History of Modern Architecture by Laura Hastings

Contents Page The Pre-Raphaelites...................................................................................... Page 2 Bauhaus........................................................................................Page 3 Le Corbusier........................................................................................Page 4 Le Corbusier: Chandigarh Case Study.............................................................................Pages 5-7 Italian Modernism........................................................................................Page 8 Avant-Garde........................................................................................Page 9 Hot Modernism...................................................................................Page 10 Brutalism in the UK: Problems and Legacy....................................................................................Page 11 Frank Lloyd Wright...................................................................................Page 12 Transcultural Space..................................................................................Page 13 References..................................................................................Page 14 -15

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The Pre-Raphaelites

William Holman Hunt, The Awakening Conscience, 1853, Photo © Tate, CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0 (Unported)

The Pre-Raphaelites were a group of young artists who opposed the way in which London’s Royal Academy of Arts taught painting; in an artificial and mannered approach.1 They had a known preference for early Renaissance works that followed a programme of ‘truth to nature’ as they were inspired by the work of old masters.2 Their name as the ‘Pre-Raphaelites’ also explores the opposition that the group felt towards the Renaissance Master, Raphael, whom was promoted by the Royal Academy. His work was an example of the “triviality of the immensely popular genre painting of the time.”3 The Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood was founded by three individual artists: William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Over time, the founding trio were joined by other young revolutionary thinkers, before the term of ‘Pre-Raphaelites’ developed to refer to the style of art made famous by the brotherhood.4

An example of Pre-Raphaelite design can be explored in the St. Phillip’s Cathedral, Birmingham. The series of stained windows, designed by Edward Burne-Jones, to replace the plain windows initially installed when the Cathedral was completed in 1715.5 Burne-Jones was a designer whom was heavily influenced by the Pre-Raphaelite design movement and was a second generation of brotherhood artists; known for drawings, paintings, stained glass (as seen at St. Phillip’s Cathedral and furniture.6 A collection of his work is displayed at Birmimgham Art Gallery and Museum.

Edward Burne-Jones, Stained glass Window, 1885, ©St. Phillip’s Cathedral (Right). My Sketch (Left).

Edward Burne-Jones, Kate Faulkner, 1833-1898, Grand Piano, © Birmingham Art Gallery

Sir John Everett Millais, Bt, Mariana, 1851, Photo ©Tate, CCBY-ND 3.0 (Unported)

Sir John Everett Millais, Bt, Ophelia, 1851-2, Photo ©Tate, CC-BY-ND (Unported)

Edward Burne-Jones, Six Studies for the Briar Rose Series: ‘The Garden Court’, 1890, ©Birmingham Art Gallery

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Bauhaus

The Barcelona Pavilion - Mies van der Rohe

The Barcelona Pavilion was designed as part of the Barcelona International Exhibition by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe alongside Lilly Reich.7 The Exhibition was designed to advertise Germany as new, modern and democratic following the First World War; having been commissioned by the Weimar Republic.8 The Barcelona Pavilion is an expresses the economic recovery made by Germany by the time of its construciton in 1929 and explores the Weimar’s will to regain international influence. The Barcelona Pavilion manifests the bauhaus ethos in adhering to the Bauhaus manifesto in the essence that;

“The ultimate, if distant, goal of the Bauhaus is the collective work of art - the Building - in which no barriers exist between the structural and the decorative arts.”9 In this sense, the building provides a sense of authenticity in its use of materials. In relation to Dieter Rams’ 10 principles of good design, the building remains ‘honest’ and reflects the organic characteristics of the steel, glass and stone used to construct the Pavilion, to produce an ‘unobtrusive’ and ‘involves as little design as possible’.10 Therefore as well as adhering to the Bauhaus Manifesto, the design of the Barcelona Pavilion is reinforced by the modernist principles of Dieter Rams. The Barcelona Pavilion appeals to me as its design is almost timeless, and expresses an aesthetic that remains current almost 90 years following the process of its initial design and construction.

