Cultur~1

Culture and heritage of Bangladesh

1. INTRODUCTION Bangladesh is an Asian country. Its official name is People's Republic of Bangladesh (Gana Prajatantri Bangladesh) Government. Parliamentary form of government is as follows: President is head of the State and Prime Minister is head of government. Though it is a small country in comparison to its neighbor country India, it possesses a very rich and differentiated culture and heritage. Its mixed-raced people, rich language, different religion, different festivals, its climate, its rivers, green lands, rural and urban areas, different societies have given this country a unique culture and heritage. Moreover, there are six seasons in Bangladesh. Each season comes with its own color and specialty, and each of the season’s beauties has a great influence on the culture of this land. An important mention may be made here about Bangladesh that this country achieved independence following a nine-month War of Liberation and started its activities as a sovereign country in16 December, 1971. Dhaka is its capital. The wide corn fields, green trees, murmuring streams, the large fields, the hills, the flowers with their dazzling colors, the birds with their sweet songs have made this land a beautiful place of natural beauty. In addition, a variety of amusing architectures and archaeological sites have ornamented this land’s heritage.

2. Geography Bangladesh is one of the world's biggest Deltas (Bow – Deep). Bangladesh covers an area of 147,570 sq km, a little more than the size of Greece. It extends from 20°34N to 26°38N latitude and from 88°01E to 92°41E longitude. Maximum extension is about 440 km in the EW direction and 760 km in the NNW-SSE direction. Bangladesh is a sub – Himalayan territory, situated in the eastern part of the South Asian sub-continent. The Indian States of west Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura border Bangladesh in the west, north and east respectively. Myanmar forms the southern part of the eastern frontier. The total length of the land border is about 4,246 km, of which 93.9% is shared with India and about 6.1% with Myanmar. Except the hilly southeast, most of the country is a low-lying plain land. The country is bounded in the south by the Bay of Bengal. Although Bangladesh is a small country, the length of the coastline is more than 580 km. A line called 'korkotkranti' has passed by the middle of the country. The territorial waters of Bangladesh extend 12 nautical miles (22.22 km) and the area of the high seas extending to 200 nautical miles (370.40 km) measured from the base lines constitutes the economic zone of the country. Bangladesh is located at the lowermost reaches of three mighty river systems - the ganges-padma river

system, brahmaputra-jamuna river system and surma-meghna river system. The highest point is located in Chittagong Hill Tracts.

Bangladesh is fringed on the southwest by the huge expanse of mangrove forest known as Sundarbans, the abode of the famous Royal Bengal tiger.

The Bay of Bengal Population of Bangladesh According to 2001 statistic: total population 123.1 million; density 834 persons per sq km, annual growth rate (1991-2001) 1.47%. At the point of ethnicity Bangladeshi people are amalgamation of Dravidian, Proto-Australoaid, Mongoloid, and Ariyan.

Rivers of Bangladesh Bangladesh is a land of rivers. The number of total rivers in Bangladesh, including tributaries and distributaries is about 700. There are many big and small rivers zigzag the country. The Padma, the Meghna, the Jamuna, the Brahmaputra are the big and wide rivers. There are other principle rivers: Ganges, Surma, Kushiyara, , Karnafuli, Old Brahmaputra, Buriganga, Shitalakshya, Tista, Atrai, Gorai, Madhumati, Rupsa-Pashur, Feni, and Dhaleshwari.

Flora of Bangladesh More than 6,000 plant species occur in Bangladesh. There are many more in brackish water and seawater habitats. The fungal flora has not been fully recorded. It has been estimated that there are about five thousand (flowering plants) species in Bangladesh. Weed flora, both indigenous and exotic, thrive well in the marginal lands (e.g. isles, passageways) and waste places.

Tagar Various water bodies and wetland ecosystems provide habitats for diverse kinds of aquatic plants like Ghechu, Topa pana, dog grass etc. Floating ferns like Salvinia and Azolla grow in profusion, particularly in ditches, canals and ponds. Almost throughout the country the introduced floating plant, Water Hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) grows profusely. Tall grasses like Nal, Khagda, and Kash, predominate in marshes, haors, baors and riverbanks. These are mixed up with varying proportions of Hogla,Shonand various species of sedges.The beautiful flowers of water lilies (both white and blue) and the sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) depict a scenic beauty during the rainy season. The forests of Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts are known to be evergreen and semi evergreen types with a preponderance of deciduous species. Moreover, numerous varieties of flowers having a wide range of fragrance, size and color are in abundance all over the country. In Bangladesh, there are many decorative plants, which are widely spread, are Jasmine, Water Lily, Rose, Hibiscus, and Bougainvillea, varieties of lotus, lilies and other colorful aqua-flowers blossom in large number in the rivers, lakes, ponds

Shaluk

and other water bodies. It can be mentioned that the national flower of Bangladesh is Water Lily. The tropical climate has made the country luxuriant in vegetation. Here, in Bangladesh, Village homesteads, sparingly distributed all over the country, provide a green scenario and can be designated as village or homestead forests. Its villages are usually marked with groves of banana, coconut, papaya, lemons, mango, jack-fruit, palm, guava, wood apple, litchi and other trees. Jack-fruit is the national fruit of Bangladesh. Tall grasses present a picturesque site near the banks of the rivers and the marshes. Around 60% of the Gangetic plain is under rice, paddy and jute cultivation. The Bangladesh plains are famous for their fertile alluvial soils which support extensive cultivation.

Fauna of Bangladesh Bangladesh has a rich biodiversity. The country possesses a wide range of invertebrates and vertebrates in its aquatic and terrestrial habitats which prove this land’s richness in fauna. It worthy to mention that the world famous Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is recognized as the national animal of Bangladesh and is renowned as the Royal Bengal Tiger. In fact, the majestic Royal Bengal Tiger is the pride of the country's fauna.

Bengal tiger This tiger along with crocodiles, dolphins, monkeys, wild bears and several species of deer such as spotted deer, barking deer and Samber are seen in the Sundarban forest. Next comes the elephant, found in the forests of Chittagong Hill Tracts. Among the bovine buffalo, ox and gayal (bison) are common. Reptiles like the sea turtle, mud turtle, river tortoise, gecko, python, rat, crait and cobra are found in the country. Hundreds of species of birds are found in forests, paddy fields and marshy lands. The national bird is Magpie robin.

Numerous varieties of fishes and crabs - both of sweet and salt water are also found. Hilsha is the national fish of Bangladesh and it is the most popular fish both in Bangladesh and in other countries. There was once a wonderful community of fauna within the territory of Bangladesh. Some of the animals like rhinoceros, buffalo, antelope, serow, peafowl etc went extinct, and other species have become greatly reduced in number; many are vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered.

Spotfin Swamp Barb

Ganges (above)

Dolphin Estuarine Crocodile

Asiatic Elephant

Hills and mountains Hilly areas of Bangladesh comprise two main kinds of topography - a) Low Hill Ranges (Dupi Tila and Dihing Formations), b) High Hill or Mountain Ranges (Surma and Tipam Formations).

Comparatively low hill ranges occur between and outside the high hill ranges. They are mainly formed over unconsolidated sandstone and shale. High hill or mountain ranges comprise an almost parallel ridge running approximately north-south. They have very steep slopes and are subject to landslide erosion. They are mainly underlain by consolidated shale, siltstones and sandstones. This sub-unit covers most of Chittagong Hill Tracts, some small parts of southern Habiganj, and the south and eastern borders of Maulvi Bazar. The Chittagong Hill Tracts is the only major hill region in Bangladesh. It lies in southeastern part of the country. The area of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is about 13,184 sq km, which is approximately one-tenth of the total area of Bangladesh. The CHT falls under the Northern and Eastern Hill unit and the High Hill or Mountain Ranges sub-unit. At present, all the mountain ranges of the Chittagong Hill Tracts are almost hogback ridges. They rise steeply, thus looking far more impressive than their height would imply. Most of the ranges have scarps in the west, with cliffs and waterfalls.

Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bandar ban The major mountain ranges in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts are Barkal, Phoromain, Saichal, Dolajeri, Wayla, Bhuachhari, Muranja, Chimbook, Saichal-Mowdok, Batimain, Politai and others. Within the hills there are two natural lakes and a man-made lake, Rainkhiangkine Lake, Bagakine Lake and Kaptai Lake respectively. The soil of the range is very acidic. This Bangladeshi mountain range has a tropical monsoon climate. Some of these

hill ranges also contain important geological structures to form excellent structural traps for natural gas accumulation.

Divisions and Districts Bangladesh has six principal administrative units known as divisions. These are Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi and Sylhet. There are 64 districts (zilas) under these divisions. Some of them are Mymensing, Bogra, Noakhali, Comilla, Brahmanbaria etc. Again the districts have been divided into 462 upazilas and 34 thanas. Dhaka is the capital city of Bangladesh, and has a population of 9.91 million. Chittagong is regarded as the second capital and main sea port. A number of industrial areas have been developed in the city and it has a population of 3.20 million. Khulna, in the southwest, has become a commercial and industrial centre. Sylhet is situated in the bank of the Shurma River and it is famous for its tea gardens. Rajshahi is famous for its silk industry. Bangladesh Sericulture Board is located in Rajshahi. Khulna is known for its paper industry. Rice, Coconut, Chilli and specially 'Balam Chal' has made Barishal popular to people. The country has about 95 to 119 enclaves inside India. The area of these enclaves ranges from 0.4 to 20.72 sq km.

