LCRG Research Brief | Engaging in Civil Discourse

civil discourse

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Tori Cordiano, PhD, Lisa Damour, PhD and Sarah Wilson, MA

ENGAGING IN CIVIL DISCOURSE A group of experts from the domains of politics, academics, journalism and advocacy defined civil discourse as “robust, honest, frank and constructive dialogue and deliberation that seeks to advance the public interest” during a 2011 meeting hosted at the U.S. Supreme Court by the National Institute for Civil Discourse.1 At the classroom level, civil discourse occurs when “students learn to listen respectfully to different opinions and experiences, try out ideas and positions, and give—and get—constructive feedback without fear or intimidation.” 2 Engaging in civil discourse requires a willingness to be open to new perspectives, to assess the quality of arguments and information and to broaden, and perhaps change, one’s mind.3 In short, the work of engaging in civil discourse supports the central aims of any educational endeavor.

Based on a review of the relevant literature, Laurel’s Center for Research on Girls identified six key, teachable building blocks of civil discourse.

civil discourse: ENGAGING IN CIVIL DISCOURSE “Have you not learned great lessons from those who braced themselves against you, and disputed the passage with you?” —Walt Whitman, 1860 THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF CIVIL DISCOURSE EMOTIONAL SKILLS: EXTENDING EMPATHY Empathy creates an “as if” situation that allows one to deeply consider another person’s point of view.4 The humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers described empathy as a cognitive and emotional process wherein one can “lay aside the views and values you hold for yourself in order to enter into another’s world without prejudice.”5 Leaders with the Harvard Negotiation Project note that “learning to describe the gap – or difference – between your story and the other person’s story” is essential to having difficult conversations successfully.6 Empathy functions in several ways to improve communication between individuals.7 Cognitively, feeling empathy toward a member of a stigmatized group can improve one’s attitudes toward the group as a whole.8 On an emotional level, increased contact with others who are different from oneself fosters empathy. In turn, this increased empathy can decrease anxiety about those differences9 and can increase concern and understanding toward others.10 Educators with the Facing History and Ourselves program, a nonprofit organization that aims to help students examine racism, prejudice and anti-Semitism, encourage teachers to create an atmosphere of empathy within their classrooms. This can be done by creating trust and openness in conversations, helping students to appreciate contributions from everyone in the class and leaving space for silent reflection, particularly during conversations about complex or controversial topics.11 ACCEPTING DISCOMFORT Learning to accept emotional discomfort allows students to withstand the inevitable stresses that arise when they engage one another around controversial topics. Being able to bear with uncomfortable feelings requires students to follow a three-step process. First, they should be able to identify the emotions they are experiencing. Some young people come to this skill naturally, but for those who don’t, research finds that mindfulness practices can help young people cultivate the capacity to take an objective view of their own internal states. 12 Second, young people should be able to tolerate having negative feelings.

Again, some students can comfortably accept their own difficult feelings while others may benefit from mindfulness training exercises that will help them to manage any negative feelings “in ways that are responsive rather than reactive or reflexive.”13 In several studies, mindfulness-based interventions have been found to effectively help both children14 and adolescents feel calmer and less reactive.15 Finally, all students should be fluent in effective strategies for coping with upset feelings when necessary. School-based programs aimed at teaching emotion management skills have been shown to effectively improve students’ ability to regulate16 and cope17 with negative emotions.

BRAVING CONTROVERSY Though disagreements are typically viewed in a negative light, they can, in fact, serve an educational purpose when handled well. To support students as they become comfortable with conflict, adults can have them engage in constructive controversy, a classroom activity in which individuals with incompatible ideas, theories or opinions follow a step-wise process with the aim of reaching agreement.18 Research demonstrates that working through a disagreement with someone who poses a different solution to a shared problem can foster learning and intellectual development.19

Taking a systematic approach to addressing controversial topics teaches students a critical lesson: in order to be effective, difficult conversations require both time and thought. For example, programs designed

by Facing History and Ourselves not only delineate multiple steps for approaching challenging topics, but routinely include time for silent reflection.20

Students will not always be able to find common ground when they differ strongly. At these times, they may need adult support to appreciate that a successful conversation can be one in which the parties succeed in exploring a complex and contentious issue without leveling personal attacks or making assumptions about one another’s motives.21

COGNITIVE SKILLS: CULTIVATING CURIOSITY Curious people seek out novelty and new experiences. They are interested in others and their experiences. Curiosity is distinct from, but related to, the personality trait of openness to experience.22 On its own, curiosity can enrich learning23 and is linked to life satisfaction and growth-oriented behaviors.24 Curiosity can also protect against aggression in close relationships25 and enhance interactions between strangers.26 Asking questions and being open to new experiences drive curiosity.

