academics
CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS
A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG
“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”
by Lisa Damour, Ph.D., Tori Cordiano, Ph.D. and Megan Weiskopf, M.A.
GIRLS AND ACADEMIC MOTIVATION Students may have the time, materials and skills they need to do their schoolwork, but the work won’t get done without an additional, essential ingredient: motivation. Defined as “the impetus that gives purpose or direction to behavior,”1 motivation has long been a subject of academic study. What has been discovered by researchers has clear implications for helping students tackle their work.
TWO TYPES OF MOTIVATION Academic psychologists have identified two key types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic.2 Intrinsic motivation describes the experience of feeling innately drawn to the task or topic at hand. Intrinsic motivation can readily be likened to fascination; a deep and genuine interest takes over and satisfaction is derived from the learning itself. In contrast, extrinsic motivation describes the condition of doing work in response to an outside stimulus. This can take the form of working in order to gain a positive outcome, such as receiving praise or a good grade, or to avoid a negative outcome, such as adult disappointment or being grounded. Intrinsic motivation requires less mental effort than extrinsic motivation, in the same way that fascination is less cognitively demanding than exerting effortful attention.3 That said, it is not
necessary or helpful to treat intrinsic motivation as a superior or preferred form of motivation. It is not always possible for students to summon intrinsic motivation, especially given that they are often required to study a wide range of topics not of their choosing. And even when intrinsic motivation is present, it is not always easily maintained over long stretches of time. Finally, it is important to note that students often feel intrinsically and extrinsically motivated at the same time. It is not at all unusual for a student to be genuinely interested in an assignment and, simultaneously, strive to get a good grade on it. Adults are most helpful to students when we view intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as two different, valuable tools that students have at their disposal. Ideally, students will learn how to use both tools to get work done.
FOSTERING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION There are many reasons to help students find a sense of intrinsic motivation. In addition to requiring less effort than extrinsic motivation,
academics: GIRLS AND ACADEMIC MOTIVATION
Research shows that students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation when they feel autonomous, supported and competent... intrinsic motivation has been linked to higher levels of academic achievement4 and a great overall sense of well-being.5 Research shows that students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation when they feel autonomous, supported and competent; they are less likely to experience intrinsic motivation when they feel controlled, pressured or unsure.6 To promote a sense of autonomy, students should be offered choices for how to approach their work whenever possible. For example, they might be given options for how they’d like to master new skills, approach new concepts, solve problems, demonstrate their understanding, organize their assignments or arrange their workspaces. To help students feel supported, adults should offer guidance designed to help students meet their own goals, as opposed to guidance aimed at getting students to conform to the wishes of teachers or parents. Finally, we should remember that students cannot summon intrinsic motivation for work that is too hard. Accordingly, adults should be alert to the possibility that a student who seems unmotivated may, in fact, be missing the knowledge or skills needed to complete the assigned work.
CAPITALIZING ON EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
with students about the strategies that we turn to when we do not feel intrinsically motivated to accomplish necessary tasks. This might mean acknowledging that we often get ourselves to do tasks by looking forward to the reward of a cup of coffee, a chat with a friend or a paycheck once the work is completed. In other words, students should not feel uneasy about sometimes needing extrinsic motivators and should, in fact, be helped to find the external rewards that work best for them. As a first step, adults might recognize and celebrate the external motivation strategies students come to on their own. For example, some students complete a timed interval of work before rewarding themselves with a brief social media break. Others discover that they are better able to buckle down when studying in public at a library or coffee shop. Parents and teachers should support the systems students employ to complete their work, even if the strategy in question—such as studying while enjoying the online company of a friend—might seem strange to adults. Finally, parents and teachers can help students come up with effective motivators when necessary. The chart below details several excellent options.
Adults routinely rely on extrinsic motivation and should talk openly
WHEN SHE NEEDS HELP GETTING STARTED
WHEN SHE GETS STUCK
WHEN SHE FEELS OVERWHELMED
Help her break the work down into steps. If she’s unsure, help her figure out just the first step and begin there.
Give her time and space to grapple, offering strategies or asking questions to help her find a way in without giving her “the answer.”
Suggest she look at her obligations for the week, then map out a day-to-day approach that balances the work.
If you can, offer to sit near her and do your own work while she is working.
Ask her what tools she has at her disposal for troubleshooting: directions on the assignment sheet, resources on Canvas or Seesaw, a study buddy or two?
Help her break the work down into steps. Remind her that she doesn’t need to do it all at once to get it done.
To tap into intrinsic motivation, invite her to tell you something she enjoys or is curious about in relation to the class or the assignment.
Encourage her to make a list of specific questions and then check in with teachers.
Recommend that she cross even small tasks off a list to see what she is accomplishing one step at a time.
To tap into extrinsic motivation, encourage her to set a starting goal and come up with a small reward for meeting it.
Encourage her to work in 25-minute cycles, followed by active 5-minute breaks.
Help her identify opportunities for choice—in an assignment prompt, what to tackle first, a learning strategy she can use, the organization of her work space —to remind her that she can exercise some control.