3. Ethnic mix and Diversity There are about fifty (50) ethnic groups live in Bangladesh. The Bengalis are by far the largest group of all, constituting about 98% of the total population of the country. This group is non-tribal and heterogeneous in origin. The other main ethnic minorities are known as Chakma, Garo, Marma, Tripura, Rakhain, Khasi, Manipuri and Santal etc. Besides, some other ethnic minorities are known as Mro, Chak, Bam, Lusai, , Hajong, Tanchangya, Oraon, Mahali, Kol, Singh, Mahato, Koch, Paharia, Munda, Kharia, Khond, Asam, Ghorkha, Pahan, Malo, Turi, Rai, Kormokar, Khiang and so on. A small group of Viharees, Tamils, permanently-settled tea- garden workers, Beday (gypsies), and Orias live in different parts of Bangladesh. The ancestors of present day inhabitants of Bangladesh have emerged from the fusion of such diverse races as Austric, Mongoloid, Dravidian, Tibeto- Burman, and Monkhmer families and so on. A special mention may be made here that the Dravidian element of population is represented mainly by the Oraons, a tribe of central Indian origin.

This group is - with only a few thousand persons - the smallest ethnic element in the country. The Chittagong Hill Tracts host 13 tribes, who are divided into nearly a hundred sub-tribes.

The anthropologists have divided the people of the world into four major groups—the Australoid, the Mongoloid, the Negroid, the Cauccasoid, on the basis of people’s physical and cultural features. According to the anthropologists’ classification, Bengalis, the major ethnic group of Bangladesh belongs to the Austra – Mongoloid group. This means that the Bengalis have inherited the physical features of both Australoid and Mongoloid groups. It may be mentioned that the Australoids are short and their skin and hair color is Black. On the other hand, the Mongoloids are Brownish. The hybrid race Bengalees have also been influenced by the Veddas, Singhalas, Aryans, the Arabs and the Iranians.

The latest physical features of the Bengalis may be described as follows – • Head, nose, height - Medium size • Skin color - Black and brownish • Eye color - Black (and also Brown)

The Culture of the Bengalis in brief• Society – Patriarchal • Language – Bangla • Religion – Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity • Food – staple food is Rice and Fish • Music – Rabindra Sangeet, Najrul Sangeet, Bhawaia, Bhatiali, Jari Gaan, Shari Gaan, Ramprashadi, Kirtan, Lalon Geeti, Hasan Raja's song's etc.

• Dance – No classical form of dance have been developed by the Bengalees • Dress Pattern – Shari, Salwar - Kamij for Women and Punjabi – Pajama, Pant, Shirt for Men • Festivals – Pahela Baishakh, Eid, Pooja are the biggest festivals The Culture of the Marmas in brief• House Pattern – Macha type • Economy – by Jhoom Cultivation • Food – Nappi made with bamboo shoot and dried fish, • Drink –Rice bear and smoke indigenous cigars • Dance – NO special dances (usually local dance) • Language – Arakanese dialect • Dress –'thami' (sarong) and 'angi' (blouse)—( Home made) • Religion – Buddhism, Animism • Family – Patriarchal • Festival – Sangrai • Ancestors – Mongoloid The Culture of the Chakmas in brief• House Pattern – Macha type • Economy – by Jhoom Cultivation • Food – Nappi made with bamboo shoot and dried fish • Drink – Docoani • Dance – Pitcher and bottle dance, bamboo dance, plate dance • Language – Changma • Dress – Home made dress with colorful motif, two parts dress and metarials used are khadi and pinon • Religion – Buddhism, Animism • Family – Patriarchal • Festival – Biju • Ancestors – Mongoloid The Culture of the Santals in brief• House Pattern – Small house with clean yeard • Economy – by Jhoom Cultivation • Food – crabs, pork, chicken, beef and the meet of squirrels, Jute spinach (nalita) • Drink – Mahua, Haria • Dance – chorus dance • Language – Karmali, both Bangla and Santali

• • • • •

Dress – Men-dhutis or gamchhas (khadi and pinon); Women- short, coarse but colourful saris Religion – Hinduism, (also Rabuga) Family – Patriarchal Festival – Sohrai and Baha Ancestors – Australoid.

The Culture of the Garos in briefThere are two tribes in Bangladesh who maintain matriarchal society, and Garos are one of them. They also do jhoom type of cultivation for their livelihood. Their mother tongue is Achik kuchik. Their favorite drink is Choo. Their major festival is Wangala. In this festival they offer gratitude to God of well after harvesting new crops. They are ruled by Nokma.

Garo's are now-a-days converting to Christian.

Garo women

A Chakma woman

The Culture of the Khasis in briefThe Khasis are other tribe besides the Garos, who maintains matriarchal society. They are the Mongoloid ethnic group. They mainly live in Khasia Punji in Sylhet. The villages are clusters of houses within the cultural boundary of their own community. The chief of the punji is called Siem. Their religion is converted to Christianity. The Khasia language does not have alphabets. They are bilingual and can speak in the Khasia language as well as in Bangla.

Bangladesh is a country of diversified people. People of different races are there. Most of the etnic minorities prefer home made dresses. The ethnic minorities speak in their mother tongue. The ethnic minorities of Bangladesh have no written form of their own. Most of them prefer to be ruled by Raja, Roaja, Dewan, Karbari, Nokma etc. According to nthe experts, the different ethnic minorities of Bangladesh have come from Myanmar, Thailand, Combodia, Tibet, Megaloy, Mijoram and Manipur of India. The physical and cultural features of the Bengalis, in most cases are same irrespective of religion. But there are some dissimilarity in the food habit, marriage system and social satisfactions according to the religion.

4. Political history of Bangladesh In the earliest period Bengal was known to be inhabited by different groups of people, whose names came to be associated with the area inhabited them. The region that is now Bangladesh has been part of a number of important political entities, including Ancient Period, the Moghul Empire, the British Empire and the Pakistani Period.

The Ancient Period The earliest historical reference to organized political life around Bangladesh is usually traced to the writings on Alexander's "Invasion of India" in 326 B.C. Historians mentioned the name of Gangaridai, located in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta region. Some other ancient names like Pundranagar, Samatat, Harikel, Banga, Barendra Bhumi etc were mentioned by the historians. According to them, the early settlers were known as Kol, Bheel, Santals, Nishads, and Shabara etc. They used to maintain the nomadic or tribal life.

Many dynasties and the ruling nations ruled over different territories over the present day Bangladesh since 4th century B.C. Aryan influence in ancient India came to be felt in the northwestern parts in the middle of the second millennium BC and it took a long time for the Aryans to reach the eastern limits of the subcontinent. Thus the people of Bengal felt the tide of Aryanisation quite late. They arrived in and around 8 th century. By the time Aryan influence reached Bengal, it had become feeble during its long march through the entire area of northern India. The major dynasties and ruling nations were the Mouriyas, Guptas, Palas, Senas, Turks, Mughals, Sultans, British and Pakistanis. Ancient Hindu epics indicate that thousands of years ago, tribal people inhabited a kingdom called Vanga in the region that is now Bangladesh. Historians know little about the region before about the 200’s B.C., when it formed part of the Maurya Empire. This empire broke up about 185 B.C., and local king then ruled Bengal. Mouriyas came about 2500 years ago. From about A.D. 320 to 500, the region was part of the Gupta Empire. Under Gupta rule Bengal was an important province. This period is remarkable for its trade and commerce, in which Bengal had her due share. Fa-hsien, the Chinese visitor, states that in the east Tamralipti was the great emporium of trade. The Gupta's - Chandra Gupta, Samudra Gupta ruled over from this dynasty. Mahi Pal, Dharma Pal ruled when the region was ruling under Pal dynasty. The dynasty founded by Gopala in the middle of the 8th century AD, ruled Bengal for about four hundred years through many vicissitudesand. It is to be mentioned that the Palas were Buddhists. Buddhist rulers gained control of eastern Bengal in the mid-700. Buddhist culture spread throughout the region. After about 300 years of Buddhist rule, Hindu kings came to power. Towards the end of the 12th century AD Vijayasena founded the Sena Empire.

Lakhan Sen, Vollobh Sen came then to rule after the Palas. The Muslim rule in Bengal had its beginning in the opening years of the thirteenth century (1204 AD). Long before this, the Arab Muslims had contact with Bengal, which was primarily commercial and religious in nature and limited to the coastal regions. The three regions of Lakhnauti, Satgaon, and Sonargaon were governed for the following ten years (1328-1338) respectively by Qadar Khan, Izzuddin Yahya, and Bahram Khan. In 1338 Bahram Khan died. On his death at Sonargaon his armour-bearer (Silhadar) Fakhruddin captured power, proclaimed independence assumed the title of Sultan Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah. This acted as a signal for a new series of struggles for power which ultimately led to the establishment of Ilyas Shahi rule in Bengal. It heralded the beginning of the Independent Sultanate that continued for two hundred years (1338-1538).

The Mughal Period Mughal rule was established in Bengal after the defeat of the Karrani Afghan Sultan Daud Khan in the battle of Rajmahal, 12 July 1576 at the hands of Khan Jahan. With Khan Jahan's victory over Daud Khan, the Mughals made determined and sustained efforts to establish their authority over Bengal, till ultimately in 1612, Islam Khan Chishti, the subahdar of Jahangir, brought the whole of Bengal (except Chittagong) under the Mughal control.

Emperor Akbar It may be mentioned that the present day Bangladesh was never a united unit before the regime of Akbar. It was divided into different isolated kingdoms. The isolated territories may politically be defined as the small states or the feudal states. Mughal revenue administration in Bengal was elaborately chalked out. It was made separate from the general administration; the latter was called nizamat while the former was designated as diwani.

