Project paper1

Tablet Manufacturing Process & Tablet Manufacture Problems With CAUSES & REMEDIES

SUBMITTED BY Md. Tareq hasan Chapter 01 Introduction of Pharmaceutical dosage form – Tablet 1.1 Definition of Tablet: Tablets may be defined as the solid unit dosage form of medicament or medicaments with or without suitable diluents and prepared either by molding or by compression.

Tablet may vary in shape and differ greatly in size and weight depending on the amount of medicinal substance and the intended mode of administration.

1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of tablet as a dosage form 1.2.1The advantages are listed below: • Large scale manufacturing is feasible in comparison to other dosage forms. Therefore, economy can be achieved.

• Accuracy of dose is maintained since tablet is a solid unit dosage form.

• Longer expiry period and minimum microbial spillage owing to lower moisture content.

• As tablet is not a sterile dosage form, stringent environmental conditions are not required in the tablet department.

• Ease of packaging (blister or strip) and easy handling over liquid dosage form.

• Easy to transport in bulk. Emergency supply supplies can be carried by patients.

• Organoleptic properties (taste, appearance and odour are best improved by coating of tablet.

• Product identification is easy and markings done with the help of grooved punches and printing with edible ink.

• Different types of tablets are available like buccal, floating, colon targeting, effervescent, dispersible, soluble, and chewable, etc.

• In composition to parenterals dosage form, a doctor or a nurse is not required for administration. I.e. self administration is possible.

• In comparison to capsules, tablets are more tamperproof.

1.2.2 The disadvantages are listed below: • It is difficult to convert a high dose poorly compressible API into a tablet of suitable size for human use.

• Difficult to formulate a drug with poor wettability, slow dissolution into a tablet.

• Slow onset of action as compared to parenterals, liquid orals and capsules.

• The amount of liquid drug (e.g. Vitamin E, Simethicone) that can be trapped into a tablet is very less.

• Difficult to swallow for kids, terminally ill and geriatric patients.

• Patients undergoing radiotherapy cannot swallow tablet.

1.3 Essential qualities of Good Tablets: • They should be accurate and uniform in weight.

• The size and shape should be reasonable for easy administration.

• There should not be any incompatibilities.

• They should not break during transportation of crumble in the hands of the patient.

• There should not be any manufacturing defects like cracking, chipping, or discoloration.

• They should be easy and economical in production.

• The drug should be uniformly distributed throughout the tablets.

• The tablet should not be too hard that it takes long time to disintegrate in the stomach.

• They should be chemically and physically stable during storage.

• They should be attractive in appearance.

• After administration it should disintegrate readily.

Chapter 02 Types of Tablets 2. Tablets are classified on the basis of Administration.

2.1 ORAL TABLETS FOR INGESTION –

Over 90% of the tablets manufactured today are ingested orally. This shows that this class of formulation is the most popular world wide and the major attention of the researcher is towards this direction.

2.1.1. Standard compressed tablets They may be used for local action in gastro-intestinal tract or systemic action.

When the tablet exert local action, they are formulated as more water insoluble by means of selecting slow dissolving excipients and thus provides local action for long time period. e.g., antacids and adsorbents.

2.1.2. Multiple compressed tablets • Compression coated tablet This type of tablet has two parts, internal core and surrounding coat. The core is small porous tablet and prepared on one turret.

FIGURE- COMPRESSION COATED TABLET • Layered tablet When two or more active pharmaceutical ingredients are needed to be administered simultaneously and they are incompatible, the best option for the formulation pharmacist would be to formulate multilayered tablet. It consists of several different granulations that are compressed to form a single tablet composed of two or more layers.

Paracetamol + phenyl ephedrine Hydrochloride FIGURE- MULTILAYERED TABLET 2.1.3. Modified Release tablet

The main aim behind formulation of this dosage form is to release the medicament slowly for long time duration after administration of a single tablet.

FIGURE- GRAPHICAL COMPARISON OF BLOOD CONCENTRATION V/S TIME It has some advantages Patient can take an undisturbed sleep at night It’s also beneficial for psychiatric patients who forget to take their tablets regularly The dose related side effects and toxicities are reduced.

2.1.4. Delayed action tablet Enteric coated tablet is such an example of delayed action tablet. This formulation is preferred when,  The API irritates gastric mucosa e.g., aspirin or strong electrolytes

 Drugs that produce nausea and vomiting.  API is sensitive to low pH e.g., erythromycin.

2.1.5. Targeted tablet When we need to release the API at a specific site in the elementary tract, targeted drug delivery is a preferred option. Depending upon the composition and release mechanism of a tablet, the drug is delivered to a particular region.

Under this category, we have two types of tablet:

I.

Floating tablet

This type of dosage form is to be opted when API release is desired in stomach (Antacids, APIs used against H.pylori infection) or site of absorption is either stomach or upper part of small intestine.

FIGURE-. FLOATING TABLET II. Colon targeting tablet When the aim is to deliver the drug into colon without dilution in other regions of gastrointestinal tract or the drug has poor absorption in stomach or small intestine, colonic drug delivery is an answer of choice. The pH in this region varies from 6.4 – 7.

2.1.6. Chewable tablet The patients who have difficulty in swallowing tablets whole or for children who have not yet learnt to swallow a tablet, chewable tablet serves as an attractive alternative. The added advantage of this medication is that it can be taken at any time or when water is not available.

2.1.7. Dispersible tablet These tablets disintegrate either rapidly in water, to form a stabilized suspension, or disperse instantaneously in the mouth to be swallowed without the aid of water. So, it’s preferred for pediatric patients who cannot swallow a solid dosage form.

