that women generally cause “problems in families” because they possess “bad powers.”

Figure 11 Cultural traditions (based on Slegh, et al. 2017)

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(c) Gender dynamics in the home Gender dynamics in the home suggest that the traditional division between domestic “male” and “female” roles is still present.

Figure 12 Gender dynamics in the home (based on Slegh, et al. 2017)

(d) Exposure to violence

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Not only is the violence present among the urban youth, but also among male and female partners and the children in the school environment. As data shows, more than 20% of people have experienced a form of extreme physical torture and/or sexual vio-

lence during the war. Accordingly, generation trauma remains and generates further violence in the post-war society. Violence is enhanced by the frustration due to the lack of fundamentals in the urban environment.

Figure 13 Exposure to violence (based on Slegh, et al. 2017)

2.5 ACTORS WITHIN SOCIET Y

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Image 20 Children of Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo)

Despite of its structural informality, there is a strong societal organisation inside of “Bairros de Caniço” parallel to the official state authority and power. Colonial era influenced political organisation after Mozambique gained independence. Portugese colonial authorities called “Régulos” managed customary law issues of the local communities. Afterwards, the independent governement of Mozambique aimed to create order based on the socialist principles. Therefore, instead of “Régulos”, “Grupos Dinamizadores” or facilitators groups were introduced. “Grupos Dinamizadores” are required

to promote active participation to common activities, education, collective work, security services, waste management etc. Lower hierarchical roles were introduced into the communal micro-scale system (Bilato 2014).

Administrative hierarchy of Chamanculo consists of (1) Neighbourhood Secretary, (2) Administration Staff, (3) Block Leaders and (4) Ten Houses Leader. Block Leaders and Ten Houses Leader. The Block Leaders are respected citizens elected by their block.

Many Block Leaders are senior, respected community members (Figure 14).

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Figure 14 Adminstrative Hierarchy of Chamanculo (Pastore, Del Banco i Guevara 2020-2021)

Their duty is to monitor all homes in their blocks, including access to water, sanitation and other basic services, making periodic reports to the Neighbourhood Secretary. Each block has an average of 25 families according to the local administration secretariat.

Additionally, ten houses leaders are also appointed by their neighbours with the duty to encourage residents to look after public infrastructure, increase hygiene and cleanliness and resolve conflicts. However, tasks assigned to Block Leaders and Ten Houses’ Leaders are not always carried out, due to lack of capacity, resources and incentives.”

(ICLEI-Africa 2012 as cited in Pastore, Del Banco i Guevara 2020-2021). On the other hand, increase of criminal groups and violence in Mozambique indicates the weakness of the state to respond to urban criminality and of the ongoing social and economic inequity (Shabangu, 2012; Goredema, 2013 as cited in Slegh, i dr. 2017).

2.6 SOCIAL ACCESS Chamanculo originates as one of the oldest informal settlements of Maputo. Its rapid and uncontrollable growth resulted in high population and intricate housing density (Lage, 2018 as cited in Pastore, Del Bianco i Guevara 2020-2021). Lack of adequate infrastructure causes unsanitary and unsafe conditions (floods due to saturated soils, poor sanitation, fires, etc.). Primary roads in the neighbourhood are used for the traffic purposes. These are dirt roads with man-made trenches on the sides for water drainage purposes. Due to the inefficiency of the trenches for the given water quantity combined with frequent floodings, the water easily reaches and destroys neighbouring houses (Pastore, Del Banco i Guevara 20202021). Apart from the primary road system, there is a secondary internal connection system composed of narrow inner paths called

„becos“. „Becos“ are at times too tight for the given density of population in Chamanculo and dangerous at night (Bilato 2014).

The lack of street lightning creates unsafe environment for women and children. Overall, Chamanculo is experiencing the shrinkage of public spaces and safe spaces for the vulnerable residents. Majority of public spaces in the informal settlements lack adeqaute sanitation infrastructure which fosters contamination (Pastore, Del Banco i Guevara 2020-2021).

Image 21 Dirt roads with traffic and drainage system (Estúdio Anima 2018)

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Image 22 Typical “becos” of Maputo (Silva 2020)

When it comes to transportation and mobility, it is crucial to highlight that there is no formal public transportation system.

Workers and students of Chamanculo daily depend on unreliable and unsafe means of informal transportation to reach downtown Maputo (Pastore, Del Banco i Guevara 2020-2021).

Image 23 Waste pollution in the informal settlements of Maputo (Estúdio Anima 2018)

Image 24 Waste pollution in the informal settlements of Maputo (Estúdio Anima 2018)

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Image 25 Nichole Sobiecki Photography

CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE 3.1 INTRODUCTION When we talk about climate, we often associate it with a large amount of information about weather, temperature,wind,rainfalls and droughts. We have an overwhelming amount of sources to describe the climate and its contribution to our daylife. In this part of the report I would like to present climate from the perspective of South African City – Maputo, with the particular influence on the discrict located in the center-west part of Maputo City – Chamanculo.

Mozambique is located on the east coast of Africa, and it is influenced by the numbers of climate factors. The City lies largely within the tropics, and much of the coastline is subject to the regular seasonal influence of the Indian Ocean monsoon rains. (Encyclopedia Britannica). Because its vulnerability to water based events I decided to focus my investigation mostly on flooding and rainfalls that occurs within the city, and its social consequences.

3.2 CLIMATE MOZAMOBIQUE Mozambique is located on the Indian Ocean in southeastern Africa. The country is downstream from nine major international river basins and in the pathway of tropical cyclones that move across the Mozambique

Channel making Mozambique one of the countries most prone to flooding and cyclones in the world. The country has a tropical to sub-tropical climate and experiences two seasons: a cool and dry season from April to September and a hot and humid season between October and March. Temperatures are warmer near the coast and southern lowland regions compared to the higher, inland regions. Mozambique is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Most of the population lives in low-lying coastal areas and relies on local natural resources. Extreme events such as flooding and drought can cause a loss within agricultural and fishing fields which, as a consequence can impact food production and food security which leads to malnutrition and unstable income.

(PLAN, 2021)

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3.3 CLIMATE MAPUTO Maputo is located in the southern part of the country and is a separate province at the same time. Maputo is located on the western shore of the bay of the same name, at the estuary of the Tembe River. The Figures 15 and 16 show average temperatures and precipitation during a year. The red line indicates

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the minimum average temperature likewise the blue line indicates minimum temperature. Hot days and cold nights (dashed red and blue lines) show the average of the hottest day and coldest night of each month of the last 30 years (Climate Maputo).