The most important point is that the territories never enjoyed the status of the independent states. The 'Swadeen Sultans' and the 'Swadeen Nawab' had to pay tribute to the North Indian rulers. So the Mughal emperor tried to unite the isolated territories into one and named it as 'Subah Bangla'. It was almost a united Bengal. It was politically powerful than before. Mughal rule in Bengal opened an era of peace and prosperity.

The British Period It is indeed unique that the East India Company which was in trading contact with Bengal for about a century since 1650 and which sought extraction of wealth through trade and commerce in conformity with the spirit of mercantilism, finally turned itself into rulers.

Nawab Shieraj-Ud-Daula

After being defeated by the British, the last 'Nawab' of Bengal, Shieraj-Ud-Daula, helped the British to take over Bengal. It may also be noted that the colonial state that the company built in Bengal was, in fact, the first event of the kind in the age of overseas expansions. The conquering initiatives taken by its field servants like Robert Clive, Warren Hastings, Lord Wellesley and Lord Dalhousie and other smaller imperialists always made their conquests a fait accompli which the centre only accepted. The event of Palashi and post-Palashi developments had established very firmly the political dominance of the company. The company's domination ultimately ended up in a dominion. The rise of nationalism throughout British-controlled India in the late 19th century resulted in mounting animosity between the Hindu and Muslim communities. In 1885, the All-India National Congress was founded with Indian and British membership. Muslims seeking an organization of their own founded the All-India Muslim League in 1906. Although both the League and the Congress supported the goal of Indian self-government within the British Empire, the two parties were unable to agree on a way to ensure the protection of Muslim political, social, and economic rights. The rise of nationalism throughout British-controlled India in the late 19th century resulted in mounting animosity between the Hindu and Muslim communities. In 1885, the All-India National Congress was founded with Indian and British membership.

Muslims seeking an organization of their own founded the All-India Muslim League in 1906.

Although both the League and the Congress supported the goal of Indian self-government within the British Empire, the two parties were unable to agree on a way to ensure the protection of Muslim political, social, and economic rights. Campaigning on that platform in provincial elections in 1946, the League won the majority of the Muslim seats contested in Bengal. Widespread communal violence followed, especially in Calcutta. It can be mentioned that until the last decade of British rule, almost all the modern industries set up in Bengal including their labor force were almost entirely dominated by the non-Bengali entrepreneurs. Even the industrial labors came from outside of Bengal.

The Pakistan Period India and Pakistan emerged as two independent dominions as per the India Independence Act passed by the British Parliament on 18 July 1947. By the same stroke the province of Bengal was divided into East Bengal. East Bengal became a part of Pakistan and West Bengal that of India. The province of 'East Bengal' was born on 14 August 1947 and its nomenclature was changed to 'East Pakistan' on 8 September 1955.

In 1947, Mr. Jinnah proposed two-nation theory, which influenced a lot in the dividing of Indian colony. According to Jinnah, the theory was such as follow – "We maintain and hold that Muslims and Hindus are two major nations by any definition or the text of a nation. We are a nation of a 100 million and what is more, we are a nation with our own distinctive culture and civilization, language and literature, art and architecture. Customs, history and traditions, attitudes and ambitions, in short, we have our distinctive outlook on life and of life".

Then Jinnah proposed the name of 'Pakistan' in Delhi convention and became successful.

India was divided and Pakistan was born with two parts: • •

West Pakistan East Bengal ( later named East Pakistan)

This division of territory represented an attempt to create a Muslim nation on Hindu India's peripheries. East and West Pakistan were separated by more than 1,000 miles of Indian Territory, creating cultural discontinuity between the two wings. East Pakistanis felt exploited by the West Pakistan-dominated central government. The ethnic groups of Pakistan and the Indian Muslims who left India after partition were greatly different in language and way of life from the former East Bengalis: West Pakistan was more oriented toward the Middle East and Arab Islamic influence than was East Pakistan, which contained Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and British cultural influences.

The Bengali faced discriminations at almost al phases from the beginning of Pakistan's creation. The Bengali population in the east was more numerous than the Pakistani population in the west, yet West Pakistan became the seat of government and controlled nearly all national resources.

The economy of East Bengal deteriorated during the period between 1947 and 1954, and the prices of essential commodities rose sharply. West Pakistanis generally viewed Bengalis as inferior, weak, and less Islamic. From 1947 to 1970, West Pakistan reluctantly gave in to Bengali calls for power within the government, armed forces, and civil service, but increasing social unrest in the east led to a perception among government officials that the people of Bengal were unruly and corrupt "Hinduized" citizens.

In September 1948, Nurul Amin was appointed the Chief Minister of East Bengal, and he continued as the Chief Minister until 2 April 1954. The abolition of the Zamindari system in East Bengal (1950) and the Language Movement were two most important events during his tenure. However, the political condition of Bangladesh in the Pakistani Period can be widely termed as— political condition before the Language Movement and political condition after the Language Movement.

Language planning, Conspiracy, and the Language Movement The West Pakistani governments offered the Bengalis different options to use Bangla, such as, Urdu mixed Bangla, Islamicised Bangla, Bangla with Perso-Arabic words, Bangla with Arabic words etc.

The students and intellectuals of East Pakistan, however, demanded that Bangla be made one of the state languages. After a lot of controversy over the language issue, the final demand from East Pakistan was that Bangla must be the official language and the medium of instruction in East Pakistan and for the central government it would be one of the state languages along with Urdu. The Pakistanis even denied accepting Bangla as one of the state languages. The way they were offering the use of Bangla, was very insulting and offensive.

Moreover Jinnah’s declaration on September, 1947 about the state language—‘Urdu and Urdu shallbe the only state language of Pakistan…’ hit the Bengalis feeling, and took them their way to the Language Movement. The West Pakistanis also banned Rabindra Nath Tagore and introduced Iqbal and others. They banned him because they thought with Tagore will spread Hindu culture among them. Attempting these ways the West Pakistanis actually attacked on East Bengal's language and culture. They tried to destroy the East Bengal's language and culture completely.

However, the Bengalis strongly resisted attempts to impose Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan. All Bengalis from different walk of life got together to establish Bengali as one of the state language, as well as to establish the respect of their mother tongue. The Language Movement got a new momentum in 1952. In 21 st, February, 1952, students at Dhaka University brought out a procession violating the section 144. The language hero’sSalam, Barkat, Rafiq, Jabbar along with other Bengalese died, when the police opened fire on the procession.

Other Bengalis, both male and female, aging from 7-70 years, all joined the procession against the Pakistanis.

Procession of language movement,1952 The government imposed Section 144 in the city of Dhaka, banning all assemblies and demonstrations. But the people of Bangladesh made slogans: “Amader dabi mante hobe… .Rashtro bhasha Bangla chai…”

“144 dhara bhangte hobe…”

The first Shahid Minar The East Bengal Legislative Assembly adopted a resolution recommending the recognition of Bangla as one of the state languages of Pakistan. The language movement continued until 1956. The movement achieved its goal by forcing the Pakistan Constituent Assembly in adopting both Bangla and Urdu as the state languages of Pakistan.

Political condition after Language movement

ELECTION OF 1954 In 4th December, 1953, Awami League, Krishok-Sromik Party, Nezam-e-Islam and Bamponthi gonotronti dal joined together and formed United Front. Their election activities were based on 21 points. The most important point among 21 points was – •

In accordance with historic Lahore resolution, to secure full autonomy and bring all subjects under the jurisdiction of Unit Govt. leaving Defence, Foreign Affairs and Currency under the central govt.

The other some important points of 21 were –

•

To make Bengali one of the state language of Pakistan To nationalize jute trade

•

To declare 21st February as 'Shaheed Day' and a public holiday

•

They swept victory for United Front and won 223 seats out of 309. Muslim League managed to capture only 9 seats. United Front was being leaded by Sher-e-Bangla, Bhashani, Sohrawardy and Maolana Atahar Ali.

Sher-e-Bangla

Bhashani

Martial Law of 1958 It was proposed by Ayub Khan. According to the law the civilians were restricted from democracy.

1960-1969 Through the 1960s, the Bengali public welcomed a message that stressed the uniqueness of Bengali culture, and this formed the basis for calls for self-determination or autonomy. In the late 1960s, the Pakistani government attempted to fore-stall scheduled elections. In 1963, military (defense) was established in East Pakistan. In this time, economic disparities were over Jute, Paper and Job Market. In East Pakistan, there were commissioned officer such as Army, Air Force and Navy were only respectively 5%, 11%, 1%. After the

Bureaucratic establishment in 1966, there were class one officer in central secretariat from east only 170.

Sheikh Mujib became president of the Awami League in 1966 and emerged as leader of the Bengali autonomy movement. He proposed six points.

The points were – • •

The constitution should provide for a federation of Pakistan Federal Government shall only deal with three subjects – Defense, Foreign Affairs and Currency

•

Two separate but freely convertible currencies for two wings may be introduced

•

The power of taxation and revenue collection shall vest in the federation units

•

Two separate accounts foreign exchange earnings

•

Setting up of a militia or paramilitary force for East Pakistan

This six points attempts of Mujib gained quick popularity among public. But the West Pakistanis felt threatened by the six points and arrested Sheikh Mujib fraudulently under 'Agartala conspiracy case' in 1969. At this time different slogans were made such as –

•

Tomar amar thikana / Padma Meghna Jamuna Jeler tala bhangbo / Sheikh Mujibke anbo

•

Jinnah Miar Pakistan / Azimpurer gorosthan

•

Election of ‘70

Sheikh Mujib with Maulana Bhashani in a protest march,1970

The elections were held on 7 December 1970, and Pakistanis voted directly for members of the National Assembly. Awami League won 167 seats out of 169 seats (East Pakistan).