2.2. TABLETS USED IN THE ORAL CAVITY The tablets under this group are aimed release API in oral cavity or to provide local action in this region. The tablets under this category avoids first-pass

metabolism, decomposition in gastric environment, nauseatic sensations and gives rapid onset of action.

2.2.1. Lozenges and troches The tablet is a flat faced at least about 18mm in diameter and meant to suck and dissolves in the mouth. The compressed tablet is called troches and the tablets produced by fusion or candy molding process are called lozenges.

Flavours and sweeteners are added to make tablets palatable.

2.2.2. Sublingual tablets They are to be placed under the tongue and produce immediate systemic effect by enabling the drug absorbed directly.

FIGURE- SUBLINGUAL TABLETS 2.2.3. Buccal tablets The tablets are designed not to disintegrate. They are flat elliptical or capsule shaped tablets as it can be easily held between gum and cheek. It’s placed near the opening of parotid duct to provide the medium to dissolve the tablet.

2.2.4. Mouth dissolved tablet These kinds of tablets are preferred when fast action or relief is desired. The tablets are designed to disintegrate as well as dissolve within one minute or some within 10 seconds of oral administration in limited quantity of saliva.

2.3. TABLETS ADMINISTERED BY OTHER ROUTES

These tablets are administered by other route except for the oral cavity and so the drugs are avoided from passing through gastro intestinal tract.

• Vaginal tablet This tablet undergoes slow dissolution and drug release in vaginal cavity of women. The shape is kept ovoid or pear shaped to facilitate retention in vagina.

• Implants These tablets are inserted into subcutaneous tissue by surgical procedures where they are very slowly absorbed over a period of a month or a year. They are sterile formulation without excipients.

2.4. TABLETS USED TO PREPARE SOLUTION The tablets under this category are required to be dissolved first in water or other solvents before administration or application. This solution may be for ingestion or parenteral qapplication or for topical use depending upon type of medicament used.

• Effervescent tablet The oral dosage forms are the most popular way of taking medication despite having some disadvantages like slow absorption and thus onset of action is prolong. This can be overcome by administrating the drug in liquid from but, many APIs have limited level of stability in liquid form. So, effervescent tablets acts as an alternative dosage form. The tablet is added into a glass of water just before administration and the drug solution or dispersion is to be drunk immediately.

FIGURE- EFFERVESCENT TABLETS • Hypodermic tablet

These tablets contain one or more readily water soluble ingredients and are intended to be added in water for injection of sterile water to form a clear solution which is to be injected parenterally.

• Soluble tablet Water soluble tablets are intended for application after dissolution in water and contain an active ingredient should be totally soluble in water at used concentrations. All the excipients used to formulate these tablets are required to be completely soluble in water including the glidants, binders, etc.

Chap ter 03 Recipients 3.1. Definition of Excipients: An excipient is generally a pharmacologically inactive substance used as a carrier for the active ingredients of a medication.

In many cases, an "active" substance (such as acetylsalicylic acid) may not be easily administered and absorbed by the human body; in such cases the substance in question may be dissolved into or mixed with an excipient.

3.2 Types of Excipients: • Diluents • Binders • Disantigrants • Antifrictional agents • Antiadherents • Glidants • Miscellaneous Excipients 3.2.1.

Diluents: Introduction

In order to facilitate tablet handling during manufacture and to achieve targeted content uniformity, the tablet size should be kept above 2-3 mm and weight of tablet above 50 mg. Many potent drugs have low dose (for e.g. diazepam, clonidine hydrochloride) in such cases diluents provide the required bulk of the tablet when the drug dosage itself is inadequate to produce tablets of adequate weight and size. Usually the range of diluent may vary from 580%. Diluents are also synonymously known as fillers. Diluents are often added to tablet formulations for secondary reasons like to provide better tablet properties such as: • To provide improved cohesion • To allow direct compression manufacturing • To enhance flow • To adjust weight of tablet as per die capacity Classification of diluents Tablet diluents or fillers can be divided into following categories: • Organic materials - Carbohydrate and modified carbohydrates.

• Inorganic materials – Calcium phosphates and others.

• Co-processed Diluents.

Carbohydrate substances such as sugars, starches and celluloses may also function as binders during wet granulation process. Where as when used in direct compression system, they serve as the diluent. The inorganic diluents, do not exhibit binding properties when used in wet granulation and direct compression.

Tablet diluent or filler may also be classified on the basis of their solubility in water as soluble and insoluble.

INSOLUBLE TABLET DILUENTS

SOLUBLE TABLET DILUENTS

Starch

Lactose

Microcrystalline cellulose

Mannitol

Calcium phosphates, etc.

Sorbitol, etc.

• Organic diluents  Carbohydrates  Sugar and Sugar alcohols Lactose α-lactose monohydrate, spray dried lactose and anhydrous lactose are widely used as diluents.

Characteristics of α -Lactose monohydrate (hydrous) It has poor flow properties.

It is usually not reactive.

It is inexpensive.

Characteristics of Lactose spray dried It exhibits free flowing characteristics.

Expensive compared to anhydrous and hydrous lactose.

Characteristics of Lactose anhydrous It does not exhibit free flowing property.

It is inexpensive.

• Sucrose Characteristics of Sucrose or sugar It is water soluble.

It possesses good binding properties.

It is inexpensive.

• Mannitol Characteristics of Mannitol It exhibits poor flow properties.

It can be used in vitamin formulation, where moisture sensitivity may create a problem.

It is comparatively non hygroscopic.