The Brixham House - Nicolas Tye

Nicolas Tye is the Architect responsible for the design of ‘Brixham House’ also known as ‘Glashaus’; which expresses the link between the contemporary with the Bauhaus manifesto and its values. The building itself was a prefabricated shell construction in achieve a greater level of sustainability through structually insulated panels.11 Even as a contemporary structure, the design of the ‘Glashaus’ expresses Bauhaus values; being a prefabricated structure, the building explores a more ‘industrial’ approach towards Architecture and design. The Bauhaus Manifesto from 1919 states that:

“artists who sense new creative values have had practical training in the industrial world, they will themselves possess the means for realizing those values immediately. They will compel industry to serve their idea and industry will seek out and utilize their comprehensive training.”12 The Brixham House also expresses modernist characteristics by utilising industrial materials whilst maintaining a certain degree of honesty in its construction. Its design is very geometric and box-like and so meets Dieter Rams’ principles of good design.

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Le Corbusier Le Corbusier Le Corbusier was born as Charles Edouard Jeanneret in 1887. His style of design was very much infleunced by his early upbringing in Switzerland and his travels. Throughout these experiences, Le Corbusier became grounded in classical values and was also influenced heavily by the works of G.N. Ledoux that expressed early characteristics of the French Neoclassical style. In 1908, Le Corbusier worked for Auguste Perret in Paris- this was pivotal as he was exposed to the nature of reinforced concrete in domestic design and how it could be used to open up space and eliminate the need for load bearing walls; arguably one of the most siginificant experiences of his early life.13 In 1910, Le Corbusier was influenced by Germany’s Deutscher Werkbund, its focus on mass production and machine enabled a link to emerge between art and machine. Despite the fact that Le Corbusier felt as though the French Arts were superior, he admired German manufacture. Inspired by his experiences, Le Corbusier travelled much of Europe in an attempt to develop a number of principles for Architecture.14 Le Corbusier’s 5 Points of Modern Architecture were developed by 1927: 1. Pilotis- Pilotis constructed from reinforced concrete and eliminated the need for load bearing walls, so could oepn up a structure, 2. Roof Gardens would encorage the link between nature and the building, 3. Free Facade- This was as a result of the construction technique that produced ‘free walls’ as well as free space, 4. Free Plan-Also as a result of the construction method, 5. Ribbon Windows- Designed to let in lots of light and to frame outside views.15

Villa Savoye, Le Corbusier’s machine of inhabit. Photography © Montse Zamorano

Unité d’Habitation, Marseille Photo : Paul kozlowski © FLC/ ADAGP

http://writingcities.com/2015/11/18/ le-corbusier-planning-the-city-of-tomorrow/

Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/ pilgrim-progress-an-irishman-s-diary-about-le-corbusier-s-chapel-at-ronchamp-1.2653881

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Le Corbusier

Chandigarh, Capitol Buildings, India 1955-7 The Capitol Complex of Chandigarh was designed to act as a new state capital for East India, after its traditional state Capital of Lahore was lost during the creation of Pakistan.16 Corbusier used his knowledge of urban planning to help design the complex. He planned on a “grid of circulation” and “low rise dwellings in a sort of garden city arrangement.”17 The Capitol Complex consists of the Palace of Justice, Secretariat, The Palace of Assembly and the Tower of Shadows; several monuments are present in the Chandigarh Capitol Complex including the Open Hand monument (designed to communicate the values of Chandigarh- ‘open to give, open to receive’), Geometric Hill (constructed from the sand removed to construct the complex), Martyrs’ Memorial and Rock Garden (designed by Nek Chand).18 Le Corbusier expressed how the Open Hand Monument was “not a political emblem, a politician’s creation…[but] an architect’s creation… a symbol of peace and reconciliation.”19 The Capitol itself also shows an institutional hierarchy as the Governor’s Palace (which was never actually built) was supposed to sit at the head of the ‘urban body’ with the High Court and Parliamentary buildings facing each other. The secretariat located off to the side.20 The Chandigarh Master Plan was laid out by Le Corbusier and shows the zoning used to focus on the Capitol buildings.21 Chandigarh Master Plan by Le Corbusier, https://planningtank.com/master-plan/chandigarh-master-plan, [accessed 15/10/2018]

The Capitol Buildings of Chandrigarh are brutalist in style and explore very similar characteristsics to Le Corbusier’s Unité d’Habitation in Marseille as these buildings have been rough cast in concrete.22 The Palace of Assemby utiitses Le Corbusier’s 5 Points of Modern Architecture in the sense that it is designed to be open plan with a grid like structure framed by reinforced concrete Pilotis- alleviating the need for load bearing walls. The Palace of Assembly also has a free facade.23

The Palace of Assembly, Chandigarh. Photo Courtesy: FLC ADAGP, Paris, 2015 The Secretariat, http://www.tricityevents.in/prestigious-building-sec- Palace of Justice, http://nirman.com/blog/2016/10/27/the-palace-of-jusretariat-chandigarh/ tice-chandigarh/

Le Corbusier Presentation Slides As a group, we presented our research into Le Corbusierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Chandigarh using a Power Point presentation. The slides that were used to support our presentation can be seen on the next couple of pages. Our presenation focussed on research into the relationship to site, history of the brief, function of the buildings, materials and construction as well as its spatial layouts.