Figure 15 Monthly Rainfall Averages Maputo 1979-2000 (Source: wikipedia.org) Average temperatures 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Mean daily minimum

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Mean daily maximum

Figure 16 Average temperatures Maputo (Source: wikipedia.org)

Image 26 Nichole Sobiecki Photography

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Image 27 Nichole Sobiecki Photography

3.4 EXTREME EVENTS 3.4.1 The presence of the water

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Water is crucial to life on our home planet.

NASA’s motto in the hunt for extraterrestrial life has been “follow the water.” scientists when looking for extraterrestrial life on a selected planet out of our home- Earth first they search for the presence of water.

Water, because when they find its molecules, they can be sure that there is also life.

It’s found everywhere on Earth, from the polar ice caps to steamy geysers. Wherever water flows on this planet, you can be sure to find life. Despite the life-giving power of water, it can also take life and turn into a natural disaster, victims among all species, not only humans. The water circulation is often distracted by growing urbanization, deforestation, soil erosion and growing temperature as a result of climate change.

One of the regions that are particularly vulnerable to the expected effects of climate change in Southern Africa. In this place, climate change is most likely to bring increasing intensities of rainfall, decrease the fre-

quency of rainfall, and longer dry periods.

Tropical storms and their associated rainfall are likely to become more intense, with increased risks of flooding. (UNEP, 2020).

Due to its localization, Mozambique and the proximity of the ocean was hit by many natural disasters. Since December 2019, Mozambique has experienced strong rains, winds and flooding, affecting at least 58,851 people (OCHA, 2020). According to the National Disaster Management Institute (Calamidades) More than 10,200 houses have been damaged or destroyed, including 2,589 completely destroyed, and at least 47 schools have been affected. In accordance with the report, the numbers indicated that in Maputo the number of people affected by extreme water events was 2,927.

Image 28 Floods in East Africa (Source: Brian Inganga)

Image 29 Waste clogging an open drainage channel (Source: unknown)

Image 30 People inspect the damage caused by Tropical Cyclone Eloise (Source: Andre Catueira/EPA)

Image 31 Three meters wide open drainage channel (Source: unknown)

Image 32 Flooding (Source: EHA News)

Image 33 Cyclon Elose (Source: Lusa)

Image 34 Flooding (Source: BBC News)

Image 35 Cyclone Idai (Source: BBC News)

Image 36 Richard Makon Photography

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3.4.2 Causes of flooding A researcher group from UCL from the Development Planning Unit indicates that since independence in 1975, the density of people and buildings in Maputo has increased, and unplanned buildings have closed the natural drainage routes. Therefore yards were enclosed by thorn hedges so that the water flowed through them. Now they are enclosed by walls, the yards have become “tanks” with standing water inside, water flow is blocked. There is not enough drainage system and its function is limited because of following reasons:

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1. Residents throw everything in the drainage channel: garbage, rocks, wastewater so that is full of rubbish. Or purposely block it with sandbags, so that the dirty water does not flow past their house.

2. People throw dirty water (from bathrooms and washing clothes and dishes) and rainwater in the streets, including trash from sweeping the yards.

3. Leaking and broken water supply mains and household connection pipes (illegal and legal).

4. The waste collection is deficient: containers overflow, so people dump rubbish in the drain.

5. The movement of cars on the unsurfaced roads creates depressions, where the water collects and stagnates (Unit, 2013).

3.4.3 Impacts of flooding Floods often appear in the rainy season that last from November to March. The topography of Maputo has a big influence on flooding problems because in the lower places water used to stay longer, for months. In some places, water lies stagnant even all year, due to the damaged water pipes. In such places, water can’t dry out until the city will provide restoration works. It can affect roads

and infrastructure systems, causing them to become clogged and unusable. In low-lying areas, yards and houses fill with water, which residents bail out into the alleyways and streets, adding to the water there. Flood water consists of rainwater mixed with wastewater from bathrooms etc. and domestic sewage.

Because it cannot drain off it can turn to be a source of microorganism that causes diseases such as malaria, cholera and at a result pass it to people who has close contact with the infected, dirty water.

Map Analysis The City of Maputo is divided into two geomorphologic areas: (1) the coastal plain area (lower regions) and (2) a higher area with inland dunes. The geological formation of the Maputo city plateau is characterized by the occurrence of groundwater between 7 and 15 meters in depth (Muchangos, 1994). The study of the topography of Chamanculo shows that there are some vulnerable places to the effect of floodsstagnant water. Normally, rainwater flows in streams from higher to lower parts of the terrain. When the terrain is flat, as in the mid-west of Chamanculo, water can stand there for long periods, causing considerable damage. However, the most sensitive part to water retention in Chamanculo is its northern part.

Due to the valley, the water can run off from both sides of the hill and remain there due to the difficult or blocked drainage.

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3.5 NATURAL DISASTERS AND VIOLENCE Consequently, all of the above cases can arise conflict within the social groups, between neighbours or within a family unit who mainly inhabit lower areas of Chamanculo.

When pressed, the researchers identified the worst-affected groups, such as children going to school, the elderly, workers and students, and traders with stalls in the street.

3.5.1 Humanitarian crises

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Natural disasters have long been associated with humanitarian crises. The main threats to the health and wellbeing of affected people include damage to basic infrastructure (eg, water, sanitation and energy supply systems, housing, and health facilities), food shortages and starvation. The country’s economy remains strongly dependent on natural resources, with agriculture accounting for a quarter of GDP and serving as the primary source of employment and income for >70% of the population. The extreme events can cause massive destruction impacting food, industry and supply chain while putting inhabitants under pressure and stress.

Therefore, it can result in a significant increase in violence in-home or neighbourhood.

According to World Health Organization, natural disasters might increase the rate of violence both in the short and long-term, in several ways: • increased stress and feelings of powerlessness due to bereavement • loss of property and loss of livelihood • mental health problems such as post-traumatic stress disorder

• the scarcity of basic provisions • destruction of social networks • disruptions to the economy. (WHO, 2005) The Organization indicates the types of violence that are likely to increase after a disaster are: • child abuse and neglect • intimate partner violence and sexual violence • exploitation, including sexual exploitation Sexual exploitation may increase in situations where women’s options for employment are diminished. In cultures, such as Africa, with traditions of early marriage and dowry, adolescent girls may face an increased risk of early and forced marriages due to poverty.