• Sorbitol Characteristics of Sorbitol It is water soluble.

It is hygroscopic in nature.

It has good mouth feel and sweet cooling taste.

• Microcrystalline cellulose Characteristics of Microcrystalline cellulose It exhibits fair flowability.

It exhibits binding properties.

It is water insoluble.

• Inorganic diluents  Calcium phosphates

They are granular insoluble materials. They are widely used both as wet granulation and direct compression diluents in tablet formulation. They are used extensively in vitamin and mineral preparations. . Characteristic of Calcium Phosphates They exhibit good flow properties.

They are non hygroscopic.

They are inexpensive. • Co-processed diluents Co- processing means combining two or more materials by an appropriate process. The products so formed are physically modified in such a special way that they do not loose their chemical structure and stability.

3.2.2.

Binders

Binder is one of an important excipient to be added in tablet formulation. In simpler words, binders or adhesives are the substances that promotes cohesiveness. It is utilized for converting powder into granules through a process known as Granulation.

Types of Binders SUGARS

NATURAL BINDERS SYNTHETIC/SEMISYNTHETIC POLYMER

Sucrose

Acacia

Methyl Cellulose

Liquid glucose

Tragacanth

Ethyl Cellulose

Gelatin

Hydroxy ( HPMC)

Characteristics of Commonly Used Binder:

Propyl

Methyl

Cellulose

BINDER

SPECIFIED CONCENTRATION

Starch Paste

5-25%w/w

Hydroxypropyl Methyl Cellulose (HPMC)

2-5%w/w

Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP) 3.2.3.

COMMENTS

- Freshly prepared starch paste is used as a binder.

- Comparable to Methyl Cellulose.

- Used as a binder in either wet or dry granulation processes.

0.5-5%w/w

- Soluble in both water and alcohol.

- Used in wet granulation process.

- Valuable binder for chewable tablets.

Disintegrants

Disintegrants, an important excipient of the tablet formulation, are always added to tablet to induce breakup of tablet when it comes in contact with aqueous fluid and this process of desegregation of constituent particles before the drug dissolution occurs, is known as disintegration process and excipients which induce this process are known as disintegrants.

Types of disintegrants: Starch was the first disintegrating agent widely used in tablet manufacturing. Before 1906 potato starch and corn starch were used as disintegrants in tablet formulation. • Pregelatinized starch It is a directly compressible disintegrants and its optimum concentration is 5-10%. The main mechanism of action of Pregelatinized starch is through swelling.

• Modified starch To have a high swelling properties and faster disintegration, starch is modified by carboxy methylation. One of them is SODIUM STARCH GLYCOLATE. List of Disintegrants: DISINTEGRANTS

CONCENTRATION IN SPECIAL COMMENTS GRANULES (%W/W)

Starch USP

5-20

Higher amount is required, poorly compressible

Alginic acid

1-5

Acts by swelling

Na alginate

2.5-10

Acts by swelling

Cellulose and its derivatives Sodium carboxy methylcellulose has highly hydrophilic structure and is soluble in water. But when it is modified by internally crosslinking we get modified crosslinked cellulose i.e. Crosscarmellose sodium which is nearly water insoluble due to cross linking. It rapidly swells to 4-8 times its original volume when it comes in contact with water.

Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) MCC exhibit very good disintegrating properties because MCC is insoluble. The moisture breaks the hydrogen bonding between adjacent bundles of MCC. It also serves as an excellent binder and has a tendency to develop static charges in the presence of excessive moisture content.

Alginates Alginates are hydrophilic colloidal substances which has high absorption capacity. Chemically, they are alginic acid and salts of alginic acid. Alginic acid is insoluble in water, slightly acidic in reaction.

Ion-exchange resin Ion exchange resin has highest water uptake capacity than other disintegrating agents like starch and Sodium CMC. It has tendency to adsorb certain drugs.

Super Disintegrants Super disintegrants are effective at low concentration and have greater disintegrating efficiency and they are more effective intragranularly. But have one drawback that it is hygroscopic therefore not used with moisture sensitive drugs.

LIST OF SUPERDISINTEGRANTS SUPERDISINTEGRANTS EXAMPLE OF

MECHANIS SPECIAL COMMENT M OF ACTION

Sodium glycolate

-Swells 7-12 -Swells in three folds in <30 dimensions and high seconds level serve as sustain release matrix

starch Crosslinke d starch

Alginic acid NF

Crosslinke -Rapid d alginic swelling acid aqueous medium

Calcium silicate

3.2.4.

Lubricants

Antifrictional Agents

-Wicking action

-Promote disintegration in in both dry or wet granulation -Highly porous, -optimum concentration is between 20-40%

Lubricants are the agents that act by reducing friction by interposing an intermediate layer between the tablet constituents and the die wall during compression and ejection.

Lack of adequate lubrication produces binding which can results in tablet machine strain and can lead to damage of lower punch heads, lower cam track, die seats and the tooling itself.

Classification of lubricants Lubricant are classified according to their water solubility i.e. water insoluble and water soluble. â&#x20AC;˘ Water Insoluble Lubricants Water insoluble lubricants are most effective and used at reduced concentration than water soluble lubricants.

LIST OF INSOLUBLE LUBRICANTS INSOLUBLE LUBRICANTS

CONCENTRATION COMMENTS

Stearates(Magnesium 0.25 -1 Stearate, Calcium Stearate, Sodium stearate)

Reduce tablet strength; prolong disintegration; widely used.

Talc

1 -2

Insoluble but not hydrophobic; moderately effective.