Liberation War of 1971 The War of Liberation began on 26 March 1971 and ended with the liberation of Bangladesh on 16 December 1971.

Historical speech of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman on March 7, 1971 The armed struggle was the culmination of a series of events, situations and issues contributing to the progressively deteriorating relations between East and West Pakistan.

The questions of land reforms, state language, inter-wing economic and administrative disparities, provincial autonomy, the defense of East Pakistan and many other consequential questions had been straining the relations between the two wings of Pakistan ever since independence of the country from Britain in 1947.

Freedom fighters taking training The joint command of the Mukti Bahini and the Indian army was underway from November 1971. The Mukti Bahini and the Indian army continued advancing inside Bangladesh and the defeat and surrender of the Pakistan army became a matter of time.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman On March 1, 1971, President Yahya Khan of Pakistan postponed the first meeting of the assembly. East Pakistanis protested, and Yahya Khan sent army troops to East Pakistan to put down the protest. Sheik Mujib was imprisoned in West Pakistan. There was an earlier broadcast of the Declaration of Independence. Very few people heard that declaration.

According to the command of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Major Zia declared the broadcast on the morning of March 26, 1971. The message went: "Today Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dhaka. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between EPR and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pindi on the other are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May God aid us in our fight for freedom‌ Joy Bangla."

It was decided that they should go back to the other side of Kalurghat Bridge where rations had just been delivered to the jawans of East Bengal Regiment under the command of Major Ziaur Rahman. As the Bengali soldiers took positions to guard the transmission center, the rebels put their heads together and secured the help of a few engineers of the Kalurghat industrial complex to convert it into a broadcasting station. As Kalurghat was getting organized into a nerve-center for coordinating the liberation struggle, Baluch troops had invaded the EBR (East Bengal Regiment) barracks where under the command of Major Zia a bloody battle raged. Major Zia had to retreat and with a battalion of troops came to Kalurghat. He was made commandant of the rebel forces at Kalurghat where the transmitter was now ready for broadcasting. Contact could not be established between the leaders of the Awami League and Major Zia broadcast a message"This is Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra.

I, Major Ziaur Rahman, hereby declare at the direction of Bango Bondhu Mujibur Rahman, that the independent People's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken command as the temporary head of the republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalis to rise against the attack by the west Pakistani Army. WE shall fight to the last to free our motherland. By the grace of Allah, victory is ours. Joy Bangla."

Major Zia's message was picked up by a Japanese ship anchored mid- stream in Chittagong harbour. When the news of this declaration was broadcast by Radio Australia, the rest of the world came to know of it.

Pak prisoners captured by freedom fighters During nine months war, approximately 3,000,000 (Three millions) of civilians died and millions of refugees poured into India. During the early months of the civil war, East Pakistani guerrillas also crossed into India. The government forces shelled Indian Territory and followed the guerrillas across the border. Indian troop’s fourth border clashes with the Pakistani government soldiers. In December 1971, few thousands Indian army advanced into East Pakistan and joined the guerrillas. The combined forces of the Guerrillas and Indians overpowered West Pakistan, which surrendered on the 16th December, 1971. At the international level, the United States and the People's Republic of China considered the crisis as an internal affair of Pakistan. On the other hand, India, Soviet Union and her allies and general masses in Japan, and Western countries stood solidly behind Bangladesh.

Lt. Gen. Niaz signs surrender documents at Ramna Racecourse 5. The language and linguistic situations of Bangladesh Though Bangla is the state language of Bangladesh, and the majority of the Bangladeshis speak in Bangla, there are nearly 50 different languages and so many dialects available in Bangladesh. The permanent citizens of Bangladesh speak nearly 50 different mother tongues besides the dialects.

The Ethnic Majorities’ Language The major ethnic group Bengalese speaks in Bangla. Approximately, 130 million Bengalees of Bangladesh speak in Bangla, the state language of Bangladesh It is flanked by various Austric languages like Santali, Mundari, Khasi and Sino-Tibetan languages like Kachhari, Boro, Garo, Tripuri,West Bengal etc, each of them encroaching at times on the Banglaspeaking areas. is also spoken in Tripura, Assam and many other places. Next to Assamese, Bangla is the easternmost of the languages belonging to the Indo-European language family.

Its vocabulary has been enriched by the Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and English etc.

There are two separate styles of Bangla prose which had been developed by William Carrey.

The prose are – Sadhu riti (Tahara gaman koritese), and Chalita riti (Tara jacche) – this prose is used commonly everywhere now-a-days.

Besides this, there are linguistic, socio-linguistic (apni,tumi,tui), dialectal and regional variations. It has developed its own written form. It has so many dialects like Sylheti dialect, Chittagong dialect etc. Rabindranath Tagore, the Nobel laureate and Nazrul Islam have enriched the Bangla literature. To establish Bangla as one of the state language during Pakistan Period, many braves of this soil sacrificed their lives on the21st February, 1952.

Recognizing the sacrifice of the language martyrs in 1999, 'UNESCO' has declared 21 st February as the International mother language day. Bangla speakers number about 230 million today, making Bangla the seventh language.

Bangla has been greatly influenced by two non-Aryan languages: Dravidian and Kol. Their influence is evident not only in the vocabulary but also in the construction of sentences. A large number of onomatopoeic words, repetitive words and conjunctive verbs in Bangla reveal non-Aryan influence; for example, words such as ghoda-toda (horses etc), kapadchopad (clothes etc), tuk-tuk, khatkhat, khankha, dhandha, basiya pada (sitting down), lagiya thaka (to persevere), etc. There are plenty of Dravidian and other non-Aryan words in Bangla, especially in place names, indicating that Bangla passed through many stages and was influenced by various other languages.

The Ethnic Minorities’ Language: The permanently living different ethnic minorities of Bangladesh speak their mother tongues.

Chakma – Changma Garo – Achik kuchik Santals – Karmali Murma – Ramrey Rakhain – Rakhain Tripura – Kokborok Oraons – Kuruk There are many tribes who are multilingual. Garos and Khasias are bilingual, which is to say, capable of speaking both in Bangla and in their own language. The Chakmas, Murmas, Rakhains and Tripura have their own scripts.They are highly influenced by the script of

Myanmar. The Santals of the West Bengal are trying to develop a written form name 'Alchiki'.The Monipuris of Bangladesh use Bangla alphabet. Their languages belong to the Tibeto-Burman, Monkhmer families etc.

Moreover, a small group of Viharees, living in Bangladesh, speaks Urdu. Some Kuttis of Old Dhaka also speak Urdu. The tea-garden workers use Sadri, Hindi, Oriya, Ahamiyaetc and the Bedeye's use Thar language.

Some foreign languages such as Arabic, English, Sanskrit, Pali, Persian languages are regularly used in Bangladesh. Hindi, French, Japanese, German are used but not on a regular basis.

6. Religions of Bangladesh Religion plays a significant role in the state system of today's Bangladesh. The dominance of religion in the state system seems to have been quite apparent throughout the history of Bangladesh. However, there are four major religions in Bangladesh and they are— • Islam • Hinduism • Christianity • Buddhism The Muslims constitute about 88% of the total population of Bangladesh and the Hindus constitute about 10%. The rest comprise mainly of Buddhists, Christians and Animists.

The Religious Faiths of these Religions HINDUISM Though Sanatana Dharma or Hinduism generally means a plethora of gods and goddesses and colourful or horrific rituals, Hinduism is a profound philosophy dating back to at least 2500 BC and evolving over time through interpretations and reform movements. The Hindus believe in many Gods & Goddesses because they are polytheistic in nature. The name of their different Gods & Goddesses are Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, Krishna, Ram, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesh etc.

Their holy books are Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagabad Geeta etc. Geeta comprises the life of Krishna, Arjun etc. The great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are full of myths and mythological characters. Ramayana is about Ram, Seeta, Rabon and so on. Mahabharata focuses on 'Droupadi' and all mythological wars of India. They are regarded as sacred books.

The Hindus believe in the concept of vice, virtue, heaven, hell and rebirth etc.

Hinduism in Bangladesh Vedic Hinduism developed slowly in Bengal and merged with folk religion and local customs. Though Bengali Hindus revere the Vedas as their scriptures, the Gita, Chandi, Bhagavata, Ramayana and Mahabharata are more popular. Though due to the division of India and various political and social factors, there is a dilution of the religion, the basic principles of Hinduism inform the beliefs and practices of this community. Hindus are mainly guided by Shruti, Smrti, Tantra, and Purana.

The Contribution of Hinduism The contribution of Hinduism may be divided as the Positive Contribution and the Negative Contribution.

The Positive Contributions—

•

Before Hindus came to the subcontinent, there were no concept of religion other then animism They introduced the concept of Ishwar, Swarg, Narak, Pap, Punya Sanskrit language and literatures had influenced many other languages in the subcontinent including Bangla Culture of sculptures (Radha, Krishna's bronze made or stone made sculpture) has also been influenced by the Hindu faiths The temples built by the believers like the Kantaji Temple of Dinajpur, enriched the archaeology of Bangladesh Archeological site like Mahasthangarh prove their contribution on the development of archeological sites

• • • • •

The Negative Contributions— • •

Most negative contribution is the caste system. According to this system humans are divided into four types from highest class to the lowest class; the Brahmins belong to the highest class and the Shudras to the lowest Banned of widow marriage though it exists no more

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Sati burning (the widows to be burnt with their dead husbands); it also doesn't exist anymore

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The priests introduced early marriage for the girls

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Used to encourage the widows to become vegetarian

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Influenced the widows to wear white sarees

The autumnal Durga Puja (worship) is the main religious festival of the Hindus.