3.6 CONCLUSION 3.6.1 Impact of natural disaster on violence in Chamanculo According to this research, the lowest parts of the city are mainly exposed to water-related extreme events such as sea level rising and flooding as a consequence of heavy rains or cyclones. Because of the topography of Chamanculo that is alike valley shape, paying attention to the water flow tendency that is coming from the upper side of the district, brings the conclusion that the most vulnerable areas for floods or standing water are the central and northern parts of the district.

Standing water as mentioned in this report, can last in such areas for even a year and be a source of several diseases such as cholera or malaria. As indicated the most affected by flooding groups of people in Chamancu-

Image 37 Nichole Sobiecki Photography

lo are people who are mostly spending their time on the streets and public areas such as children, students, traders and elderly people.

Climate conditions are putting a lot of pressure on inhabitants of Chamanculo, located near to the coast, topographic vulnerability and exposure to floods, diseases that are caused by the very poor water quality, lack of drainage system blocked infrastructure and sewage system, garbage on the streets all of these difficulties have of significant

importance in increasing domestic and neighbourhood violence. As indicated by World Health Organization the great numbers of victims are children and women. These groups of people are the most popular among citizens who are using public spaces.

Therefore, to provide them with safe places a great amount of attention is needed to devote to the climatic conditions that prevail in close neighbourhoods, in this case, water as a dangerous force.

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Image 38 Men of Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo)

CHAPTER 4. VIOLENCE

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Figure 17 Interview made by the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University to the chamanculo citizen written in the article VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS IN PUBLIC SPACES IN MAPUTO: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

4.1 INTRODUCTION ON VIOLENCE In this report, we are analysing major factors that are influencing high crime and violence rates in the neighbourhood. The research “Being a man in Maputo” underline the connection between public or private violence with the war of independence and the civil war that ended in 1992. The survey investigates the trauma that men and women had to face and what they are carrying in their life right now. Figure 13 explains the exposure to traumatic events during the two major wars in Mozambique’s history (Slegh, et al.

2017). According to the “Estatisticas de Crime and justice Cidade de Maputo,” there was an overall reduction of the crime of 5.5% between 2018 and 2020, and the crime against property was the most frequent with 56.8%. Chamanculo has the second highest number of crimes in Maputo, 3211 crimes during 2020 with a 30% overall. According to figure 20 the crimes most frequently reported in 2020 were against properties and people.

Figure 18 Types of Crimes Reported by Police by Districts, 2018-2020 (Source: Maputo City Police Command, 2018-2020)

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Figure 19 Exposure to traumatic events in war for independence (1964-1974) and civil war (1977-1992) (Source: Beign a man in Maputo)

Figure 20 Types of Crimes Reported in Chamanculo Area by the police in 2020. (Source: Maputo City Police Command, 2018-2020)

4.2 INFRASTRUCTURE 4.2.1 Mobility Results of this study (Figure 21 and 22) indicate that there are great mobility and presence of women and girls as hawkers in markets and barracks (stalls) and circulate at different periods of the day. From the narrative of men, the presence of women and girls

in places of nocturnal recreation is viewed as the motive for them to fall, victims of any type of violence, creating in them the sense of self-culpability and resilience (Mariano, et al. 2020).

Figure 21 Prevalence of sexual violence in public places in two municipal districts of Maputo (KaLhamankulu and KaMaxaquene) (Mariano, et al. 2020)

Figure 22 Period of the day during weekends (Friday and Saturday) when the residents of KaLhamankulu and KaMaxaquene reported feeling of insecurity (Mariano, et al. 2020)

The road network in Chamanculo is divided into three classes. The first types of roads are the main roads positioned on the boundary of the Chamanculo area. All bus stations are located on this road and represent the only connection with the rest of the city.

The second type is the internal routes which give access to the central residential area of

Chamanculo. Finally, the last but most essential roads for people of Chamanculo are the pedestrian paths which provide people access to their homes. As we go deeper into the area, the streets become narrower and more inaccessible. This forest of roads was created spontaneously by the residents to speed up their movement through the area.

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4.2.2 Sewage Chamanculo is a district exposed to the extremely harmful effects of intense rains events. Due to its topographic characteristics, very intensively built-up urban tissue, and the lack of sanitation services., residents can experience large numbers of drastic effects of floods. One of the main factors of these difficulties is infrastructure, to be exacted -defective server system. Overall, the sewer system in Maputo consists of two parts. Researchers from TU Delft found that system one was built in 1948 by the Portuguese as a drainage system. Nowadays it functions as a combined sewer. System two was built by DHV in the 80s. It was designed for 90,000 people but according to it is only serving 21,000 people now, because the pumps are not working (M.S. van Esch, 2014). Furthermore, since independence in 1975, the density of people and buildings has increased, and unplanned buildings have closed the natural drainage routes. In addition, the drain doesn’t function because it is full of rubbish, and it is not cleaned regularly. Residents throw everything in the drainage channel: garbage, rocks, wastewater, etc., and block the passage of water with sandbags to prevent water from the streets and alleys from flooding their yards.

In conclusion, defective infrastructure that is not properly working, topographical characteristics and exposure to weather-related events can cause constantly growing problems of an economic nature (blocked supply chain), difficulty in road communication between the districts and within Chamanculo. People who use the road or open spaces the most frequently: such as children or students are in the group of citizens who are the most exposed to diseases carried by water such as malaria, cholera or diarrhoea.

These challenges are putting a lot of pressu-

re on residents of Chamanculo that’s already a very vulnerable place in terms of climatic exposure and poverty and because of this a significant increase in domestic and neighbourhood violence can be reported.

4.2.3 Waste management Furthermore, poor waste management significantly decreases the life quality in the neighbourhood. Citizens of Maputo have identified the need to address waste collection as the highest priority with the potential to impact positively their lives, according to a recent World Bank-sponsored Citizen Report Card Survey (World Bank 2018). Waste collection is constrained by narrow streets and unreachable households due to informality and density in the area. Unsorted waste causes environmental pollution and is responsible for several deadly epidemics such as malaria, cholera, typhoid fever etc. Moreover, waste negatively impacts flooding disasters by blocking waterways and clogging drainage systems (Pastore, Del Banco i Guevara 2020-2021; World Bank 2018).

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4.3 PUBLIC SPACES 4.3.1 Current programs More than 60% of women and girls suffer some sort of harassment in public spaces in Maputo city, and girls constitute the most vulnerable group (Figure 23). The participants acknowledge that streets, alleys, abandoned houses, stalls (barracas), nightclubs, bars, markets, bus stops, public transport and schools are insecure places. In the streets, open spaces with or without illumination public are the spaces considered prone to physical and psychological violence.