Glyceryl

1-5

Both lubricant and binder;

â&#x20AC;˘ Water Soluble Lubricants Water Soluble Lubricants are used when a tablet is completely soluble or when unique disintegration and dissolution characteristics are required. Tablet containing soluble lubricant shows higher dissolution rate than tablet with insoluble lubricants.

LIST OF SOLUBLE LUBRICANTS WATER SOLUBLE LUBRICANTS

CONCENTRATION RANGE (%W/W)

Boric acid

1

Sodium benzoate

5

Sodium Lauryl sulfate (SLS)

1–5

Magnesium lauryl sulfate (MLS)

1-2

3.2.5. Antiadherents: Antiadherents are added, which prevent sticking to punches and die walls. Talc, magnesium stearate and corn starch have excellent antiadherent properties.

TABLE- LIST OF ANTIADHERENTS ANTIADHERENT

RANGE(%W/W) COMMENT

Talc

1–5

Sodium sulfate Stearates 3.2.6.

lauryl <1 <1

Lubricant with excellent antiadherents properties Antiadherents lubricant

with

water

soluble

Antiadherents with water insoluble lubricant

Glidants:

GLIDANTS are added to the formulation to improve the flow properties of the material. If the flow properties are extremely poor then glidants are

ineffective. Starch is a popular glidant. Concentration of starch is common up to 10%. Talc is also a glidant.

3.2.7.

Miscellaneous Excipients

• Wetting Agents Wetting Agents in tablet formulation aid water uptake and thereby enhancing disintegration and assisting in drug dissolution. Wetting agents are mainly added when hydrophobic drug is to be formulated into tablet. SLS, Sodium diisobutyl sulfosuccinate are used as wetting agent in tablet formulation.

• Dissolution Enhancers They are the agents that alter the molecular forces between ingredients to enhance the dissolution of solute in the solvent. Fructose, Povidone, Surfactants are used as dissolution enhancer.

• Antioxidants Antioxidants are added in tablet formulation to protect drug from undergoing oxidation. Chelators may act as antioxidant. Most commonly used antioxidants include ascorbic acid and their esters.

• Colourants Colourants neither contribute to therapeutic activity nor do they improve product bioavailability or stability. Most widely used colourants are dyes and lakes which are FD & C and D & C approved.

• Flavours Flavors are commonly used to improve the taste of chewable tablets as well as mouth dissolved tablets. Flavors are incorporated either as solids (spray dried flavors) or oils or aqueous (water soluble) flavors.

• Sweeteners

Sweeteners are added primarily to chewable tablets.

TABLE- SOME OF THE SWEETENERS USED IN TABLET FORMULATION NATURAL SWEETENERS Mannitol

ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS Saccharin

Lactose

Cyclamate

Sucrose

Aspartame

Dextrose Saccharin is 500 times sweeter than sucrose. Its major disadvantages are that it has a bitter aftertaste and is carcinogenic. Even cyclamate is carcinogenic .Aspartame is about 180 times sweeter than sucrose.

Chapter-04 Operations involved in tablet manufacturing 4.1 Introduction: Traditionally, tablets have been made by granulation. Both wet granulation and dry granulation (slugging and roll compaction) are used.

Numerous unit processes are involved in making tablets, including particle size reduction and sizing, blending, granulation, drying, compaction, and coating.

TYPICAL UNIT OPERATION INVOLVED IN GRANULATION AND DIRECT COMPRESSION WET GRANULATION

DRY GRANULATION

WET

GRANULATION,

DIRECT COMPRESSION

1. Milling and mixing of 1. Milling and mixing of 1. Milling and drugs and excipients drugs and excipients mixing of drugs and excipients

DRY

2.

Preparation binder solution

of 2. Compression into slugs 2. Compression of or roll compaction tablet

3. Wet massing by 3. Milling and screening of addition of binder slugs and compacted solution or granulating powder solvent 4. Screening of wet 4. Mixing with lubricant mass and disintegrant 5. Drying of the wet 5. Compression of tablet granules 6. Screening of dry granules 7.

Blending lubricant disintegrant produce 8. Compression tablet

with and to of

4.2 Dispensing (Weighing and measuring) Dispensing is the first step in any pharmaceutical manufacturing process. In this step, the weight of each ingredient in the mixture is determined according to dose.

4.3 Sizing The sizing (size reduction, milling, crushing, grinding, pulverization) is an impotent step (unit operation) involved in the tablet manufacturing.

In manufacturing of compressed tablet, the mixing or blending of several solid ingredients of pharmaceuticals is easier and more uniform if the ingredients are approximately of same size. This provides a greater uniformity of dose.

Advantages associated with size reduction in tablet manufacture are as follows: • It increases surface area, which may enhance an actives dissolution rate and hence bioavailability.

• Controlled particle size distribution of dry granulation • Improved flow properties of raw materials.

• Improved colour and/or active ingredient dispersion in tablet excipients.

• Uniformly sized wet granulation to promote uniform drying.

4.4 Powder blending The successful mixing of powder is acknowledged to be more difficult unit operation because, unlike the situation with liquid, perfect homogeneity is practically unattainable.

The powder/granules blending are involved at stage of pre granulation and/or post granulation stage of tablet manufacturing. Each process of mixing has optimum mixing time .

The various blenders used include blender, Oblicone blender, Container blender, Tumbling blender, Agitated powder blender, etc.

4.5 Granulation Following particle size reduction and blending, the formulation may be granulated, which provides homogeneity of drug distribution in blend.