Durga Puja

Lord Krishna

The others are Kali pooja, Janmashthami, Dol etc. Some pujas are celebrated by different groups or professions. For example, businessmen worship Ganesh, while blacksmiths and carpenters worship Visvakarma. Saraswati is mainly worshipped by students, who believe that the goddess of learning will be pleased and bless them so that they will do well in their studies. Manasa is generally worshipped for protection against snake bites, and Sitala and Ola Devi are worshipped for protection against small pox and cholera.

ISLAM • •

The main point of Islam is— Allah is the only creator Islam is a Revealed Religion

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Five Pillars of Islam are – Kalima, salat, siam, zakat and hajj

• •

Muslims believe in Keyamaat, resurrection, life after death, heaven, hell and many other concepts Holy Quran is the infallible words of Allah

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Hadith is the Prophets saying

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Hajrat Muhammad is Allah’s Prophet

Contributions of Islam The Muslims one God theory influenced and attracted many Hindus like the low caste Hindus to embrace Islam. Their Sufism attracted the philosophers. The Suphis had established many Khankas and Madrasas to educate the people. The Muslims have introduced Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Azha, and Muharram etc. They introduced Mughal dishes such as biriyani, mughlai parata, pulao, kabab etc to food habit. Many mosques like the architectural design of the Mughals, enriched the archaeology of Bangladesh. The Islamic culture had also encouraged the rich Muslims to put on Sherwani, cap etc. The Perso-Arabic words had enriched Bangla language. The other important thing is that Islam talked against the banning of widow marriage which encouraged the Hindu widows to embrace Islam.

Buddhism Buddhism is one of the world's oldest religions, developed in India in the sixth century BC around the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. The founder of this faith was Gautam Buddha (536 B.C.). The Buddha was neither a god nor a prophet. According to him, 'You yourself must make the effort; Buddhas only point the way'. Buddhism concentrated on sufferings. Buddha suggested eight ways for salvation –

Right understanding, Right resolve, Right speech, Right action, Right livelihood, Right effort, Right mindfulness, Right concentration.

Buddhism did not concentrate on God, heaven or hell. But they do believe in rebirth. Nirvana means full attainment. One will achieve nirvana only after he is free from all inherent vices or passions.

Statue of Buddha at Kamlapur, Dhaka Contributions of Buddhism •

Monasteries: Paharpur, Mainamoti

Paharpur

•

Sculpture: Buddha images of bronze and stones Literature: Charjapad ( first written specimen of Bangla literature)

•

Architecture: Pagoda

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Scholar : Ateesh Deepankar of Bicrampur

•

Ateesh Deepankar Epigraphic and other sources reveal that Buddhism had established a powerful footing in Bengal during Asoka's reign. It is possible that Buddhism entered Bengal before Asoka's time. Although not all monarchs patronized Buddhism, and some of them were even hostile to its progress, Buddhism nevertheless was able to prosper and flourish in Bengal over a period of more than eight hundred years.

CHRISTIANITY Christianity came to Bengal initially with the Portuguese in the 16th century AD. For two centuries missionary work was carried on mainly by two Roman Catholic orders: the Jesuits and the Augustinians. In 1598-9 the Jesuits established a school and hospital at Hughli.

William Carrey and some other missionaries contributed to introduce Bangla prose. The missionaries converted many people of the subcontinent. They had established many Churches including the Armenian Church of Old Dhaka.

Armenian Church of Old Dhaka The British rulers passed the bill of widow marriage and to stop Sati-burning. They changed the whole education system. Most of the Bangladeshis follow the European culture brought by the missionaries and the British rulers.

There are some other religion exist in Bangladesh. Tribal Religion and Folk Religion such as Baul (cult), Vaisnav, Maizbhandari, Nath Dharma etc are to name some of them.

7. Housing and Settlement Pattern Housing has been changing its forms and building styles throughout the history in response to socio-economic forces as well as climatic conditions and geographic locations of Bangladesh. Hundreds of housing and settlement pattern are available in Bangladesh. The economic conditions of families always influence on taking decisions about the hosing and settlement pattern. The ancestors of the inhabitants of the present day Bangladesh used to live in the caves, under big trees, on the top of the hills. The growth of population ultimately came out as the single major factor for spreading the settlements all over Bengal, which almost entirely remained rural until the close of the 17th century. The housing and settlement pattern of Bangladesh can be divided according to the Rural, Urban and Tribal life.

Rural housing and settlement pattern HOUSING PATTERN The house forms, building styles and materials used in construction had significant variations in different areas of Bengal. Perhaps the only thing in common was the clustering of houses in particular places forming a para, a few of which grouped together to form a village.

Rural housing The village houses are mostly thatches and the material used to cover their tops include khad (straw from dried paddy or wheat plants), san or ulukhad (reed), kash (tail grass) and golpata (leaves of a special species of small tree growing mostly in marshland). The relatively stable structures use corrugated iron sheets stretched on a flat frame or supported on a triangle shaped bamboo or wooden base. The poor families in the rural area usually make two-roofed or dochala houses with a courtyard in the middle. The curved houses are known as 'Kureghar'. The middle class families generally make chouchala and

aatchala houses with corrogated tin-sheet. They have separate kitchen with 'dhenkis' and they also build 'kacharis' to be used as drawing rooms. These hoses have ponds. Somewhere there are two separate ponds, one for the males, and another for the females. Usually they use ponds for fishing and washing purposes, not only for bathing purposes. The middle class dwelling abodes are full of trees like mango, jack-fruit, betelnut, coconut, palm etc. Some does vegetation in a small piece of land in front of the house. The Hindus maintain 'tulsi' and 'joba' in front of their houses. Most of the families maintain cowsheds with cows and ploughs.

The middle class families drawing rooms are decorated with handmade and embroidered pillow covers, quilt, fans made with palm trees leaf. The maidens prefer to write 'bholona amay', 'mayer doa' etc on pillow covers and quilts. Sometimes they use to write the beloved one's name.

SETTLEMENT PATTERN In rural ares, the villagers create socities with their neighbour and relatives. They also need some professional group like the potters, the washer men, the black smith, the barbars and others. The middle families hire cowherds and farmers to look after their agricultural land.

They need a priest or Moulavi. The concept of the market has been introduced to the village society some more years ago, but in earlier age the professional groups used to come to homesteades to offer their services.

Urban housing and settlement pattern HOUSING PATTERN Urbanization in its proper sense started in Bengal with establishment of British administrative canters (particularly, the district headquarters) and development of business canters on the banks of large rivers. The city dwellers generally build their houses with rods, cement, bricks, tiles etc. Tin shed houses to highrise, multistoried buildings are now available in the urban area. Developments in housing in East Pakistan between 1947 and 1971 may be characterized by a fast growth of urban structures and modern houses in towns with amenities like electricity and running water supply. Apartment buildings were becoming a vogue in Dhaka city towards the middle of the 1970s and by 1985 Most of the buildings were one-storied before 1970. But after the independence, with the help of house building corporations co-operation, the city dwellers have started making four storied buildings. Now-a-days, not only four storied, multistoried buildings are available seen in Dhaka city. This has only been possible because of the developers like ASSET, ASSURANCE, SEL, SHELTECH etc. Moreover, the House Building Finance Corporation provides loans for purchase of lands for housing purposes and construction of residential buildings.

Modern buildings SETTLEMENT PATTERN The urban areas were primarily developed by the rulers and the administrators. The others came to the city to support them. Consequently, they started living in the cities scatteredly.

The Government of the 1960's started building colonies for the govt. officers in Azimpur, Motijheel, Eskaton and some other places. The real estate companies had developed some residential areas in Pallavi, Lalmatia, Gulshan, and Baridhara of Dhaka. Thus people of the cities made societies. They also settled the professionals for their need to fulfill.

Tribal housing and settlement pattern HOUSING PATTERN The tribes in the Chittagong hill tracts (CHT) have their own distinct types of housing. The subculture of the tribes is reflected in the distinctive impact of landform on the economy and habitat of the tribal population which are significantly different from those in other parts of the country.

Tribal house In the forested hill districts of Chittagong division in order to ensure safety from ferocious animals, houses are built on high platform made of timber and bamboo with an open

platform or veranda on one side, named as 'Macha'. For climbing up, there is a notched log or a bamboo ladder. There are stairs from the base. The weaving tools are available in almost all the houses as they prefer home made dresses. The wide use of bamboo in house building is facilitated by the abundant growth of bamboo in this part of the country. The Lusai, Panko and Bom used to have houses with wooden floors and sometimes log walls. At the Garo foothills, the houses are made of bamboo, wood with grass thatched roofing built on a high platform similar to those in the tribal settlements in CHT. Nowadays, the traditional type of housing of the tribal people is dying out as the cultural assimilation is going on with the plain land culture.

A habitat in Chittagong Hill Tracts SETTLEMENT PATTERN The members of the particular ethnic groups prefer to settle down in an area. Such as, the Chakmas had settled mostly in Rangamati of CHT. The Garos had settled in different parts of greater Mymensing.

8. Festivals of Bangladesh Festivals are common to all societies and cultures. With the change of social and economic structures, the nature of festivals also changes. But some festivals are so deeply rooted in the social organism that they continue to entertain from generation to generation. Some of the festivals bear the mark of the community and nationality, some have the stamp of religion, and again some bear the impression of politics.