Unemployment and the high cost of leaving

drives youngsters to delinquency, drug abuse and alcohol. As a result, they end up committing sexual violence including rape. Most of the statements indicate that women and girls face many constraints to control their bodies and lives. They do not feel free to circulate in the streets, to attend school or to do the same things as their male counterparts. Results indicate that 90% of the girls do not feel safe to circulate after 10 pm (Mariano, et al. 2020).

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Figure 23 Prevalence of violence against woman and girl in public space in KaMaxaquene and KaLhamankulu (Mariano , et al. 2020)

In this report, we are focusing on 3 major categories of public space: (1) Education, (2) Markets, (3) Workspaces. We will examine their location, amount and accessibility within Chamanculos urban fabric. Furthermore, we will reflect on the current state of violence concerning the examined public

space. On the right-hand side, the complete map of Chamanculo within Maputo city shows the location and frequency of the main public programs.

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CASE STUDY 01: Education The map on the right-hand side indicates the cultural, educational, medical and recreational facilities in Chamanculo. This chapter investigates educational facilities as public spaces. Generally speaking, the amount of educational facilities does not seem adequate for the number of residents in the Chamanculo area. Additionally, the position and accessibility of sports facilities are not functionally related to the educational facilities (the exception is Istituto Superior). Chapter 2.3 EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT of this report indicates the notable disproportion of male and female students in educational institutions. Male children are more likely to obtain institutional education in favour of female children. Chapter 2.4 GENDER BALANCE of this report indicates that the females of Chamanculo face cultural constraints when it comes to their formal education because of their perceived role of caretakers in family and home. That is also

the cause of disproportion between genders when it comes to employment rates and income inequalities. The concerning reality of youth violence was reported in the report “Being a Man in Maputo: Masculinities, Poverty” (Slegh, et al. 2017). More than 80% of the people in Maputo have reported witnessing some sort of urban/public violence before the age of 18. Accordingly, around 49% of people experienced situations of threat, intimidation or harassment in their schools (Slegh, et al. 2017). We can conclude that the youth does not perceive their educational environment as safe. The target group are underage females (<18) who report high rates of insecurity in public spaces during the daytime (12:00-21:00) in the Chamanculo area (around 80%) (Figure 22). Overall, the scarce educational spaces are characterized by high violence rates especially from the perspective of female students.

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Image 39 Men in an educational environment in Chamanculo (Source: Andrés Panera 2020, youtube.com)

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Image 40 Children in an educational environment in Chamanculo (Source: vita.it)

54 CASE STUDY 02: Market The map on the right-hand side indicates the market, commercial and service facilities in Chamanculo. For this report, Mercato Malanga (nr. 32 on the map) will be taken as an example. Markets are the heart of social interactions in the neighbourhoods and a part of everyday routine for the residents. They are also considered the safest place in the city due to the number of people who are frequently visiting. Mercato Malanga is one of the main historical markets in the area, dedicated to the wholesale of various products. Fresh produce, clothing, food, water and homemade products can be purchased here (MMO, 2020). The market is located on the south point of the Chamanculo area next to the main road. The informality and inaccuracies of the public transportation make it hard to reach Mercato Malanga from the

central residential area. As seen in the accessibility map, the walking distance from the central residential area of Chamanculo to the Mercato Malanga is around 2 km. Overall, the prevalence of reported sexual violence in the markets is low (less than 10%) in the Chamanculo area (Figure 21) which makes it a safe place for women. Furthermore, Figure 22 reports that less than 10% of women (>18) report a feeling of insecurity between 12:00-21:00 in public spaces. We can conclude that the vibrant surrounding of various ages, gender and ethnic groups positively impacts the feeling of public safety, especially from the female perspective.

Other factors improve public safety, such as transport accessibility, daylight, infrastructure associated with the markets etc.

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Image 41 Malanga Market in Chamanculo (Source: MMO, 2020)

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Image 42 Malanga Market in Chamanculo (Source: MMO, 2020)

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CASE STUDY 03: Workspaces According to the National Institute of Statistics, the unemployment rate in Mozambique is approximately 17%, Maputo is one of the most difficult areas with about 40% of the population living without formal or informal jobs. As Chamanculo is one of Maputo’s most underdeveloped areas, these numbers can also be applied to the Chamanuclo area. The map one the righ-hand side marks the main workplaces in the Chamanculo area. The big problem for residents of Chamanculo is the lack of space for work.

The primary workspaces are concentrated on the edge of Chamanculo. The two main employment sectors in addition to service industries are the textile industry and the

construction industry. Several companies employ people of Chamanculo, although most people of Chamanculo work outside the area. The first bigger are which we can see on the map in number 79 is an engineering company. The second most source of jobs is transportation facilities and services which they provide. Finally, one of great importance is also a clothing company that operates women primarily. One characteristic is that people usually don’t work in their profession because it’s impossible to find a job. These capacities are not enough, which presents a big problem in the lives of residents from this area.

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Image 43 Small barber shop in Chamanculo (Source: Chamanculo é Vida, 2020; facebook.com)

AEROPORTO

UNIDADE

B

7

CHAMANCULO

D

AEROPORTO

A

CHAMANCULO

C

XIPAMANHINE

MUNHUANA

CHAMANCULO

B

CHAMANCULO

MALANGA

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A

MINKADJUINE

4.4 HOUSING

4.4.1 Macro level analysis Maputo has an area of 34 677 hectares. It is divided into 7 Municipal Districts, which are divided into administrative units called “bairros (neighborhoods)”.

Chamanculo belongs to the Nlhamankulu Municipal District which contains the neighborhoods; Aiport A and B, Xipamanine, Mikadjuine, Unit 7, Chamanculo A, B and C, Malanga and Munhuana. Distrito Municipal 2, Nlhamankulu covers a total area of approximately 880 hectares, and according NIE, 2017 holds approximately 129 306 inhabitants. (Baloi 2019)

Satellite map of Maputo framing Nlhamankulu District (Produced by the research group; Base from: google.maps.com)

This analysis aims to understand the physical elements that characterize the dwellings in Chamanculo. However, the main purpose of this chapter is to also provide an understanding of the social implications of the built environment. For which, this section is divided into the following sub-titles.

4.4.2 Plots 4.4.3 Typologies 4.4.4 Architectural elements 4.4.5 Materiality 4.4.6 Building process 4.4.7 Gender and power relations in the home space

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1:20 000 map, highlighting Nhamankulu plots produced by the research group

4.4.2 Plots

Figure 24 Unplanned plots in Maputo (Home space, Built Environment study)

The information provided in this section is based on the data collected by Home Space within thier Ethnography and Built Environment reports. Meaning that the conclusions of plots in informal peri-urban dwellings of Maputo are assumed to be similar for the ones in Bairro Chamanculo.