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Page 7

Italian Modernism

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Giorgio de Chirico

Giorgio de Chirico, Piazza d’Italia, 1913, http://www. italianways.com/italys-squares-in-giorgio-de-chiricos-works/

Giorgio de Chirico was an artist that during his ‘metaphysical’ stage of paintings. This stage of his artworks focussed on Italian Squares and a more architectural sense of the world. He was very much an influence for Surrealists. His works such as the “Piazza d’Italia” of 1913 and “Mystery and Melancholy” of 1914, explore Italian urban forms where the past has occured. The views taken in both of these paintings have a modified perspective in order to “unmask reality,” and “reveal its mysterious truth.”24 De Chirico’s interest in the Italian urban environment is expressed through the painting of mundane objects in a slightly obscure and disproportionate perspective- shown through the accentuated shadows.. The subject of his works remain recognisable but also communicates how the climate has influenced much of the Architecutre within the Italian urban environment.25 Giorgio de Chirico was heavily influenced by German Romanticism and the idea of how a paintaing could echo a sense of both ‘disorientation’ and equally ‘nostalgia’ and the powerful impact of mixing the past and present.26 In the context of the time of these paintings, the early 20th century had been a time of great political change and development. Major European powers had developed democratic parliamentary constiutions and tensions between countries were building as a result of growing nationalism and the determination for states to increase influence globally. In this sense, de Chirico uses his paintings of Italian Squares to reflect the sense of great change and nostalgia in response to the context of the time.

Giorgio de Chirico, Mystery and Melancholy of a Street 1914, http:// www.italianways.com/italys-squares-ingiorgio-de-chiricos-works/

Aldo Rossi Aldo Rossi’s “the Architecture of the City,” published in 1966 was a culmination of Rossi’s notes and lectures throughout his life from which he published principles for a new urban theory.27 He expressed through his publication of “L’Architettura della Citta,” that “over the course of history, architecture has developed certain continuous forms and ideas, to the point that these are standard types in the collective memory that move beyond the scope of style and trends. To Rossi the modern city is an “artifact” of these architectural constants. Rather than disrupt this fabric with shockingly new, individualistic architecture, Rossi maintained that architects must respect the context of a city and its architecture and tap into these common types.”28 The publication of Rossi’s book gave fellow architects the ability to return to old ideas and to rethink how traditional methods of design had impacted their modern works. Aldo Rossi’s work is characteristically similar to that of Giorgio de Chirico’s as it features an obscure perspective with a focus on the urban environment. The works maintain a sense of recognisability and familiarity as to the environments we consistently experience with a similar sense of disorientation- as seen in de Chirico’s work. © Eredi Aldo Rossi. Courtesy Fondazione Aldo Rossi

Rossi, A. (1966), L’Architettura della Citta, The Architecture of the City

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Hot Modernism & Critical Regionalism

Regional Modernism can be defined as being the adaptation of the international characteristics associated with Modernist design, as a result of the combination of cultural values and needs associated with a climate that it not native to the birth of modernism- in this case Western Europe. Scott Herring, a Professor at Indiana University Boomington, expresses that “The term “regional modernism” first originated in architecture studies, where it came— and where it continues—to characterize building design that opposed the standardizations of an International Style promoted by the likes of architects such as Le Corbusier.”29 Critical Regionalism is the way in which architecture responds to the local architectural traditions of a region- these traditions and features may be as a result of the climate, topography of the landscape or cultural context.30

Kanchanjunga Apartments Charles Correa

Kanchanjunga Apartments, Mumbai (1970-83)