4.6 Drying Drying is a most important step in the formulation and development of pharmaceutical product. The commonly used dryer includes Fluidized bed

dryer, Vacuum tray dryer, Microwave dryer, Spray dryer, Freeze dryer, Turbo tray dryer, Pan dryer, etc.

4.7 Tablet compression After the preparation of granules (in case of wet granulation) or sized slugs (in case of dry granulation) or mixing of ingredients (in case of direct compression), they are compressed to get final product. The compression is done either by single punch machine (stamping press) or by multi station machine (rotary press).

Fig: Compression process Common stages occurring during compression

FIGURE.22. STAGE OCCURRING DURING COMPRESSION Stage 1: Top punch is withdrawn from the die by the upper cam Bottom punch is low in the die so powder falls in through the hole and fills the die.

Stage 2: Bottom punch moves up to adjust the powder weight- it raises and expels some powder

Stage 3: Top punch is driven into the die by upper cam Bottom punch is raised by lower cam. Both punch heads pass between heavy rollers to compress the powder.

Stage 4: Top punch is withdrawn by the upper cam. Lower punch is pushed up and expels the tablet. Tablet is removed from the die surface by surface plate Stage 5: Return to stage 1 Chapter: 05 Manufacturing methods of Tablet.

1. Direct compression

2. Granulation

5.1. Direct compression: Introduction

Amongst the techniques used to prepare tablets, direct compression is the most advanced technology. It involves only blending and compression.

Thus offering advantage particularly in terms of speedy production. Because it requires fewer unit operations, less machinery, reduced number of personnel and considerably less processing time along with increased product stability.

Definition: The term “direct compression” is defined as the process by which tablets are compressed directly from powder mixture of API and suitable excipients.

Merits • Direct compression is more efficient and economical process as compared to other processes.

• The most important advantage of direct compression is economical process.

• Prime particle dissolution.

• The chances of batch-to-batch variation are negligible, because the unit operations required for manufacturing processes is fewer.

• Chemical stability problems for API and excipient would be avoided.

• Provides stability against the effect of aging which affects the dissolution rates.

Demerits Excipient Related • Problems in the uniform distribution of low dose drugs.

• High dose drugs having high bulk volume, poor compressibility and poor flowability are not suitable for direct compression.

• The choice of excipients for direct compression is extremely critical.

• Many active ingredients are not compressible either in crystalline or amorphous forms.

• Direct compression blends may lead to unblending because of difference in particle size or density of drug and excipients.

• Non-uniform distribution of colour, especially in tablets of deep colours.

Manufacturing steps for direct compression Direct compression involves comparatively few steps: • Milling of drug and excipients.

• Mixing of drug and excipients.

• Tablet compression.

Direct compression Excipients Direct compression excipients mainly include diluents, binders and disintegrants. The physicochemical properties of the ingredients such as particle size, flowability and moisture are critical in direct compression tableting.

An ideal direct compression excipient should possess the following attributes • It should have good compressibility.

• It should have good flowability.

• It should be physiologically inert.

• It should be stable to various environmental conditions (air, moisture, heat, etc.).

• It should be colourless, odorless and tasteless.

5.2. Granulation:

Introduction Granulation may be defined as a size enlargement process which converts small particles into physically stronger & larger agglomerates.

Granulation method can be broadly classified into three types: Wet granulation, Dry granulation, and Dry Granulation incorporating bound moisture.

Ideal characteristics of granules The ideal characteristics of granules include uniformity, good flow, and compactibility.

The effectiveness of granulation depends on the following properties i) Particle size of the drug and Excipients. ii) Type of binder (strong or weak) iii) Volume of binder (less or more) iv) Wet massing time (less or more) v) Drying rate (Hydrate formation and polymorphism) 5.2.1. Wet granulation Introduction The most widely used process of agglomeration in pharmaceutical industry is wet granulation. Wet granulation process simply involves wet massing of the powder blend with a granulating liquid, wet sizing and drying.

Important steps involved in the wet granulation i) Mixing of the drug(s) and excipients ii) Preparation of binder solution

iii) Mixing of binder solution with powder mixture to form wet mass. iv) Coarse screening of wet mass using a suitable sieve (6-12 v) Drying of moist granules. vi) Screening of dry granules through a suitable sieve (14-20 vii) Mixing of screened granules with disintegrant, glidant, and lubricant.

Special wet granulation techniques i) High shear mixture granulation ii) Fluid bed granulation iii) Extrusion-spheronization iv) Spray drying High shear mixture granulation High shear mixture has been widely used in Pharmaceutical industries for blending and granulation. Blending and wet massing is accompanied by high mechanical agitation by an impeller and a chopper. Mixing, densification and agglomeration are achieved through shear and compaction force exerted by the impeller.

Advantages: i) Short processing time ii) Less amount of liquid binders required compared with fluid bed. iii) Highly cohesive material can be granulated.

Fluid bed granulation Fluidization is the operation by which fine solids are transformed into a fluid like state through contact with a gas. At certain gas velocity the fluid will support the particles giving them free mobility without entrapment.

Fluid bed granulation is a process by which granules are produced in a single equipment by spraying a binder solution onto a fluidized powder bed. The material processed by fluid bed granulation are finer, free flowing and homogeneous.

Extrusion and Spheronization It is a multiple step process capable of making uniform sized spherical particles. It is primarily used as a method to produce multi-particulates for controlled release application.

Advantages: i) Ability to incorporate higher levels of active components without producing excessively larger particles. ii) Applicable to both immediate and controlled release dosage form.

Spray drying granulation It is a unique granulation technique that directly converts liquids into dry powder in a single step. This method removes moisture instantly and converts pumpable liquids into a dry powder.