The majority of plots measure between 250m2 and 300m2. In recently occupied plots the constructions use a minimum of 4% of the avialable space. On the other hand, fully occupied plots reach the 74% of built area, with an average of 40% of plot occupation (between built-covered spaces and uncovered spaces). Historically the link among covered and un-covered areas is so deepened in Maputo’s identity that the whole plot is seen as the actual house. Open and closed spaces are considered more complementary than they are in contemporary houses (Carrilho, et al. 2004).

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Type A

Figure 25 Type A Room division and movement diagram (Source: self-produced with reference from HomeSpace report)

Most simple house type // Entrance through the centre of the longest facade // 1 private room + 1 living room (kitchen).

4.4.3 Typologies

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Housing typologies in Chamanculo are similar to self-produced homes in Maputo. They share similar organizations and use of the space. According to morphological studies in Maputo made by Homespace in 2014, Housing can be allocated into 5 main types of space organizations.

From the types described within this section, the most popular distribution is Type D, given its scalability and strong definition of comunal and intimate spaces. i.e. Living room vs Bedroom (Andersen, Sollien and Ouis 2012).

Nonetheless it is vital to understand the possibilties of the historical most common distributions and make an attempt to assume the implications of these, in their daily routines and possible power relations within the home space.

To summarize the information collected, the following paragraphs will describe the general shape, entrance location and spaces available from each housing type.

Figure 26 Type A house front facade (Source: Homespace, Built environment study)

Type B

Figure 27 Type B Room division and movement diagram (Source: self-produced with reference from HomeSpace report)

Almost square shape // Entrance through the centre of the front facade directly to the living room // 4 internal divisions that create bedrooms which are more intimate.

Figure 28 Type B house remainings (Source: Homespace, Built environment study)

Type C

Type D extension It usually extends with extra rooms, internal kitchens and/or bathrooms or by enlarging the sala. Extension only happens in depth not width direction. And most of the cases when extensions ocurred are from stable economic status.

Figure 29 Type C Room division and movement diagram (Source: self-produced with reference from HomeSpace report)

Larger and more rectangular than Type B // Entrance through the centre of the longest front facade into a central hall // 2 rooms on each side of corridor or central hall.

Figure 32 Type D house fronts, veranda (Source: Homespace, Built environment study)

Type E

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Figure 30 Type C house exterior (Source: Homespace, Built environment study)

Type D Figure 33 Type E Room division and movement diagram (Source: self-produced with reference from HomeSpace report)

Figure 31 Type D Room division and movement diagram (Source: self-produced with reference from HomeSpace report)

Most common house type // Entrance through the centre of the front gable wall or veranda which leads to the living room (sala), entrances can be positioned on 2 sides of the veranda, depending on the position within the plan // From 2 to 3 bedrooms opposite to the sala, including a corridor and circulation space.

Always located at the far boundary of the plot // Entered through a veranda or covered hall into the living room // From the corridor or sala other bedrooms and, or kitchen are entered.

Figure 34 Type E house located at the far boundary of the plot (Source: Homespace, Built environment study)

4.4.4 Architectural elements

Roofing Figure 35 Roofing appears as the first element analysed since it’s shape and form can also trigger conclusions in the way housing building occurs during time. The so-called ventoinha house (fan house), refers to the shape that the roof visually suggests after building or extending a house, and constitutes the main feature of Maputo’s style. Houses usually end up having 2 to 4 independent rooms, each of these spaces have their own roof inclination with different direction from each other.

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Hypothesis suggest that it is a consequential result of evolving processes within the plots.

Others, suggest that the reason for these feature to exist and to continue it’s replication in self-produced dwellings is that culturally the home is visualized from the start as if the multiple existence of roof pitches is imperative.

However, modern constructions are found to simplify “ventoinha” homes with lean-to roofs and a verandah flat concrete slab.

Eaves-troughs Figure 38 Another feature always present in almost every house are water collector generally built out of concrete. Its main function is also complemented by the aesthetic decision to hide the zinc sheets that compose the roofs, as well as adding character to their facades with their horizontal volumes.

The reason to highlight this element is because from the interviews made by HomeSpace team, many constructors explained that eaves-troughs also serve as fake elements that give the impression of a house sheltered by a concrete roof, therefore manufacturing assumptions about the inhabitants improved economic position.

The verandahs Figure 36 “A house without a verandah is like a face without a nose”.

This statement shows the symbolic importance of having a verandah. Similar to the other elements it has a social implication attached to its existence, in the past only public or political actors within society would require such space, beacuse of the amount of visitors they might need to receive. However, through time this has become only an aesthetic element, given that it’s function has mainly been replace by courtyards within the plot.

Other elements Figure 39 and 40 Brisoleils share similar aesthetic values than eave-troughs, horizontal volumes that frame the windows and doors.

Similarly security features such as steel poles, iron meshes and celosias attempt to decorate the necessity of protecting the boundaries of a home.

(Carrilho, et al. 2004)

Figure 35 Roofing, ventoinha house (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo)

Figure 36 House verandah (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo)

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Figure 37 Roofing, ventoinha house and verandah (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo)

Figure 38 Eaves troughs and other elements, security bars and bri soleils (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo)

Figure 39 Other elements, security bars and bri soleils (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo)

Figure 40 Other elements, security bars and bri soleils (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo)

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Image 44 Textures and built environment of self produced homes in Maputo (Source: HomeSpace synthesis report)

4.4.5 Materiality

The discussion on materiality revolves around traditional materials and industrialised modern materials.

Traditional materials, are considered the ones provided by “the earth and the clay”.

These take shapes of bricks either, oven baked or sun dried, depending on the family’s financial situation.

Clay can also be directly applied to the wall structure as a rendering and streghtening material.

Wooden battens, open bamboo panels or entire poles, ropes made of natural fiber, hay roofin make also the list of traditional materials that give Chamanculos main textures and colours.

Nonetheless, modern constructions, expansions and reconstructions are implement industrial materials, such as, iron, limestone, cement blocks, cement itself and zinc panels (Carrilho, et al. 2004).

Seventeen years have passed since the publication of Traditional Informal Settlement from Lichinga to Maputo, where the information for this section has been collected.

We can only assume that the amount of houses built with traditional materials has decreased and now cinder blocks, zinc panels and cement define the contemporary textures and colours of Chamanculo collection of unfinished homes.