Most students benefit from direct instruction in asking good questions and using questions to advance inquiry and solve problems.27 Teachers in any domain and with students of any age can cultivate an atmosphere of curiosity by: encouraging students to ask questions; creating situations designed for sustained inquiry; and crafting and refining questions for specific purposes.

It can be challenging to encounter new situations or differences of opinion, particularly when these differ greatly from our own circumstances. Uncertainty, though sometimes uncomfortable, drives what researchers call “epistemic curiosity,” an active search for new information and experiences.28 Douglas Stone, Bruce Patton and Shelia Heen of the Harvard Negotiation Project encourage using curiosity to understand other people’s stories.29 Curiosity allows us to learn about another person without judgment or certainty and creates a platform for civil discourse.

TAKING PERSPECTIVE The ability to consider another person’s perspective on an issue sits at the heart of civil discourse. Perspective-taking is distinct from empathy in that the emphasis is on considering another person’s viewpoint rather than having an emotional response to another person’s feelings.30 Taking another person’s perspective is difficult, because we are most aware of our own intentions and other people’s impact on us, and less aware of other people’s intentions and our impact on them.31 Perspective-taking develops throughout childhood and strengthens during adolescence, when abstract thinking allows individuals to consider another person’s situation and motives. It is associated with positive behavior toward others.32

does not line up with the position one already holds.36 But to engage effectively in civil discourse requires the use of active listening skills in which the listener aims to develop a clear and complete understanding of the speaker’s views.37 Research finds that active listening skills can be taught effectively in classroom settings.38

Students benefit from having opportunities to explicitly develop this skill. Historical texts and documents can be used to develop perspective-taking. Using open-ended or specific prompts, students can use journal-writing, drama, and questioning for deep inquiry to strengthen perspective-taking abilities.33, 34, 35

Students with developed listening and questioning skills are prepared to assert their positions respectfully. Teaching Tolerance, a nonprofit group with the mission of helping educators teach students to be “active participants in a diverse democracy,”41 proposes a three-part model for the effective assertion of ideas. Arguments, ideally, have the following elements: a clear assertion, usually in the form of a simple statement; solid reasoning that lays out the rationale for the argument; and evidence that supports that reasoning.42

ENGAGING EFFECTIVELY When faced with a controversial topic, it’s easy for students to employ selective listening—the practice of filtering out information that

Listening actively prepares students to question one another fairly.

Questioning, like listening, can be improved through classroom instruction.39 For example, students can be taught to move away from posing questions that are “rhetorical challenges or disguised statements” and toward asking questions that are open-ended and come from a position of curiosity.40

*While teachers may already use these practices, explicitly tying them to the building blocks may help students see connections

QUESTIONS TEACHERS CAN ASK

EXPERIENCES TEACHERS CAN DESIGN

• What does your friend’s face tell you about how s/he is feeling?

Why might s/he feel that way?

• What does a good friend do?

• It’s ok to feel sad/tired/frustrated. Why do you feel that way?

What could help you feel better?

• Teachers can record questions students ask during unstructured periods of the day, and revisit them during focused, whole-class exploration time.

(Curiosity, Engagement) • Teachers can role play common student conflicts and ask students to help resolve them. (Controversy, Perspective, Engagement)

• How can we respond if we disagree with what someone is saying?

• Why might this culture/group/society believe what they believe?

• What does it look like to disagree in a kind way? How can you show awareness of classmates’ feelings when disagreeing with each other?

• Teachers can be explicit about why and when they’re making something more difficult—e.g. requiring a new application of a skill. (Discomfort) • Teachers can use silent written activities (such as chalk talks or think, pair, share) to have students engage one another on unfamiliar beliefs and ideas while they are asked to suspend judgment. (Empathy, Discomfort, Curiosity, Perspective)

MIDDLE SCHOOL

• How can you share your thoughts in a way that keeps the conversation going?

• How has your thinking changed after listening to multiple perspectives or opposing ideas?

• What have you learned from those who disagree with you?

• Teachers can ask students to explain other students’ point of view.

(Empathy, Controversy, Perspective, Engagement) • Students can detail their reasoning on whiteboards and then present their logic to each other. (Curiosity, Perspective, Engagement)

HIGH SCHOOL

• Can you grapple with that problem for a few minutes and then see where you are?

• What is the source of your discomfort?

• Can you find and explain a point of view that disagrees with or contradicts your position?

• What are the merits of the counter-arguments to your own?