Advantages: i) Rapid process ii) Ability to be operated continuously iii) Suitable for heat sensitive product

Lists of equipments for wet granulation High Shear granulation: i)Little ford Lodgie granulator ii)Little ford MGT granulator iii)Diosna granulator iv)Gral mixer Granulator with drying facility: i) Fluidized bed granulator ii) Day nauta mixer processor iii) Double cone or twin shell processor iv) Topo granulator Special granulator: i) Roto granulator ii) Marumerizer Current topics related to wet granulation I. Hydrate formation For example, theophylline anhydrous during high shear wet granulation transfers to theophylline monohydrate. The midpoint conversion occurs in three minutes after the binder solution is added.

For online monitoring of the transformation from one form to another, Raman spectroscopy is most widely used.

II. Polymorphic transformation

The drying phase of wet granulation plays a vital role for conversion of one form to another.

For example, glycine which exist in three polymorphs that is α β γ . γ is the most stable form and αis the metastable form. The stable Glycine polymorph (γ) converts to metastable form (α) when wet granulated with microcrystalline cellulose.

5.2.2. Dry granulation Introduction In dry granulation process the powder mixture is compressed without the use of heat and solvent. It is the least desirable of all methods of granulation. The two basic procedures are to form a compact of material by compression and then to mill the compact to obtain a granules. Two methods are used for dry granulation. The more widely used method is slugging, where the powder is precompressed and the resulting tablet or slug are milled to yield the granules.

The other method is to precompress the powder with pressure rolls using a machine such as Chilosonator.

Advantages The main advantages of dry granulation or slugging are that it uses less equipments and space. It eliminates the need for binder solution, heavy mixing equipment and the costly and time consuming drying step required for wet granulation. Slugging can be used for advantages in the following situations: i) For moisture sensitive material ii) For heat sensitive material iii) For improved disintegration since powder particles are not bonded together by a binder Disadvantages i) It requires a specialized heavy duty tablet press to form slug ii) It does not permit uniform colour distribution as can be

iii) Achieved with wet granulation where the dye can be incorporated into binder liquid. iv) The process tends to create more dust than wet granulation, increasing the potential contamination.

Steps in dry granulation i) Milling of drugs and excipients ii) Mixing of milled powders iii) Compression into large, hard tablets to make slug iv) Screening of slugs v) Mixing with lubricant and disintegrating agent vi) Tablet compression Two main dry granulation processes Slugging process Granulation by slugging is the process of compressing dry powder of tablet formulation with tablet press having die cavity large enough in diameter to fill quickly. The accuracy or condition of slug is not too important. Only sufficient pressure to compact the powder into uniform slugs should be used. Once slugs are produced they are reduced to appropriate granule size for final compression by screening and milling.

Factors which determine how well a material may slug a) Density of the powder b) Machine type c) Punch and die size

d) Slug thickness e) Speed of compression f) Pressure used to produce slug

Roller compaction The compaction of powder by means of pressure roll can also be accomplished by a machine called chilsonator. Unlike tablet machine, the chilsonator turns out a compacted mass in a steady continuous flow. The powder is fed down between the rollers from the hopper which contains a spiral auger to feed the powder into the compaction zone. Like slugs, the aggregates are screened or milled for production into granules.

Formulation for dry granulation The excipients used for dry granulation are basically same as that of wet granulation or that of direct compression. With dry granulation it is often possible to compact the active ingredient with a minor addition of lubricant and disintegrating agent. Fillers that are used in dry granulation include the following examples: Lactose, dextrose, sucrose etc.

Chapter: 06 Tablet manufacturing Problems with it’s causes & remedies Introduction An ideal tablet should be free from any visual defect or functional defect.

Majority of visual defects are due to inadequate fines or inadequate moisture in the granules ready for compression or due to faulty machine setting.

Functional defects are due to faulty formulation.

The imperfections are known as: ‘VISUAL DEFECTS’ and they are either related to imperfections in any one or more of the following factors:

I. Tableting Process II. Excipient III. Machine The defects related to Tableting Process are as follows: i) CAPPING: It is partial or complete separation of the top or bottom of tablet due air-entrapment in the granular material. ii) LAMINATION: It is separation of tablet into two or more layers due to airentrapment in the granular material. iii) CRACKING: It is due to rapid expansion of tablets when deep concave punches are used.

The defects related to Excipient are as follows: iv) CHIPPING: It is due to very dry granules. v) STICKING: It is the adhesion of granulation material to the die wall vi) PICKING: It is the removal of material from the surface of tablet and its adherance to the face of punch. vii) BINDING These problems (v, vi, vii) are due to more amount of binder in the granules or wet granules.

The defect related to more than one factor: viii) MOTTLING: It is either due to any one or more of these factors: Due to a coloured drug, which has different colour than the rest of the granular material? (Excipient- related); improper mixing of granular material (Process-

related); dirt in the granular material or on punch faces; oil spots by using oily lubricant.

The defect related to Machine ix)DOUBLE IMPRESSION: It is due to free rotation of the punches, which have some engraving on the punch faces.

Further, in this section, each problem is described along-with its causes and remedies which may be related to either of formulation (granulation) or of machine (dies, punches and entire tablet press).

6.1. Capping ‘Capping’ is the term used, when the upper or lower segment of the tablet separates horizontally, either partially or completely from the main body of a tablet and comes off as a cap, during ejection from the tablet press, or during subsequent handling.