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Figure 41 Volumetric evolution of a house in Maputo (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo)

Figure 42 2D evolution of a house in Maputo (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo)

Image 45 Home building site and its participants (Source: HomeSpace website)

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Building houses in Chamanculo can mainly be described as a collaborative process that can extend during time depending on the financial situation of the owners.

As it can be appreciated in Figure 41 and Figure 42, a house usually starts with 1 bedroom (quarto) and 1 living room (sala).

Growth usually responds to the growth of family members for which another quarto might be built. Similarly, it can also respond to better financial conditions, for which extra communal spaces (sala) can appear within the spaces newly available.

As mentioned before this situation is complemented by adding different sloped roofs to each room, resulting in the usual Maputo ventoinha style to the built environment.

It is also vital to understand that the use of “modern” materials and building methods do not mean improved home conditions.

In fact, new walls and roofs, in particular, need great maintenance care.

Finally, the long times that building a house usually take and the colaborative participation of owners, create a greater sense of belonging, that extends beyond the basic concepts of ownership.

Ownership might not be very well defined in most self-produced homes. Private property is not easy to determine within these conditions, in theory every space is public and intimate connections and the sense of belonging to a certain area is artificially created by physical walls in “public” space.

Image 46 Economic ativities taken by women as market sellers (Estúdio Anima 2018)

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4.4.7 Gender and power relations in the home space

From the data collected by HomeSpace, it is not possible to draw specific conlcusions in terms of gender and power realations within housing enviroments.

However, it is possible to highlight that changes in gender roles are happening. Over time women are achieving greater independency and autonomy with regard to men in home scensarios, mainly because the increased economic activities available and taken by women in contemporary times.

Nonetheless, HomeSpace states that such autonomy has to be re-conquered day after day, given that women are still mainly socially valued as wives, mothers and home care takers.

The main element that threatens the existing power relations is the degree of economic power which women have achieved for themselves, but also the decreasing amount of jobs and employments prospects by men.

As men usually highlight that “without a job they cannot be respected”.

In conclusion, gender activities, power relations, conflict, negotiation, affect all of these emerge and evolve on bi-dimensional family relations which are closely expressed within the framework of the collective social and cultural norms existing within Chamanculo.

(Bénard da Costa y Biza 2012) To understand this better, this section includes quotes taken fron several housing spaces in unplanned Maputo.

Image 47 Young man feeding drunk brother during a family lunch meal (Estúdio Anima 2018)

4.4.8 Quotes Extracts of interviews gathered by Home Space - Ethnographic report

I don’t work, my husband doesn’t let me work, I don’t sell anything either. At home, in Guijá, I started selling but my husband doesn’t like it. (…)

Before that I made and sold locally-made alcoholic drinks at home but my husband stopped me. I transferred the business to my brother’s house but I gave it up in the end because my husband just wouldn’t put up with it.

The importance of having a house is having somewhere to sleep and somewhere to go when it’s raining. A lot of people come here looking for a room to rent because they have no house of their own. If I didn’t have a house where would I sleep, now I have no money for renting a room? The house is important. Even today people come looking for a room to rent because they’ve no house (female aged 43, Mavalane B).

While my husband buys school materials, I take care of the children so they don’t go dirty to school, school’s my affair (female aged 32, Albasine); I have the duty of checking the school tests of my son, keeping his uni - form clean and looking after the house (female aged 36, 3 de Fevereiro).

“At the moment I’m doing nothing but I did domestic work last year, I’ve only been at home a year. Sometimes I sell gold chains to other women, someone comes here with the chains (they buy them in South Africa) and I go and sell them.”

The boys don’t do any work at home, because the things to be done are woman’s work – washing up, cleaning the house and grinding cassava – and they’re at home, all they do is biscates (female aged 17, Po - lana Caniço A); The activities at home are my wife’s responsibility. She knows what’s what (male aged 68, 3 Fevereiro); I tidy the yard and cook when I’ve no one here to do it, but when she’s here she won’t let me cook because it looks bad, a woman at home and the man doing these things” (male aged 58, Polana Caniço A).

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Image 48 Woman walking in Chamanculo’s corridor (Source: Jason Florio; flickr.com)

CHAPTER 5.

CONCLUSION This research aimed to analyse the social, cultural and morphological aspects of one of the densest unplanned areas in Maputo.

The rates of violence found during the early research stages led to reflect all the data collected towards understanding how violence could be explained through breaking down history, social tensions, as well as, physical elements present in the urban fabric of Chamanculo.

The main objective was to understand where violence comes from, in order to be able to propose informed solutions that could affect and threaten the existing power relations regarding gender and safety in public spaces.

Unfortunately, this research helped us understanding that violence is a bigger problem that cannot be solved only through architecture and urban design. This issue definetely needs multi-disciplinary actions that can tackle social, economical and cultural changes in contemporary Mozambique.

However, the study also helped us envisioning how architecture, urban design and policy making can indirectly reduce the amount of violent actions in Chamanculo.

This can be done by reducing the stress generated by the present conditions in Chamanculo. For instance, waste accummulation, flood risky areas, housing conditions, public space safety, chaotic mobility, etc.

For which we believe that change can be triggered by proposing small, local actions in the short-term and escalate to bigger macro scale projects in the long-term.

It is vital to highlight the necessity of connecting Chamanculo to the rest of Maputo.

The research highlighted top-down seggregation issues coming from the differences on the distribution of financial resources among the Bairros of Maputo Cidade. For which we insist on strengthening the connection of Chamanculo to its closest neighbours in order to trigger equal development of the city of Maputo.

In the following pages we have summarized a collection of actions that could tackle violence in chamanculo, aknowledging the actions that can be proposed through urban design to indirectly improve the conditions of the built environment in Chamanculo.

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TACKLING VIOLENC DIRECT ACTIONS EDUCATION

HEALTH

RESOURCES

Creating job sources for active working age groups

Create incentives to stay within educational systems

Incentivise preventive medicine systems, instead of defensive medicine

WATER

To create employment sources within the area of residence.

Acknowledge violence problems within school environments.

Launch protection and antibullying campaigns

Access to new vaccines available, i.e.

Covid 19 and Malaria vaccines

EMPLOYMENT

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Improve access to safe water sources Incentivise circular methods to harvest, consume, and recycle water resources.

FOOD ACCESS

Reduce traffic by labour migration to other neighborhoods

Encourage local production and consumption of products

CE IN CHAMANCULO

can be resolved through urban design, architecture and policy making

INDIRECT ACTIONS INFRASTRUCTURE MOBILITY Improve immediate access to neighbour areas Encourage formalized alternative means of transport to reach the interiors of Chamanculo Reduce the frequency of commuting outside the neighborhood SEWAGE & WASTE MANAGEMENT Identify potential critical flooding areas and create long-term projects that tackle critical points.