What of the opposing reasoning can be incorporated into a new version of your argument?

• Students can conduct roundtable discussions while taking on the role of a historical or literary figure. (Empathy, Controversy, Curiosity, Perspective, Engagement) • Teachers can structure a discussion so that it will not result in an agreement or answer, mirroring nuanced academic debate.

(Discomfort, Controversy, Perspective, Engagement)

PREPRIMARY SCHOOL

PRIMARY SCHOOL

CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES THAT ENHANCE CIVIL DISCOURSE SKILLS • Theater productions can require students to engage all six of the building blocks.

• Model UN and Speech & Debate Teams allow space for guided practice in civil discourse.

• Challenge courses and outdoor learning activities, such as Laurel School’s Adventure Course and Adventure Girls curriculum, scaffold students in accepting discomfort.

• Homeroom or Advisory Group time can be used to analyze current national and global debates in the context of the six building blocks and to ask students how they can develop these capacities in themselves.

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS Books ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A GUIDE FOR INSTRUCTORS43 This guide for educators covers topics ranging from curiosity to empathy to civic engagement and includes ideas for in-class activities and experiments to strengthen these skills.

MAKE JUST ONE CHANGE: TEACH STUDENTS TO ASK THEIR OWN QUESTIONS44 Based on the idea that asking good questions is central to learning and civil discourse, this book provides practical guidance for teaching all students to ask better questions.

DIFFICULT CONVERSATIONS: HOW TO DISCUSS WHAT MATTERS MOST45

Written by members of the Harvard Negotiation Project, this book is a helpful for resource for everyone – teachers, parents and students – navigating difficult conversations.

ENGAGING IN CIVIL DISCOURSE

HOW TO TALK SO KIDS WILL LISTEN & LISTEN SO KIDS WILL TALK46

Multiple generations of parents have come to rely on this seminal guide to improving communication and strengthening relationships between parents and children. Appropriate for parents of children of any age.

This website offers a multitude of resources for educators working with children from kindergarten through high school, including lesson plans, classroom activities and professional development. https://www.tolerance.org

Online Resources FACING HISTORY AND OURSELVES — FOSTERING CIVIL DISCOURSE: A GUIDE FOR CLASSROOM CONVERSATIONS47

This downloadable PDF serves as a guide for educators to create a safe environment where students can navigate tough conversations related to race, justice and politics. https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/ publications/Fostering_Civil_Discourse.pdf

[endnotes]

Brosseau, C. (2011). “Executive session: Civil discourse in progress.” Frankly Speaking, p. 1, Retrieved from http://archive.constantcontact.com/fs011/1105924840139/ archive/1108422226053.html on September 16, 2018.

2 Facing History and Ourselves. Fostering civil discourse: A guide for classroom conversations, p. 1. Retrieved from https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/ publications/Fostering_Civil_Discourse.pdf on September 16, 2018.

3 Ehrlich, T. & Hollander, E. (1999). President’s declaration on the civic responsibility of higher education. Providence, RI: Campus Compact, p. 5.

4 Rogers, C.R. (1975). Empathic: An unappreciated way of being. The Counseling Psychologist, 5, 2-10.

5 Rogers, C.R. (1975), p. 5.

6 Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (1999).

7 Gloor, J.L., & Puhl, R.M. (2016). Empathy and perspective-taking: Examination and comparison of strategies to reduce weight stigma. Stigma and Health, 1, 269-279.

8 Batson, C.D., Polycarpou, M.P., Harmon-Jones, E., Imhoff, H.J., Mitchener, E.C., Bednar, L.L., Klein, T.R., & Highberger, L. (1997). Empathy and attitudes: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group improve feelings toward the group? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 105-118.

9 Pettigrew, T.F., & Tropp, L.R. (2008). How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Metaanalytic tests of three mediators. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 922-934.

10 Batson, C.D., et al. (1997).

11 https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/publications/Fostering_Civil_ Discourse.pdf 12 Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 373–386.

13 Meiklejohn, J., Phillips, C., Freedman, M. L., Griffin, M. L. et al (2012). Integrating mindfulness training into K-12 education: Fostering the resilience of teachers and students. Mindfulness (2012) 3, 291–307, p. 296.

14 Wall, R. B. (2005). Tai chi and mindfulness-based stress reduction in a Boston middle school. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 19, 230– 237.

15 Bogels, S., Hoogstad, B., van Dun, L., De Shutter, S., & Restifo, K. (2008). Mindfulness training for adolescents with externalising disorders and their parents. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36, 193–209.