Charles Correa explored sustainable climate control within his design of the Kanchanjunga apartments. He orientated the building south-west in order to take advantage of the sea breeze. Unfortunately this was also the orientation of the hot afternoon sun and the harsh monsoon rains. In order to protect the main living spaces from these harsh weather systems, Correa incorporated a veranda. The vegetation was also carefully selected so that it would thrive off the climate in which it sits- acting as a ‘buffer zone.’.31

Unité d’Habitation Le Corbusier

“The Unité stands at the beginning of a typological tradtion in the post war years,”32 as this was designed to provde housing following the devestation of areas as a result of the war. The Unité d’Habitation almost creates Le Corbusier’s idea of a ‘Utopian City’. The building consists of 12 storeys of interlocking apartments, with 23 different typologies. Unité d’Habitation, https://www.architravel.com/ architravel/building/unite-d-habitation/

There are a number of similarities between the two examples. Both feature double storey, interlocking apartments designed to maxmimise space and to provide a homely feel for the residents. They are also incredibly similar in design and in their materiality. Both, despite the Kanchanjunga being a later example, are constructed from reinforced concrete with a very geometric form and façade. Similarly, both structures were designed as a solution to housing issues: in India, Correa designed the Kanchanjunga Apartments as affordable housing as an alternative from slums; Le Corbusier’s Unité d’Habitation was designed to provide housing as a long term solution to the housing crisis following the devestation of World War One and Two. http://majesticplumage.blogspot. com/2013/05/charles-correa-kanchanjunga-apartments5 _ .html, [accessed 08/11/2018]

Despite many similaries between the two schemes, the Kanchanjunga Apartments fail to utilise politis as a way of producing an open plan and alleviate the need for load bearing walls- a feature of Le Corbusier’s work. Furthermore, the incorporation of verandas by the main living areas of the apartments are designed as a result of the adaptation of modernism ideas in an alternative region and climate- and have been designed to ensure the comfort of residents.

Unité d’Habitation, http://gograno.com/2016/08/27/ marseilles/

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Brutalism in the UK: Problems & Legacy Birmingham Central Library by John Madin

Birmingham Central Library was designed by Architect, John Madin and was once Europe’s largest. It was constructed from mostly concrete and stone and completed in 1974; a typical example of Brutalist architecture both in its design and materiality. The building itself in its design is focussed on block-forms and geometric shape in order to emphasise the raw appearance of the vast amounts of concrete used to build the scheme.33 The builidng caused controversy when it was suggested to be knocked down as a result of the redevelopment and regeneration of Paradise Circus, Birmingham.

Birmingham Central Library Exterior, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Una-White-Birmingham-Central-Library-2007.jpg

Arguments callling for the demolition of the Central Library include: • Glenn Howells expressed that in order to produce a successful circulation between the East and West of Birmingham, and to make pedestrians the priority in terms of movement throughout the city, that the Central Library had to be demolished. • Glenn Howells Architects also believed that the city should not be “full of landmarks, but of dense stuff.”34 Therefore, the Library needed demolition in order to allow for the construction of more dense schemes. • In 2009, the fate of the Library was sealed after Margaret Hodge failed to acknowledge the historical or architectural interest of the site and so failed to list the site and rejected the advice of English Heritage.35 Argumnets calling for the Library to be saved include: • In 2012, the World Monuments Fund identified the Central Birmingham Library as being one of three of the best brutalist examples of its kind and so had significant architectural and historical value for future generations.36 • The builidng was only 40 years old and so could potentially be repurposed or given a renovation. • English Heritage reccommended twice that the Central Birmingham Library builidng statisfied the criteria to be deemed as a Grade Two listed builiding- had this been done, demolition would not have been an option. Overall, the demolition of the Birmingham Central Library has meant a loss of great historical and architectural value. However, it was clear that the demolition was in the best interests of the improvement of circuation between two sides of the city and the redevelopment of the area as a whole which focusses on pedestrianising zones to a greater extent.

Birmingham Central Library Interior, https://imgur.com/gallery/0bCyrtN

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Frank Lloyd Wright Why is Frank Lloyd Wright’s architecture so strongly associated with the landscape?