Create public-private conventions to make private systems of sewage available to reach the interiors of dense Chamanculo

PUBLIC REALM

HOUSING

STREETS

LAND ADQUISITION AND AFFORDABLE HOUSING

Provide the basic architectural elements to make streets feel safe i.e. exterior lighting PUBLIC SPACES Understanding and proposing appropiate spaces of gathering and sharing.

MARKETS Take advantage the existing infrastructures of markets to propose multi-purpose spaces CULTURAL RELIGIOUS SPACES Propose open spaces that encourage the demonstration of cultural or religious events in safe exteriors

Encourage and replicate projects of requalification of Chamanculo’s inner Bairros, similar to Chamanculo D requalification Propose appropiate high density housing schemes that adapt to Chamanculo’s life-styles.

Encourage densification of new housing developments.

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Image 49 Local residents in in Aeroporto B - densely populated urban area in Maputo Mozambique where Communal Sanitation Blocks have been installed (Source: Jason Florio; flickr.com)

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Image 50 Local resident - Aida Maluoma next to wheel chair accessible latrine in a Communal Sanitation Block in Aeroporto B - densely populated urban area in Maputo Mozambique (Source: Jason Florio; flickr.com)

BIBLIOGRAPHY AICS. 2020. Mozambique – A school, a Community centre and a football pitch: three models of urban regeneration. https://www.aics.gov.it/2017/13843/.

—. 2021. Mozambique- A school, a community centre and a football pitch . https://www. aics.gov.it/2017/13843/.

Andersen, Jorgen Eskemose, Silje Eroy Sollien, and Khadidja Ouis. 2012. Home Space, Built Environment Study. Study, Copenhaguen: Home Space Maputo.

Baloi, Jochua Abrao. 2019. “The impact of Urban Requalification on Municipal Governance: an Analysis from Mozambique.” Britain International of Humanities and Social Sciences (BIoHS) Journal 15.

Bénard da Costa, Ana, and Adriano Biza. 2012. Home Space, Ethnographic Report. Study, Copenhaguen: Home Space Maputo.

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Bilato, Margherita. 2014. “The city inside things (vs. things inside the city) .” Master thesis, TU Berlin, Berlin. Accessed September 28, 2021. https://issuu.com/martherinamerkwurdigliebe/docs/160416-mb-masterarbeit.

Carrilho, Julio, Sandro Bruschi, Carlos Menezes, and Luís Lage. 2004. Traditional Informal Settlements in Mozambique: from Lichinga to Maputo. Maputo, Mozambique: FAPF. Classen, Sayaka Funada. 2013 . “The Origins of War in Mozambique: A History of Unity and Division.”

Darch, Colin. 2017. The Mozambican Conflict and the Peace. Friederich ebert stinfung.

Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University. 2019. VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS IN PUBLIC SPACES IN MAPUTO: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY. Black Sea Journal of Public and Social Science. dev, Italian Agency for. n.d.

2018. Maputo - Ethnography of a Divided City. Directed by Estúdio Anima. Performed by Estúdio Anima.

Hamming, Tore Refslund. 2021. The Islamic State in Mozambique. Lawfare.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Henny Sleg, Esmeralda Mariano, Silvia Roque, Gary Barker. 2017. “Being a Man in Maputo: Masculinities, Poverty and Violence in Mozambique.”

Human right watch. 2021. Mozambique: Civilians Prevented from Fleeing Fighting. Human rights watch.

INE-Delegação de Maputo Cidade. 2019. Estatísticas Demográfica e Sociais de Maputo Cidade. Boletim de Estatísticas Demográficas e Sociais, Maputo: Delegação de Maputo Cidade.

IPSS. 2020. Monzambique conflict insight. addis ababa university.

IPSS. 2020. “MOZAMBIQUE.” IPSS. MalynNewitt. 1995. A history of Monzambique . Boston : Boston public library .

MMO. 2020. A trip through the Malanga Market. https://www.mmo.co.mz/uma-viagem-pelo-mercado-da-malanga/.

Momodu, Samuel. 2018. “The Mozambican civil war (1977-1992).” Blackpast.

Mottelson, Johan. 2020. “Informal Horizons.”

Pastore, Maria Chiara, Corinna Del Bianco, and Nilva Karenina Aramburu Guevara. 20202021. “Maputo Analysis Report.” Analysis Report.

Plataforma. 2020. “Plataforma.” Incêndio destrói lojas num dos mais movimentados mercados de Maputo. Chamanculo , 23 06.

Slegh, Henny, Esmeralda Mariano, Silvia Roque, and Gary Barker. 2017. “Being a Man in Maputo: Masculinities, Poverty.” Results from the International Men and Gender. https://promundoglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Being-a-Man-in-Maputo-2017-EN.pdf.

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LIST OF FIGURES

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Image 1 Family of Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo) Image 2 Mozambican woman (Source: United Nations Photo) Image 3 Public parade commemorating the victory of the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique in the War of Independence (Photo: José Chasin / Wikimedia) Image 4 The past is not erased (Source: kathimerini.gr) Image 5 Image from the school book (Source: flickr.com) Image 6 Slave traders (Source: wikipedia.org) Image 7 1898 Mozambique Historical Map (Source: etsy.com) Image 8 Slave traders (Source: wikipedia.org) Image 9 Mozambique Liberation front (Source: United Nations Photo) Image 10 Mozambique Liberation front (Source: United Nations Photo) Image 11 Tempo Nr. 204 Tempografica (Source:artsandculture.google.com, JSTOR) Image 12 Mozambique Liberation front (Source: United Nations Photo) Image 13 Joaquim Chissano (Source: wikipedia.org) Figure 1 Proven natural gas reserves (Source: OPEC-CLA & SPTEC 2011) Image 14 Landmine victim (Source: wikipedia.org) Image 15 Women carry buckets on their heads as the walk through the refugee camp (Source: hrw.org; Alfredo Zuinga) Image 16 In the city of Beira, in Sofala Province, Central Mozambique, a Category 4 Cyclone named Idai made land fall wreaking havoc knocking out power across the province and impacting every resident (2019). (Photo by Josh Estey/CARE) Image 17 Improving water and sanitation in the Xipamanine community, Nhlamankulu district, Maputo (Photo by Mário Macilau).