GENDER AND MOTIVATION
Does praise undermine motivation? While some studies suggest that praising students helps to build intrinsic motivation,7 other research suggests that motivation flags when students are rewarded for their efforts.8 Experts agree, however, that praise can be an effective motivator when done correctly.9 In specific terms, students are more likely to feel intrinsically motivated when they are recognized for the effort they put into their work and when the praise they receive feels encouraging, sincere and supportive. In contrast, praise undermines motivation when students feel that they are being recognized only for their innate talents, or simply for acting in ways that are pleasing to adults. To help students feel motivated, celebrate their efforts by acknowledging that they “worked very hard,” and “should feel very proud of themselves.” Steer clear of suggesting that a student’s accomplishments reflect “a real gift for the subject,” or “what I knew you could do.”
GIRLS AND ACADEMIC MOTIVATION
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Early research on gender and academic motivation tended to explain gender differences based on factors such as achievement anxiety—that is, worry about one’s performance in a place like school where that performance is being assessed—and learned helplessness, or the belief that current success is not possible because of past obstacles. However, this research is largely seen today as incomplete and imprecise, as it did not take into account cultural and educational beliefs about gender that had an impact on women’s choices at the time.10 More recent research has explored the relationships between gender, motivation and representation in STEM fields. One study with a large, ethnically diverse sample found that adolescent girls’ motivation in math and science was connected to maternal and peer support in math and science, exposure to feminism and belief in gender equality.11 Importantly, some research indicates that gender differences in motivation, especially those related to girls’ beliefs about their competency in and the importance of STEM fields, begin in elementary school, making this a critical time to target motivation in STEM.12
[endnotes]
https://dictionary.apa.org/motivation Richard, R.M. & Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination theory of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78. Shernoff, D.J. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Flow in Schools: Cultivating engaged learners and optimal learning environments. In M. Furlong, R. Gilman, & S. Heubner (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology in the Schools, 2nd edition (pp.211-226). Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge, Taylor & Francis. Taylor, G. et al., (2014). A self-determination theory approach to predicting school achievement over time: the unique role of intrinsic motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39(4), 342-358. Burton, K. D., Lydon, J. E., D’Alessandro, D. U., & Koestner, R. (2006). The differential effects of intrinsic and identified motivation on well-being and performance: Prospective, experimental, and implicit approaches to self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 750–762. Ryan, R.M. & Powelson, C.L. (1991). Autonomy and relatedness as fundamental to motivation and education. The Journal of Experimental Education, 60(1), 49-66. Deci, E.L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R.M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627-668. Birch, L.L., Marlin, D.W., & Rotter, J. (1984). Eating as the “means” activity in a contingency: Effects on young children’s food preference. Child Development, 55(2), 431-439. Henderlong, J., & Lepper, M.R. (2002).The effects of praise on children’s intrinsic motivation: A review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 774-795. Meece, J.L., Glienke, B.B., & Burg, S. (2006). Gender and motivation. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 351-373. Leaper, C., Farkas, T., Brown, C.S. (2012). Adolescent girls’ experiences and gender-related beliefs in relation to their motivation in math/science and English. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 268-282. Meece et al. (2006). Knaus, W.J. (2016). Overcoming procrastination for teens: A CBT guide for college-bound students. Instant Help Books. DiTerlizzi, A., & Alvarez. (2020). The magical yet. Hyperion. Willingham, D. (2021). Why don’t students like school? A cognitive scientist answers about how the mind works and what it means for the classroom. (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass. Paul, A.M. (2021). The extended mind: The power of thinking outside the brain. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. https://www.timetimer.com https://www.forestapp.cc https://pomofocus.io
academics: GIRLS AND ACADEMIC MOTIVATION
RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS Books OVERCOMING PROCRASTINATION FOR TEENS: A CBT GUIDE FOR COLLEGE-BOUND STUDENTS This practical book helps students understand the link between anxiety and motivation and provides actionable strategies to decrease procrastination and use time efficiently.13
THE MAGICAL YET This beautifully illustrated picture book helps younger children understand the connection between effort and outcome, particularly for difficult tasks.14
WHY DON’T STUDENTS LIKE SCHOOL? The second edition of this seminal book by cognitive psychologist Daniel Willingham explores factors related to students’ critical thinking, retention and motivation and provides strategies to help teachers harness engagement in the classroom.15
THE EXTENDED MIND: THE POWER OF THINKING OUTSIDE THE BRAIN This newest book from science writer Annie Murphy Paul explores the ways in which people use their bodies and the world around them to solve problems and how thinking “outside the brain” can boost motivation and generate fresh solutions.16
Products and websites TIME TIMER This visual timer helps even the youngest students set work limits and visualize upcoming breaks.17 https://www.timetimer.com
FOREST This app and website blocker helps students stay focused and eliminate distractions when they must use devices to complete their work. Students can watch a tree “grow” as they stay focused for designated periods of time and cause their tree to “wither” if they visit distracting websites.18 https://www.forestapp.cc
POMODORO TIMER This website and app from the original creator of the Pomodoro technique helps students set structured work periods and planned breaks when working for longer periods of time.19 https://pomofocus.io
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