Frank Lloyd Wright’s architecture is so strongly associated with the landscape as a result of his focus on organic design. This focus explores how the buildings contrsucted by Frank Lloyd Wright are a response to the natural environment in which it sits, to enhance both the landscape and the building equally. His idea of organic architecture also incorporated his inherent, personal values from his early childhood.37 In this belief, his work is very different from the typical constructions of the time as America did not have a ‘designated style’ of build. The Fallingwater House, designed for Edgar Kaufmann38 is an example of one of the many successes by Frank Lloyd Wright during his career, in designing a building to enhance its landscape due to its focus on being organic so that it sits comfortably within its site context. Initially the client thought that the building was to sit facing the waterfall, rather than being placed in top of it. Instead, Frank Lloyd Wright used projecting terraces to echo the form of the below waterfall rock and consistently reflected the materiality of the site’s surroundings by using stone floors and walls to echo the rocks within the site. Throughout the interior he also incorporated splashes of bright colour to mimic the wildlife outside that could be spotted in the trees.38 In contrast, Frank Lloyd Wright also explored the integrration of organic design into more urban architectural forms. This is evident in the Robie House built in 190639 and is a conclusive design to Wright’s ‘Prarie Houses’. The design of his Prarie Houses were deemed recognisable by their features of horizontal lines that emphasised how the building was spread along the horizontal plane, producing a building that sat much closer to the ground in order to be much more inkeeping with the landscape.40 To further this, the use of overhangs, cantilevered roofs and the low pitch of the roofs of the Robie House were design features used by Frank Lloyd Wright to sympathise with the landscape as it rolled away from the heights of chicago.41

Falling Water by Frank Lloyd Wright, 1935, https://franklloydwright.org/site/fallingwater/

Robie House by Frank Lloyd Wright, 1906, https://franklloydwright.org/site/robie-house/

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Transcultural Space

Transcultural Space can be defined as an urban areas that change as a direct response to the changing layers of cultural identity. An example of a transcultural space would be Victoria Square in Birmingham, during the months running up to Christmas, a German Christmas Market is erected. The collage of images explore these cultural layers, with Birmingham’s historic 19th century buildings photographed amongst the backdrop of the recent and temporary installation of the Christmas Market that offers tranditionally European goods; providing a sense of the cultural diversity felt within the city all year round.