Reason: Capping is usually due to the air–entrapment in a compact during compression, and subsequent expansion of tablet on ejection of a tablet from a die.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF CAPPING RELATED TO ‘FORMULATION’ (GRANULATION) Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Too dry or very low Moisten the granules suitably. Add moisture content hygroscopic substance e.g.: sorbitol, methyl- cellulose.

2.

Not thoroughly dried Dry the granules properly. granules.

3.

Insufficient amount of Increasing the mount of binder.

binder binder.

4.

or

improper

Insufficient or improper Increase the amount of lubricant or lubricant. change the type of lubricant.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF CAPPING RELATED TO ‘MACHINE’ (DIES, PUNCHES AND TABLET PRESS)

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Poorly finished dies

Polish dies properly. Investigate other steels or other materials.

2.

Deep concave punches or Use flat punches. beveled-edge faces of punches.

3.

Lower punch remains below the Make proper setting of lower face of die during ejection. punch during ejection.

5.

High turret speed.

Sr. No.

Reduce speed of turret (Increase dwell time).

6.2. Lamination / Laminating Definition: ‘Lamination’ is the separation of a tablet into two or more distinct horizontal layers.

Reason: Air–entrapment during compression and subsequent release on ejection.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF LAMINATION RELATED TO FORMULATION (GRANULATION)

Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Oily or granules

waxy

2.

Too much of lubricant e.g.: stearate.

materials

in Modify mixing process. adsorbent or absorbent.

Add

hydrophobic Use a less amount of lubricant or Magnesium- change the type of lubricant.

The Causes and Remedies of Lamination related to MACHINE (Dies, Punches and Tablet Press) Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Rapid relaxation of the peripheral Use tapered dies, i.e. upper part of regions of a tablet, on ejection the die bore has an outward taper of from a die.

3° to 5°.

2.

Rapid decompression

Use pre-compression step. Reduce turret speed and reduce the final compression pressure.

6.3. Chipping Definition: ‘Chipping’ is defined as the breaking of tablet edges, while the tablet leaves the press or during subsequent handling and coating operations.

Reason: Incorrect machine settings, specially mis-set ejection take-off.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF CHIPPING RELATED TO FORMULATION (GRANULATION) ARE AS FOLLOWS Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Sticking on punch faces

Dry the granules properly or increase lubrication.

2.

Too dry granules.

Moisten the granules to plasticize. Add hygroscopic substances.

3.

Too much binding causes Optimize binding, or use dry binders. chipping at bottom.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF CHIPPING RELATED TO MACHINE (DIES, PUNCHES AND TABLET PRESS) Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Groove of die compression point.

worn

2.

Barreled die (center of the die Polish the die to make it cylindrical wider than ends)

3.

Edge of punch inside/inward.

4.

Concavity too deep to compress Reduce concavity of punch faces. properly.

Use flat punches.

face

at Polish to open end, reverse or replace the die.

turned Polish the punch edges

6.4. Cracking Definition: Small, fine cracks observed on the upper and lower central surface of tablets, or very rarely on the sidewall are referred to as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Cracksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

Reason: It is observed as a result of rapid expansion of tablets, especially when deep concave punches are used.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF CRACKING RELATED TO FORMULATION (GRANULATION) Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Large size granules.

of Reduce granule size. Add fines.

2.

Too dry granules.

Moisten the granules properly and add proper amount of binder.

3.

Tablets expand.

Improve granulation. Add dry binders.

4.

Granulation too cold.

Compress at room temperature.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF CRACKING RELATED TO MACHINE (DIES, PUNCHES AND TABLET PRESS) Sr. No. 1.

2.

CAUSES

Tablet expands on ejection due entrapment.

Deep concavities cause cracking while removing tablets

REMEDIES

to

air Use tapered die.

Use special takeoff.

6.5. Sticking / Filming Definition: ‘Sticking’ refers to the tablet material adhering to the die wall.

Reason: Improperly dried or improperly lubricated granules.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF STICKING RELATED TO FORMULATION (GRANULATION) Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Granules not dried Dry the granules properly. Make moisture properly. analysis to determine limits.

2.

Too little improper lubrication.

3.

Too much binder

or Increase or change lubricant.

Reduce the amount of binder or use a different type of binder.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF STICKING RELATED TO MACHINE (DIES, PUNCHES AND TABLET PRESS) Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Concavity too granulation.

deep

for Reduce concavity to optimum.

2.

Too little pressure.

Increase pressure.

3.

Compressing too fast.

Reduce speed.

6.6. Picking Definition: ‘Picking’ is the term used when a small amount of material from a tablet is sticking to and being removed off from the tablet-surface by a punch face.

Reason: Picking is of particular concern when punch tips have engraving or embossing letters, as well as the granular material is improperly dried.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF PICKING RELATED TO FORMULATION (GRANULATION) Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Excessive moisture Dry properly the granules, determine optimum in granules. limit.

2.

Too little improper lubrication.

3.

Too much amount Reduce the amount of binder, change the type or of binder. use dry binders.

or Increase lubrication; use colloidal silica as a ‘polishing agent’, so that material does not cling to punch faces.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF PICKING RELATED TO MACHINE (DIES, PUNCHES AND TABLET PRESS) CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Rough or scratched punch faces.

Polish faces to high luster.

2.

Embossing or engraving letters Design lettering as large as possible. on punch faces such as B, A, O, R, P, Q, G.

3.

Bevels or dividing lines too deep. Reduce depths and sharpness.

Sr. No.

6.7. Binding Definition: ‘Binding’ in the die, is the term used when the tablets adhere, seize or tear in the die. A film is formed in the die and ejection of tablet is hindered.

With excessive binding, the tablet sides are cracked and it may crumble apart.