Image 18 Women of Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo) Figure 2 Density comparison among Maputo Districts 2019 (Created from date collected by INE during 2017 census) Figure 3 Figure 2 Density comparison among Maputo Districts 2019 (Created from date collected by INE during 2017 census) Figure 4 Population in Maputo divided by gender and age groups in 2019 (Created from data collected by INE during 2017 census) Figure 5 Primary school education in Maputo and Nlhamankulu divided by gender in 2019 (Created from data collected by INE during 2017 census) Figure 6 Secondary school education in Maputo and Nlhamankulu divided by gender in 2019 (Created from data collected by INE during 2017 census) Figure 7 Professional - Technical school education in Maputo and Nlhamankulu divided by gender in 2019 (Created from data collected by INE during 2017 census) Figure 8 Adult education in Maputo and Nlhamankulu divided by gender in 2019 (Created from data collected by INE during 2017 census) Figure 9 Employment percentages in Chamanculo in 2014 (Bilato 2014) Image 19 Market in Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo)

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 10 Economic hardship (based on Slegh, et al. 2017) Figure 11 Cultural traditions (based on Slegh, et al. 2017) Figure 12 Gender dynamics in the home (based on Slegh, et al.. 2017) Figure 13 Exposure to violence (based on Slegh, et al. 2017) Image 20 Children of Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo) Figure 14 Adminstrative Hierarchy of Chamanculo (Pastore, Del Banco i Guevara 20202021) Image 21 Dirt roads with traffic and drainage system (Estúdio Anima 2018) Image 22 Typical “becos” of Maputo (Silva 2020) Image 23 Waste pollution in the informal settlements of Maputo (Estúdio Anima 2018) Image 24 Waste pollution in the informal settlements of Maputo (Estúdio Anima 2018) Image 25 Nichole Sobiecki Photography Figure 15 Monthly Rainfall Averages Maputo 1979-2000 (Source: wikipedia.org) Figure 16 Average temperatures Maputo (Source: wikipedia.org) Image 26 Nichole Sobiecki Photography Image 27 Nichole Sobiecki Photography Image 28 Floods in East Africa (Source: Brian Inganga) Image 29 Waste clogging an open drainage channel (Source: unknown) Image 30 People inspect the damage caused by Tropical Cyclone Eloise (Source: Andre Catueira/EPA) Image 31 Three meters wide open drainage channel (Source: unknown) Image 32 Flooding (Source: EHA News) Image 33 Cyclon Elose (Source: Lusa) Image 34 Flooding (Source: BBC News) Image 35 Cyclone Idai (Source: BBC News) Image 36 Richard Makon Photography Image 37 Nichole Sobiecki Photography Image 38 Men of Maputo, Mozambique (Source: Douglas Condzo) Figure 17 Interview made by the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University to the chamanculo citizen written in the article VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS IN PUBLIC SPACES IN MAPUTO: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY Figure 18 Types of Crimes Reported by Police by Districts, 2018-2020 (Source: Maputo City Police Command, 2018-2020) Figure 19 Exposure to traumatic events in war for independence (1964-1974) and civil war (1977-1992) (Source: Beign a man in Maputo) Figure 20 Types of Crimes Reported in Chamanculo Area by the police in 2020. (Source: Maputo City Police Command, 2018-2020) Figure 21 Prevalence of sexual violence in public places in two municipal districts of Maputo (KaLhamankulu and KaMaxaquene) (Mariano, et al. 2020)

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LIST OF FIGURES

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Figure 22 Period of the day during weekends (Friday and Saturday) when the residents of KaLhamankulu and KaMaxaquene reported feeling of insecurity (Mariano, et al. 2020) Figure 23 Prevalence of violence against woman and girl in public space in KaMaxaquene and KaLhamankulu (Mariano , et al. 2020) Image 39 Men in an educational environment in Chamanculo (Source: Andrés Panera 2020, youtube.com) Image 40 Children in an educational environment in Chamanculo (Source: vita.it) Image 41 Malanga Market in Chamanculo (Source: MMO, 2020) Image 42 Malanga Market in Chamanculo (Source: MMO, 2020) Image 43 Small barber shop in Chamanculo (Source: Chamanculo é Vida, 2020; facebook. com) Figure 24 Unplanned plots in Maputo (Home space, Built Environment study) Figure 25 Type A Room division and movement diagram (Source: self-produced with reference from HomeSpace report) Figure 26 Type A house front facade (Source: Homespace, Built environment study) Figure 27 Type B Room division and movement diagram (Source: self-produced with reference from HomeSpace report) Figure 28 Type B house remainings (Source: Homespace, Built environment study) Figure 29 Type C Room division and movement diagram (Source: self-produced with reference from HomeSpace report) Figure 30 Type C house exterior (Source: Homespace, Built environment study) Figure 31 Type D Room division and movement diagram (Source: self-produced with reference from HomeSpace report) Figure 32 Type D house fronts, veranda (Source: Homespace, Built environment study) Figure 33 Type E Room division and movement diagram (Source: self-produced with reference from HomeSpace report) Figure 34 Type E house located at the far boundary of the plot (Source: Homespace, Built environment study) Figure 35 Roofing, ventoinha house (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo) Figure 36 House verandah (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo) Figure 37 Roofing, ventoinha house and verandah (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo) Figure 38 Eaves troughs and other elements, security bars and bri soleils (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo) Figure 39 Other elements, security bars and bri soleils (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo) Figure 40 Other elements, security bars and bri soleils (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo)

LIST OF FIGURES Image 44 Textures and built environment of self produced homes in Maputo (Source: HomeSpace synthesis report) Figure 41 Volumetric evolution of a house in Maputo (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo) Figure 42 2D evolution of a house in Maputo (Source: The building of informal dwellings: case study of Maputo) Image 45 Home building site and its participants (Source: HomeSpace website) Image 46 Economic ativities taken by women as market sellers (Estúdio Anima 2018) Image 47 Young man feeding drunk brother during a family lunch meal (Estúdio Anima 2018) Image 48 Woman walking in Chamanculo’s corridor (Source: Jason Florio; flickr.com) Image 49 Local residents in in Aeroporto B - densely populated urban area in Maputo Mozambique where Communal Sanitation Blocks have been installed (Source: Jason Florio; flickr.com) Image 50 Local resident - Aida Maluoma next to wheel chair accessible latrine in a Communal Sanitation Block in Aeroporto B - densely populated urban area in Maputo Mozambique (Source: Jason Florio; flickr.com)

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Agnieszka Kilian, Aurora Bosia, Jhower Emanuel Sanchez Pinela, Kristina Mirković, Laura Kovačević