The festivals of Bangladesh reflect the Bengali culture. Bangladesh and the Bengalees are well known for their festivals. The major festivals of Bangladesh are: Nava Barsha, Eid-ulFitr, Independence Day, Durga pooja, Baishakhi Poornima, International mother language day, Eid-ul-Azha, Baisabi, Birth and Death anniversaries the great personalities. The festivals are observed by different communities with different rites and rituals.

A small review of the major festivals –

•

Nava Barsha – It is commonly known as 'Pahela Baishakh' – the first day of the Bengali year. It is observed throughout the country on the first day of Baishakh – the first month of the Bengali year. Thousands of people assemble on the Ramna Batamul to wish 'Shuvo Nava Barsha'. The students of Chayanat – a cultural organization, gather together on Batamul at about 6 a.m. and welcome the New Year with " Esho he Baishakh" and different other songs. Other cultural organizations also arrange different cultural programs. The students of the fine arts department of Dhaka University arrange a colorful procession with different paper made images like peacock, tiger and dragon and etc.

This procession is known as 'Mongol Shova Jatra'. On the day some people like to eat PantaHilsha, in the village areas, a curry of 18 vegetables is prepared. Some businessmen open a ‘Halkhata’ (fresh account) to start a debt free and new life.

•

International mother language day – This day is observed to show gratitude to the language martyrs of '52. On this day thousands of people come barefooted to the central Shaheed Minar with floral wreath. They sing the song – 'Amar Bhaieer Rokte'. The artists sing patriotic songs and the students of the fine arts department paint alponas.

The president, the prime minister and the head of the opposition place floral wreath at about 12:01 a.m. This day is observed internationally on the 21 st of February, after UNESCO has declared it in 1999.

•

Independence day – It is observed on the 26th March throughout the country to recollect the contributions of the freedom fighters and the sacrifices of the martyrs.

Thousands of people go to Savar Mausoleum to express gratitude to the martyrs of the independence struggle.

•

Eid-ul-Fitr – It is the most sacred festival of the Muslims. The symbolic meaning of the 'Fitr' is victory. A Muslim becomes victorious by controlling the inherent vices like greed, anger, sex, and infatuation etc. during the month of Ramadan. He becomes victorious by winning the fight against the inherent passions.

The literal meaning of 'Ramz' is to burn – to burn the inherent vices. Home made cakes; Semai, Pulao, Kurma and other Mughlai dishes are served during the day. The Muslims assemble to Eidgahs to pray to Allah. The Muslims embrace each irrespective of social strata.

•

•

Eid-ul-Azha – It is observed by sacrificing the animals. They kill the animals to kill the animalities within a person. The popular word for eid-ul-azha is kurbani which has been derived from the word karib (near). The allegorical meaning is related with the nearness of Allah.

Durga Pooja – The biggest festival of the Bengali Hindus is Durga Pooja. She is the Goddess of strength. She kills Mahishashur and all other evil forces with her ten hands.

The Hindus welcome Durga with different rites and rituals accompanied by aarty and beating of drums.

The image of Durga which is made with clay is immersed in the nearby rivers on the day of Vijayadashami.

Baishakhi Purnima – The most important festival of the Buddhists. The founder of the religion, Gautam Buddha, was born on a moonlit night of Baishakh. He also earned Buddhattwa under budhidhrum in another Baishakhi Purnima. On this day, the Buddhists go to pagodas to pray.

•

Christmas Day – The Christians observe this day on the 25 th of December. Santa Claus, the carol tree with gifts, Christmas cakes are related with the festival. The Christians go to churches to pray on the day.

Some other festivals such as Rabindra Joyonti, Najrul Joyonti, Nabbano Utsav, Baisabi, Dol, Muharram, Eid-e-Miladunnabi etc are celebrated in the country. Now a days these festivals are more formal than before, but new social dimensions have been added to them; they have become occasions of mutual exchange of pleasantries among friends and relatives.

9. Food Habit of Bangladeshi people Foods Food Habits of the people of Bangladesh reflect the geographic and climatic conditions of the land as well as effect of social and religious customs. The deltaic plains of the country are drained by a large number of river sand soaked by abundant rainfall round the year.

These factors have through the ages made cultivation of rice and fishing the chief occupations of the people. Numerous varieties of rice are produced in the dry as well as wet seasons. Similarly, hundreds of species of fish are available in the rivers, canals, haors, baors, ponds, lakes, and estuaries and in the Bay of Bengal. Rice and fish, therefore, figure prominently in the food habits of the people. Bengalis eat rice every day and at every meal.

Different Bengali dishes Muslims take pride in offering rich mughlai dishes like beef kabab, chicken roast, mutton rejala, biryani or plain polao and yoghurt salad or borhani. Hindus avoid beef and mutton and instead, offer vegetables and fish with plain rice. Tribal people prefer to offer roasted pork and locally distilled liquor. All communities take plenty of vegetables and lentil soup.

There are other foods eaten in rural Bangladesh. Water lily seeds, also known as makna, are eaten raw or at times fried or popped. Sweet potato is eaten in the lean season as a substitute for rice. Seafood and sweet-water fish are available in most of the towns. Fishlovers should not miss smoked hilsa, fresh bhetki and chingri (lobster/king prawns) malaikari, dopayaza.

Various Chinese, Thai cuisines In the urban areas hundreds of restaurants, often air-conditioned, offer Chinese, Thai and Indian cuisine for affluent families and business clients. Western food is available in all major hotels and most of the big restaurants in import cities. Fast food restaurants have lately been coming up in a big way, mainly to cater to the needs of the younger generation.

Sandwiches, burgers, hot dogs and cold drinks or coffees are favorite items.

Drinks Tea is available everywhere. Bottled cold drinks and even bottled water are also in wide use.

But local drink Lassi is the refreshing yogurt drink. Green coconut water is a fine, safe and refreshing drink.

Lassi Coconut water International soft drinks, such as Pepsi, Coca-Cola, Fanta, and 7-up, Mirinda, Sun Crest and Sprite are readily available. Hard drinks are available in big hotels and selected restaurants.

On Fridays drinking in public areas is not recommended for foreigners. It can be mentioned here that Alcoholic drinks are taboo in public functions of all communities except tribes.

Moreover the tribes have some special type of drinks like Mahua, Haria, Dochoani, Choo etc.

Deserts

In Bangladesh, chhana (curdled milk) to make a wide variety of exotic but delicious sweets like rasgolla, rasmalai, sandesh, pranhara, mohanbhog, khirmohan and kalajam.

Various deserts All classes of people consume these sweets as often as they can. These must be offered to the guests at home and at festive occasions like child births, birthdays, successes in examinations and job searches, promotions, weddings, and to inaugurate entering a newlybuilt house or a business office. A visit to a relative's house is unthinkable without carrying a packet of sweets. Ros Malai is a popular desert which is made with milk based desserts and made with sugar, flour and ghee and there are round sweets floating in thick milk. Pitha is the other desert which is a blanket term for cakes or pastries including specific varieties such as chitoi, dhupi, sandesh pitha, also known as poa pitha or teler pitha, Pati shapta (a variety of rolled pancake with a filling of kheer or thickened milk) etc. Kheer is also eaten as a sweet dish when cooked with rice in the ratio of 16 parts of milk and one part of rice.

Fruits Various kinds of tropical fruit, including oranges, are grown in Bangladesh. The appeal of jackfruit is universal and it is grown in abundance. Eating varieties of luscious Rajshahi mango is a real treat.

Various fruits The juicy litchis of Rajshahi are pleasing both to the eye and the tongue. Pineapple is another treat. Bangladesh grows other fruits too, such as Bananas, Papayas, Berries, Guava, Plums Watermelon, and Coconut, to name only a few.

The food habits of the people have been undergoing changes according to the demands of the time.

10. Arts of Bangladesh Literature – The earliest written specimen of the Bengali literature is Charjapad which is a collection of allegorical songs. The medieval poets were busy with the gods, goddesses and incarnation for about nine hundred years. William Carey, an English Missionary of the Fort William College of Calcutta, took the initiative of introducing of Bangla prose in1801.

Michael Madhusudhan Dutt (1824-1873), a native Christian, started his literary career with ‘The Captive Lady’, a collection of English poem. Dinbandhu Mitra’s Neel Darpan (1860) was an important addition to Bangla literature.

It is to be mentioned that the literature of Bangladesh may be divided into three phases: first phase 1947-1957, second phase 1958-1970 and third phase from 1971 onward. There

are a large number of literary works in Bangladesh. The modern writer of Bangladesh including Rabindranath Tagore, always tried to be acquainted with the philosophy of the Western world.

Music – Rabindra Sangeet, Nazrul Sangeet, Folk songs such as Bhawaia, Bhatiali, Ramprashadi, Kirtan, Jari, Sari etc. The popular music of Lalon Fakir and mystic songs of Hasan Raja, and Kabigaan is also a popular folk trend.

Different musical instruments of Bangladesh Dance – No dance form was developed by the Bengalese.

Folk dance Folk dances are marriage dance, harvest dance and tribal dances are Monipuri Ras, bottle dance, bamboo dance, and Santal dance.

Plays –Drama flourished after 1971. Innovative ideas, political awareness, skill in form and use of refined language, revitalized drama. The plays of this time were based on the people's movement and the liberation war as well as the erosion in social values and the despair of the masses. Symbolism and folk heritage were also used in many of the plays.