Reason: Binding is usually due to excessive amount of moisture in granules, lack of lubrication and/or use of worn dies.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF BINDING RELATED TO FORMULATION (GRANULATION) Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Too moist granules and Dry the granules properly. extrudes around lower punch.

2.

Insufficient lubricant.

3.

Too coarse granules.

or

improper Increase the amount of lubricant or use a more effective lubricant.

Reduce granular size, add more fines, and increase the quantity of lubricant.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF BINDING RELATED TO MACHINE (DIES, PUNCHES AND TABLET PRESS) Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Poorly finished dies.

Polish the dies properly.

2.

Rough dies due to abrasion, Investigate other steels or other materials or corrosion. modify granulation.

3.

Reduce pressure. OR Too much pressure in the tablet press.

Modify granulation.

6.8 Mottling Definition: ‘Mottling’ is the term used to describe an unequal distribution of colour on a tablet, with light or dark spots standing out in an otherwise uniform surface.

Reason: One cause of mottling may be a coloured drug, whose colour differs from the colour of excipients used for granulation of a tablet.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF MOTTLING Sr. No. 1.

2.

3.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

A coloured drug used along with Use appropriate colourants. colourless or white-coloured excipients.

Change the binder, A dye migrates to the surface of granulation while drying.

Use a smaller particle size.

Improperly mixed dye, especially Mix properly and reduce size if it is during â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Direct Compressionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. of a larger size to prevent segregation.

Problems and remedies for tablet coating Blistering Definition: It is local detachment of film from the substrate forming blister.

Reason: Entrapment of gases in or underneath the film due to overheating either during spraying or at the end of the coating run.

THE CAUSE AND REMEDY OF BLISTERING Sr. No.

CAUSE

REMEDY

1.

Effect of temperature on the strength, elasticity Use mild and adhesion of the film. condition.

drying

Chipping Definition: It is defect where the film becomes chipped and dented, usually at the edges of the tablet.

Reason: Decrease in fluidizing air or speed of rotation of the drum in pan coating.

THE CAUSE AND REMEDY OF CHIPPING Sr. No. 1.

CAUSE

REMEDY

High degree of attrition associated with the coating Increase hardness of the film by increasing the molecular weight grade process. of polymer.

Cratering Definition: It is defect of film coating whereby volcanic-like craters appears exposing the tablet surface.

Reason: The coating solution penetrates the surface of the tablet, often at the crown where the surface is more porous, causing localized disintegration of the core and disruption of the coating.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF CRATERING

Sr. No.

CAUSES Inefficient drying.

REMEDIES

1.

Use efficient conditions.

and

optimum

drying

2.

Higher rate of application of Increase viscosity of coating solution to coating solution. decrease spray application rate.

Picking Definition: It is defect where isolated areas of film are pulled away from the surface when the tablet sticks together and then part.

Reason: Conditions similar to cratering that produces an overly wet tablet bed where adjacent tablets can stick together and then break apart.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF PICKING Sr.

CAUSE

REMEDY

1.

Inefficient drying.

Use optimum and efficient drying conditions or increase the inlet air temperature.

2.

Higher rate of Decrease the rater of application of coating application of coating solution by increasing viscosity of coating solution solution.

No.

Pitting Definition: It is defect whereby pits occur in the surface of a tablet core without any visible disruption of the film coating.

Reason: Temperature of the tablet core is greater than the melting point of the materials used in the tablet formulation.

THE CAUSE AND REMEDY OF PITTING Sr. No.

CAUSE

REMEDY

1.

Inappropriate Dispensing with preheating procedures at the drying (inlet air ) initiation of coating and modifying the drying (inlet temperature air) temperature such that the temperature of the tablet core is not greater than the melting point of the batch of additives used.

Blooming Definition: It is defect where coating becomes dull immediately or after prolonged storage at high temperatures.

Reason: It is due to collection on the surface of low molecular weight ingredients included in the coating formulation. In most circumstances the ingredient will be plasticizer.

THE CAUSE AND REMEDY OF BLOOMING Sr. CAUSE No. 1.

REMEDY

High concentration and low Decrease plasticizer concentration and molecular weight of plasticizer. increase molecular weight of plasticizer.

Colour variation Definition: A defect which involves variation in colour of the film.

Reason: Alteration of the frequency and duration of appearance of tablets in the spray zone or the size/shape of the spray zone.

THE CAUSE AND REMEDY OF COLOUR VARIATION Sr. No.

CAUSE

REMEDY

1.

Improper mixing, uneven spray pattern, insufficient coating, migration of soluble dyesplasticizers and other additives during drying.

Go for geometric mixing, reformulation with different plasticizers and additives or use mild drying conditions.

Orange peel/Roughness Definition: It is surface defect resulting in the film being rough and nonglossy.

Appearance is similar to that of an orange.

Reason: Inadequate spreading of the coating solution before drying.

THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF ORANGE PEEL/ROUGHNESS Sr. No.

CAUSES

REMEDIES

1.

Rapid Drying

Use mild drying conditions

2.

High viscosity

solution Use additional solvents to decrease viscosity of solution.

Cracking/Splitting Definition: It is defect in which the film either cracks across the crown of the tablet (cracking) or splits around the edges of the tablet (Splitting).

Reason: Internal stress in the film exceeds tensile strength of the film.

THE CAUSE AND REMEDY OF CRACKING/SPLITTING Sr. No.

CAUSE

REMEDY

1.

Use of higher Use lower molecular weight polymers or molecular weight polymeric blends. Also adjust plasticizer type polymers or and concentration. polymeric blends.

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