16 Frydenberg, E., Lewis, R., Bugalski, K., Cotta, A. et al (2004). Prevention is better than cure: coping skills training for adolescents at school. Educational Psychology in Practice, 20, 117-134.

17 Zapolski, T.C.B. & Smith, G.T. (2017). Pilot study: Implementing a brief DBT skills program in schools to reduce health risk behaviors among early adolescents. The Journal of School Nursing, 33, 198-204.

18 Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. (2009). Energizing Learning: The Instructional Power of Conflict. Educational Researcher, 38, 37-51.

19 Buchs, C., Butera, F., Mugny, G., & Darnon, C. (2004). Conflict elaboration and outcomes.

Theory Into Practice, 43, 23-30.

20 https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/publications/Fostering_Civil_ Discourse.pdf 21 Chasin, R., Herzig, M., Roth, S., Chasin, L. et al (1996). From diatribe to dialogue on divisive public issues: Approaches drawn from family therapy. Mediation Quarterly, 13, 323-342.

22 Kashdan, T.B., McKnight, P.E., Fincham, F.D., & Rose, P. (2011). When curiosity breeds intimacy: Taking advantage of intimacy opportunities and transforming boring conversations. Journal of Personality, 79, 1369-1402.

23 Gruber, M.J., Gelman, B.D., & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84, 486-496.

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CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.

TEACHING TOLERANCE48

Kashdan, T.B. & Steger, M.F. (2007). Curiosity and pathways to well-being and meaning in life: Traits, states, and everyday behaviors. Motivation and Emotion, 31, 159-173.

25 Kashdan, T.B., DeWall, C.N., Pond, R.S., Silvia, P.J., Lambert, N.M., Fincham, F.D., Savostyanova, A.A., & Keller, P.S. (2012). Curiosity protects against interpersonal aggression: Cross-sectional, daily process, and behavioral evidence. Journal of Personality, 81, 87-102.

26 Kashdan, et al. (2011).

27 Minigan, A.P., Westbrook, S. Rothstein, D., & Santana, L. (2017). Stimulating and sustaining inquiry with students’ questions. Social Education, 81, 268-272.

28 Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R.T. (2000). Civil political discourse in a democracy: The contribution of psychology. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 6, 291-317.

29 Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (1999). Difficult conversations: How to discuss what matters most. New York: Penguin Books.

30 Longmire, N.H., & Harrison, D.A. (2018). Seeing their side versus feeling their pain: Differential consequences of perspective-taking and empathy at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103, 894-915.

31 Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (1999).

32 Tamnes, C.K., Overbye,K., Ferschmann, L., Fjell, A.M., Walhovd, K.B., Blakemore, S.J., & Dumontheil, I. (2018). Social perspective taking is associated with self-reported prosocial behavior and regional cortical thickness across adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 54, 1745-1757.

33 Classroom Resources. Retrieved from https://www.tolerance.org/classroom-resources on September 17, 2018.

34 https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/publications/Fostering_Civil_ Discourse.pdf Retrieved on September 17, 2018 35 Thein, A.H., Beach, R., & Parks, D. (2007). Perspective-taking as transformative practice in teaching multicultural literature to white students. English Journal, 97, 54-60.

36 Bostrom, R.N. (1990). Listening behavior: Measurement and application. New York: Guilford.

37 McNaughton, D., Hamlin, D., McCarthy, J., Head-Reeves, D., et al (2007). Learning to listen: Teaching an active listening strategy to preservice education professionals. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27, 223-231.

38 Spataro, S.E. & Bloch, J. (2018). “Can you repeat that?” Teaching active listening in management education. Journal of Management Education, 42, 168-198.

39 Minigan, A.P., Westbrook, S., Rothstein, D. & Santana, L. (2017). Stimulating and sustaining inquiry with students’ questions. Social Education, 81, 268-272.

40 Chasin, R. et al (1996), p. 326.

41 https://www.tolerance.org/about 42 Teaching Tolerance, Building blocks for civil discourse. Civil Discourse in the Classroom.

Retrieved from https://www.tolerance.org/magazine/publications/civil-discourse-in-theclassroom/chapter-2-building-blocks-for-civil.

43 Froh, J.J., & Parks, A.C. (2013). Activities for teaching positive psychology: A guide for instructors. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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Rothstein, D., & Santana, L. (2011). Make just one change: Teach students to ask their own questions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

45 Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (1999), 151.

46 Faber, A. & Mazlish, E. (1980). How to talk so kids will listen and listen so kids will talk. New York: Scribner.

47 https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/publications/Fostering_Civil_ Discourse.pdf 48 https://www.tolerance.org 44

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