Many foreign plays were translated at this time. Those who made the drama movement forceful included Syed Shamsul Huq, Abdullah Al-Mamun, Mamunur Rashid and Selim AlDin. All of them were connected with drama performances.

Syed Shamsul Huq's poetic play Payer Awaz Pawa Jay (1976) based on the liberation war was a valuable addition to Bangla drama literature. In addition some of the folk plays are Mymensing Ballad (Palagan) Mahua, Dewan Madina, Gambhira, Alkap, and Jatra.

Bengal Arts- Art in Bengal developed in varied and diverse ways during the nearly two hundred years of British colonial rule. This development was greatly influenced by the tastes and attitudes of the ruling English, but various trends and styles can be identified. Zainul Abedin (1914-1976) is an artist of exceptional talent and international repute. He played a pioneering role in the modern art movement in Bangladesh. It was through the efforts of Zainul Abedin and a few of his colleagues that a tradition of modern art took shape in Bangladesh just within a decade.

Famine 1943, sketch by Zainul Abedin

Sangram (struggle), oil paint by Zainul Abedin, 1976 11. Creative Personalities of Bangladesh Rabindranath Tagore (ab61-1941), the only Nobel laureate (1913) of Bengal is regarded as the greatest creative personality of Bangladesh, as well as of the Indian subcontinent. A versatile genius, Tagore used to create poms, novels, short stories, lyrics etc. He himself used to compose music for his songs. Some of his proses are Sonar Tari (1894), Chitra (1896), Kalpana (1900), Ksanika (1900), and Katha O Kahini (1900).

Kazi Nazrul Islam (1899-1976), the national poet of Bangladesh is the other important creative individual of Bangladesh. He is called the 'rebel poet' for his fierce resistance to all forms of repression. Through literature, journalism and political activism, Nazrul fought against foreign rule, communalism, imperialism, colonialism, fundamentalism and exploitation. Nazrul nourished almost all the streams of Bangla songs and established them on the solid foundation of north Indian classical music. Nazrul's earliest poems are 'Kheyaparer Tarani' and 'Badal Prater Sharab' etc. Among Nazrul's literary works published in 1922 the most notable were Byathar Dan, a collection of short stories, Agni-vina, a collection of poems, and Yugavani, a collection of essays. Agni-vina, which included 'Pralayollas', 'Agamani', 'Kheya-parer Tarani', 'Shat-il-Arab', 'Vidrohi' and 'Kamal Pasha', created a stir in Bangla literature and proved to be a turning point in Bangla poetry.

Kazi Nazrul Islam Besides, Zainul Abedin is also a very creative person in case of Bengal arts. The other creative personalities of Bangladesh are Jeevanananda Das, Jashimuddin, Shamsur Rahman, the poets, Syed Waliullah, Mir Mosharaf Hossain, Jahir Raihan, Syed Mujtaba Ali, the writers, Abu Hena Mustafa Kamal, the lyricists, Munir Chowdhury, Nurul Momen, the playwriters, Abu Hena Mustafa Kamal, the lyricists, Munir Chowdhury, Nurul Momen, the playwriters, Kamrul Hasan and S.M.Sultan, the greatest painters, and Jahir Raihan the greatest filmmaker. All these great personalities have always represented Bangladesh as a very powerful and enrich full cultural country in front of the world.

Moreover, valuable research on folk literature has also been carried on by Abul Kalam Muhammad Zakaria, Ashraf Siddiqui, Mazharul Islam, Abdus Sattar, Wakil Ahmed, Abdul Hafiz, Anwarul Karim, Khondkar Reazul Huq, SM Lutfur Rahman and Abul Ahsan Choudhury.

Those who worked on linguistics were Mohammad Abdul Qayyum, Rafiqul Islam, Abul Kalam Manjoor Morshed, Mansur Musa, Humayun Azad, Daniul Huq and Moniruzzaman.

12. Archeological sites of Bangladesh Existence of any prehistoric phase in the deltaic land of Bangladesh was not suspected by archaeologists for a long time, although some stray finds of stone tools from different areas were known. It is only very recently that widely spread traces of a fossil-wood tool making tradition have been detected. Early archaeological activities in Bangladesh areas were chiefly concerned with 'early historic' and 'early medieval' period remains. Though Bangladesh is relatively a small country in comparison to its neighbor country, many archeological remains and sites are found here. Of the Hindu-Buddhist archaeological sites in Bangladesh, the most important are Paharpur (Pahadpur) in Naogaon, Mahasthan (Mahasthan) in Bogra, and Mainamati (Mainamati) in Comilla. Each is unique in its own way.

Paharpur Paharpur an important archaeological site in Bangladesh, situated in a village named Paharpur (Pahadpur) under the Badalgachhi Upazila of Naogaon district. The village is connected with the nearby Railway station Jamalganj, the district town Naogaon and Jaipurhat town by metalled roads. It is in the midst of alluvial flat plain of northern Bangladesh. In contrast to the monotonous level of the plain, stands the ruin of the lofty (about 24m high from the surrounding level) ancient temple which was covered with jungle, locally called Pahar or hill from which the name Paharpur is derived.

Paharpur Regular and systematic excavation was jointly started here in 1923 by Archaeological Survey of India, VARENDRA RESEARCH SOCIETY of Rajshahi and Calcutta University. In the beginning the joint mission carried out the work with the financial help of Kumar SARAT KUMAR RAY of Dighapatia Zamindar family and under the guidance of DR Bhandarkar, Professor of Ancient History and former Superintendent of Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle. The work was confined to a few rooms at the south-west corner of the monastery and the adjoining courtyard. The work was resumed in 1925-26 by RD Banerjee, who excavated in the northern part of the central mound. From the next season (1926-27) onward excavation was carried out under the supervision of KN Dikshit with the exception of seasons of the 1930-32. In these two seasons GC Chandra conducted the excavation. In the last two seasons (1932-34) the work was carried out at SATYAPIR BHITA, a mound at a distance of 364m east of the central temple. During Pakistan period lower levels of a few monastic cells on the eastern wing were excavated by Rafique Mughal, but the results were never published.

Paharpur After independence the site was further brought under excavation by the Department of Archaeology of Bangladesh. The operations took place in two phases. The first phase was initiated in 1981-82 and continued in every season up to 1984-1985. The second phase was started in 1988-89 and continued in the next two seasons up to 1990-91. In the first phase excavations were aimed at establishing the three major building phases of the cells which Dikshit mentioned in his excavation report and discovering the information of early levels.

But in the second phase the works were confined to clear the cultural debris from the courtyard of the monastery.

Architectural remains Pre-liberation expeditions have revealed the architectural remains of a vast Buddhist monastery, the Somapura Mahavihara. This gigantic establishment with surrounding 177 monastic cells, gateways, votive stupas, minor chapels, tank and a multitude of other structures for the convenience of the inmates, is dominated by a central shrine, conspicuous by its lofty height and architectural peculiarities. It is distinguished by its

cruciform shape with angles of projection between the arms, its three raised terraces and complicated scheme of decoration of walls with carved brick cornices, friezes of terracotta plaques and stone relief.

Paharpur The monastery The entire establishment, occupying a quadrangular court, has high enclosure walls, about 5m in thickness and from 3.6m to 4.5m in height. Though the walls are not preserved to a very great height, but from their thickness and massiveness it can be assumed that the structure was storied commensurate with the lofty central shrine. There are in all 177 cells, excluding the cells of the central block in each direction; 45 cells on the north and 44 in each of the other three sides. The central block on the east, west and south sides is marked by a projection in the exterior wall and contains three cells and a passage around them, while in the north there stands a spacious hall. In the monastic cell No. 96 three floors have been discovered. Here the level of the last one (upper) is within 30cm from ground level, that of the second Im, while the third (lowest) is about 1.5m from the surface. It appears that this sequence has been generalized in all the cells of the monastery.

However, the top most floors were removed while the second floor has been preserved. It is interesting to note that over this floor ornamental pedestals were built in as many as 92 rooms. Originally the main purpose of the rooms was to accommodate the monks of the Vihara, but the presence of such a large number of pedestals in the rooms indicates that they were used for worship and meditation in later construction phase.

Central temple The central part of the vast open courtyard of the monastery is occupied by a lofty shrine

Terracotta plaque, Base of the Buddhist Temple

Movable objects Among the movable objects discovered from the site the most important ones are stone sculptures, terracotta plaques, copper plate, inscriptions on stone columns, coins, stucco images and metal images, ceramics etc.

Mahsthanagahr Mahasthan or Mahasthangarh represents the earliest and the largest archaeological site in Bangladesh, consists of the ruins of the ancient city of pundranagara. The site is 13 km north of Bogra town on the Dhaka-Dinajpur highway. The ruins form an oblong plateau and are enclosed on their four sides by rampart walls that rise to an average height of 6m from river level. The highest point within the enclosure at the southeast corner is occupied by the mazar (tomb) of Shah Sultan Mahisawar and by a mosque of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar. The latter has been enclosed by a modern mosque, which has been extended recently, a development that precludes the scope of excavation here in future. The northern, western and southern sides of the fortified city were encircled by a deep moat, traces of which are visible in the former two sides and partly in the latter side. The river Karatoya (Karatoya) flows on the eastern side. The moat and the river might have served as a second line of defence of the fort city. Many isolated mounds occur at various places outside the city within a radius of 8 km on the north, south and west, testifying to the existence of suburbs of the ancient provincial capital.