References

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Roe, D.(2014), The Pre-Raphaelites, https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-pre-raphaelites [accessed 29/09/2018], Ibid, 3 Pre-Raphaelite, https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/pre-raphaelite [accessed 29/09/018], 4 Souter, A. and Furnari, R. (ed.) (2018) https://www.theartstory.org/movement-pre-raphaelites.htm [accessed 29/09/2018], 5 St. Phillip’s Cathedral, Birmingham [visited 1/10/2018], 6 Birmingham Art Gallery and Museum, Birmingham [visited 1/10/2019], 7 The Barcelona Pavilion, http://miesbcn.com/the-pavilion/ [acessed 03/10/2018], 8 Glancey, J. (2014), Why the ‘Barcelona’ Pavilion is a Modernist Classic, http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20130924-less-is-more-a-design-classic [accessed 03/10/2018], 9 Browne, J. (2018), Walter Gropius “Bauhaus Manifesto and Programe” (1919), Moodle @ BCU, Faculty of Arts, Design and Media, ARC 4010 History of Modern Architecture A S1, [accessed 03/10/2018], 10 Domingo, M. (2018), Dieter Rams: 10 Timeless Commandments for Good Design , https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/article/dieter-rams-10-timeless-commandments-for-good-design, [accessed 03/10/2018], 11 Tye, N. (2015), Living New-Builds, p.9, https://issuu.com/nicolastyearchitects/docs/sections-1 [accessed 07/10/2018], 12 Browne, J. (2018), Walter Gropius “Bauhaus Manifesto and Programe” (1919), Moodle @ BCU, Faculty of Arts, Design and Media, ARC 4010 History of Modern Architecture A S1, [accessed 07/10/2018], 13 Browne, J. (2018), Le Corbusier, BA (Hons) Architecture, ARC 4010 History of Modern Architecture A S1 2018/9, Birmingham City University, 9th October 2018 [Lecture notes taken by L. Hastings}, 14 Ibid. 15 Daanico (2013), 5 Points of Modern Architecture, https://daanico.wordpress.com/2013/12/23/5-points-of-modern-architecture/, [accessed 17/10/2018], 16 Browne, J. (2018), William Curtis, “Form and Meaning in the Work of Late Corbusier,” p.427, Moodle @ BCU, Faculty of Arts, Design and Media, ARC 4010 History of Modern Architecture A S1 2018/9, [accessed 15/10/2018], 17 Ibid. 18 Duggal, S. (2018), “Capitol Complex: Here’s everything you need to know about Chandigarh’s UNESCO Heritage,” https://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/capitol-complex-everything-you-need-toknow-about-chandigarh-s-unesco-heritage/story-WmWrhRrv7K2D0YwYPvJueK.html, [accessed 15/10/2018] 19 Browne, J. (2018), William Curtis, “Form and Meaning in the Work of Late Corbusier,” p.428, Moodle @ BCU, Faculty of Arts, Design and Media, ARC 4010 History of Modern Architecture A S1 2018/9, [accessed 15/10/2018], 20 Ibid. 21 Chandigarh Master Plan by Le Corbusier, https://planningtank.com/master-plan/chandigarh-master-plan, [accessed 15/10/2018] 22 Ashton, I. (2016), Le Corbusier’s Chandigarh government buildings captured in new images by Benjamin Hosking, https://www.dezeen.com/2016/08/07/le-corbusier-capitol-complex-unesco-world-heritage-listing-chandigarh-india-benjamin-hosking/, [accessed 17/10/2018], 23 Ibid. 24 Columbano, A. (2018), Le Corbusier, BA (Hons) Architecture, ARC 4010 History of Modern Architecture A S1 2018/9, Birmingham City University, 16th October 2018 [Lecture notes taken by L. Hastings}, 25 Ibid. 26 The Art Story Contributors, Giorgio De Chirico Artist Overview and Analysis (2018), https://www.theartstory.org/artist-de-chirico-giorgio.htm, [accessed 18/10/2018], 27 The New Urban Scale in Italy: On Aldo Rossi’s “L’architettura della città”, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40480643?seq=1#page_ scan_ tab_ contents, [accessed 18/10/2018] 28 Zukowsky, J.(2018), Aldo Rossi, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aldo-Rossi, [accessed 18/10/2018], 29 Herring, Scott. (2009). Regional Modernism: A Reintroduction. MFS Modern Fiction Studies. 55. 1-10. 10.1353/mfs.0.1588, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236832911_ Regional_ Modernism_ A _ Reintroduction, [accessed 08/11/2018], 30 A History of Architecture- Critical Regionalism, http://www.historiasztuki.com.pl/kodowane/003-02-05-ARCHWSP-REGIONALIZM-eng.php, [accessed 08/11/2018]. 31 Khan, Hasan-Uddin, ed. “Kanchanjunga Apartments.” In Charles Correa, Singapore: Concept Media Ltd., 1987, p.56, https://archnet.org/system/publications/contents/7084/original/DPC3960. pdf?1384808050, [accessed 08/11/2018] 1 2

Page 15 Curtis, W., Unité d’Habitation, p. 438, Moodle @ BCU, Faculty of Arts, Design and Media, ARC 4010 History of Modern Architecture A S1 2018/9, [accessed 08/11/2018], Birmingham Central Library, https://www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk/projects/display/id/2332, [accessed 17/11/2018], 34 It’s all change in the second city... again, https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2008/jun/29/architecture.regeneration, [accessed 17/11/2018], 35 Waite, R. (2009), Hodge Refused to List Birmingham Central Library, https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/home/hodge-refuses-to-list-birmingham-central-library/5211195.article, [accessed 17/11/2018], 36 Stacey, A.(2016), ‘Public will regret’ the demolition of Central Library in 40 Years, https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/heritage-expert-claims-public-regret-12118279, [accessed 17/11/2018], 37 Frank Lloyd Wright: The Man who Built America, (2017). TV, BBC 4, August 2017. 59 mins. 38 Fallingwater, https://franklloydwright.org/site/fallingwater/, [accessed 21/11/2018] 39 Frank Lloyd Wright: The Man who Built America, (2017). TV, BBC 4, August 2017. 59 mins. 39 Robie House, https://franklloydwright.org/site/robie-house/, [accessed 21/11/2018] 40 Farrow, V. (2018), Frank Lloyd Wright, BA (Hons) Architecture, ARC 4010 History of Modern Architecture A S1 2018/9, Birmingham City University, 21st November 2018 [Lecture notes taken by L. Hastings}, 41 Frank Lloyd Wright: The Man who Built America, (2017). TV, BBC 4, August 2017. 59 mins. 32