An aerial view of Mahasthan site, Bogra The city was probably founded by the Mauryas, as testified by a fragmentary stone inscription in the Brahmi script (Mahasthan Brahmi inscription) mentioning Pudanagala (Pundranagara). It was continuously inhabited for a long span of time. The first regular excavation was conducted at the site in 1928-29 by the Archaeological Survey of India under the guidance of KN Diksit, and was confined to three mounds locally known as bairagir bhita, govinda bhita and a portion of the eastern rampart, together with the bastion known as munir ghun. Work was then suspended for three decades. It was resumed in the early sixties when the northern rampart area, parasuram palace (Parashuramer Prasad), mazar area, khodar pathar bhita, mankalir kunda mound and other places were excavated. Excavation at the city has reached virgin soil at several points. Of these, the recent excavations conducted by the France-Bangladesh mission have revealed 18 building levels.

Glazed pottery

Black polished ceramics

The necessity of a thorough investigation for the reconstruction of the early history of the site and the region, and for the understanding of the organization of the ancient city continued to be felt.

Maynamati Maynamati an isolated ridge of low hills in the eastern margins of deltaic Bangladesh, about 8 km to the west of Comilla town is a very familiar name in our cultural heritage, where archaeological excavations have revealed very significant materials. A landmark of our ancient history, it represents a small mass of quasi-lateritic old alluvium. The ridge, set in the vast expanse of the fertile lower Meghna basin, extends for about 17 km north-south from Mainamati village on the Gumti River to Chandi Mura near the Lalmai railway station.

In its widest parts, the ridge is about 4.5 km across and its highest peaks attain a height of about 45 metres. These highlands were once thickly wooded with an abundance of wild life, but modern developments have rudely disturbed its serene and idyllic setting.

Salban Vihara, Mainamati The twin names - Lalmai- Mainamati - of the place have significant link with the past: Lalmai or the southern part is identical with Lalambi-vana of the Chandra epigraphs, while the northern part recalls the name of the legendary Chandra queen 'Maynamati', mentioned in local ballads and folk-songs. The archaeological finds have now established beyond any doubt that the cultural and political centre of ancient Vanga-Samatata (southeast Bengal) was located here. The glory and magnitude of that remarkable past is emphatically manifest in the innumerable monuments, mounds and excavated remains, adequately supplemented by an impressive array of stray finds from the area. Mainamati today is, however, better

known for its Buddhist remains exposed by excavations. Here, indeed, lies the greatest assemblage of ancient Buddhist remains in Bangladesh.

The Discovery During the course of rebuilding the old axial road through these hills in 1875, workers accidentally uncovered the ruins of what at that time was thought to be 'a small brick fort'. It was actually a Buddhist monastery. Some 72 years earlier (1803), from the same area, was discovered the first Mainamati relic, the copperplate of Ranavankamalla Harikaladeva, dated 1220 AD, which records a description of the capital city of Pattikera as 'adorned with forts and monasteries'. The name now survives in the modern Patikara pargana of the locality.

The Mainamati ruins were rediscovered during the Second World War. While setting up an advance camp, the military came across ancient remains at a number of points in the ridge.

In the hurried survey that followed, 18 sites were recognised and protected by the government. In more regular and systematic surveys undertaken between 1955 and 1957, when the entire ridge was undisturbed by human occupation, more than 50 sites were located. Most of those sites lie in the northern half of the ridge, now within the Cantonment. Archaeological excavations started in January 1955. In several phases of excavation of the 50 odd sites nine have so far been exposed. Though the excavations have not yet been completed and have been limited in many respects, the results so far obtained and the information gained provide a sound archaeological basis for the reconstruction of the history and culture of the early period of this hitherto obscure region Excavated Sites Most important among the excavated sites is SHALVAN VIHARA, which lies about the middle of the ridge in the vicinity of the present day Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development (BARD) at Kotbari. Excavations have exposed a large PAHARPUR type Buddhist monastery and a wealth of material objects datable from the 7th to 12th centuries AD. The discoveries from the site include eight inscribed copperplates, about 400 gold and silver coins, many terracotta and baked clay seals and sealings, a large number of sculptural specimens in stone, bronze and terracotta found in situ or otherwise. The grand monastery together with its central shrine was built by Shri Bhavadeva, the fourth ruler of the early DEVA DYNASTY of DEVAPARVATA, sometime towards the end of the 7th or early 8th century AD. At

KUTILA MURA,

the highest mound in the northeastern part of the ridge near VIHARA, were unearthed the most attractive monuments in Mainamati.

ANANDA

is an interesting small site, situated in the northern part of the ridge in about the centre of the Cantonment area, where was uncovered the remains of a small Hindu temple dated in the Chandra period (10th-11th century AD). It is one of the earliest known examples of Hindu temple architecture in Bangladesh. Four copperplates were discovered in this monument and hence the name Charpatra (four plates) Mura.

CHARPATRA MURA

Largest among the Mainamati monuments is the Ananda Vihara. Situated in the archaeologically rich Kotbari central area, it represents a huge religious-cum-educational establishment of viharas, stupas and chapels all around.

Terracotta Peacock holdingpearl necklace in its beak

plaque

Antiquities The Mainamati excavations have yielded an exceptionally rich harvest of valuable antiquities including twelve copperplate grants and shorter image-inscriptions, over 400 gold and silver coins, innumerable terracotta and clay seals and sealings, some Neolithic stone axes and chisels, a large collection of stone, bronze, stucco and terracotta sculptures, stone and terracotta beads, gold, silver and bronze ornaments, decorative terracotta and architectural pieces, metal and earthenware pots, pans, vases and utensils, oil lamps and a variety of other objects of everyday use. The majority of these objects come from Shalvan Vihara, the most systematically excavated site. Together, they contribute significantly to our knowledge of ancient Vanga-Samatata, covering a period of about seven hundred years from the 6th to 13th centuries AD.

Terracotta plaque, Animal holding women

Bronze Buddha

Mainamati excavations have, thus, thrown a flood of light on almost every aspect of the life and culture of the southeastern part of Bengal. It has supplied detailed information regarding the social, political and economic condition of the region and has led to the discovery of the remarkable early Deva dynasty and of Balabhatta, the founder of Devaparvata. Mainamati has now provided set a workable basis for further investigations and research in the field. Mainamati finds have no doubt broadened the horizon of our understanding of our past. The primary significance of this collection lies in the fact that it represents the only available authentic and contemporary stratified materials from southeast Bengal that provide for the first time a dependable archaeological basis for the reconstruction of the history and civilization of this region of Bengal.

Beside these sites there is an amusing Muslim architecture, The Shatgumbad Mosque. Here is the brief description of this mosque.

Shatgumbad Mosque Shatgumbad Mosque is the largest of the Sultanate mosques in Bangladesh and one of the most impressive Muslim monuments in the whole of the Indian subcontinent. It is ascribed to one Khan al-Azam Ulugh Khan Jahan, who conquered the greater part of southern Bengal and named the area Khalifatabad. In the early 1980s an effective long-term programme was undertaken to safeguard this historical monument at the instance of UNESCO, and the work is nearing completion.

Enclosed originally by an outer wall, the mosque is located on the eastern bank of the Ghoradighi, about three miles west of the present Bagerhat town. The mosque proper, built mainly of bricks, forms a vast rectangle and measures externally, inclusive of the massive two-storied towers on the angles, 48.77m from north to south and 32.92m from east to west. The interior of the mosque could be entered through arched doorways - eleven on the east, seven on each of the north and south walls and only one on the west wall, which is placed at the western end of the bay immediately to the north of the large central nave. The interior of the mosque, 43.89m by 26.82m, is divided by six rows of pillars into seven longitudinal aisles from north to south and eleven bays running east to west. The mosque has a total of ten mihrabs. The central mihrab, which corresponds to the central nave, is bigger than its flanking counterparts and shows a rectangular projection on the outer side, carried up to roof level. The four circular towers on the exterior angles are massive and taper slightly towards the top. The most attractive part of the mosque is its large central nave, running east to west in a longitudinal line. This nave divides the interior of the mosque into two equal wings. The building exhibits eighty-one domes in total - four on the corner towers, seventy over the side wings and seven chau-chala vaults over the central nave.

Shatgumbad Mosque, Begerhat The huge multi-domed roof of the building has been supported by a total of sixty pillars.

The decoration of the mosque is mostly in terracotta and brick-setting, and a rare example of stone carving in low relief. Although much of the ornamentation has already disappeared due to the ravages of time, enough still survives in the doorway arches, mihrabs, the angles of the intersecting arches below the domes, the interior of the chau-chala vaults, the raised

moldings of the corner towers, the cornices of the compound gateway and the mosque proper. The qibla wall is internally embellished with ten ornamental engrailed archedmihrabs.

The Shatgumbad Mosque at Bagerhat appears to have been the earliest as well as the greatest architectural work of Khan Jahan. From outside, the mosque, with its four heavy and attractive corner towers and seventy-seven domes over the roof, offers a wonderful spectacle to the eye, while its interior is imposing. Architecturally the mosque shows the continuity of the building style that had already been started in Bengal 13. Conclusion The nature has ornamented Bangladesh with a lot of rivers, diversified flora and fauna, some beautiful hills and mountains, above all with significant natural beauties. Here, in Bangladesh, we have also a rich political history. Peoples of various religions are living here in peace. Besides, various festivals including secular and non-secular, have decorated the inhabitants’ cultural lives. We have many creative personalities and also have a wealthy literature. The amusing archaeological sites of Bangladesh have proven that the land was highly civilized even before the birth of today’s so-called civilized Western countries. Above all, in Bangladesh, we have such prosperous culture and heritage, of which we can feel proud.