Inequality in rural sectors
The impact of globalization has become an accelerator of processes with influences from economic spheres to orders and social practices of daily life. In response to globalization, certain roles in society have declined due to regulatory insufficiencies. Contributing to minimized inequities in social sectors with less influence, inhabitants, and capital. The growing component of inequalities continues to increase, leaving the peasant groups vulnerable. While this behavior continues to be justified as attention to sectors with greater economic contribution and percentage of housing.
Social inequality must be understood as a situation in groups that find themselves in or receive unfavorable circumstances, treatment, and goods compared to the rest of the population or environment in which they find themselves 4 To understand why this situation has been dragged over time to the present, we must point out a historical context initiated from the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. The centuries after this phenomenon, between the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century, mass migrations from rural to urban areas occurred. Before this, not even half of the population lived in urban areas (figure 1).5
4.Oxfam. "Desigualdad social: ejemplos en la vida cotidiana." Oxfam Intermón. August 7, 2022. https://blog.oxfamintermon.org/desigualdad-social-ejemplos-en-la-vida-cotidiana/ 5 Matías Busso, Juan P. Chauvin, and Nicolás L. Herrera. "¿Qué factores impulsan la migración rural en América Latina y el Caribe?" BID: Mejorando ideas. Last modified November 23, 2021. https://blogs.iadb.org/ideas-quecuentan/es/que-factores-impulsan-la-migracion-rural-en-america-latina-y-el-caribe/
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Figure 1. Rural and urban population through the years, 2013.
However, the exoduses were not entirely the initiative of individuals; they focus on forced motives due to environmental disasters, armed combat, and labor recruitment.6 Together with the phenomena, programs were developed in favor of initiatives in industrialization and urbanization. Displacements began from local to continental territories. Resulting in jobs mostly concentrated in: "industrial jobs, hotels, restaurants, and domestic service" (Portes, 1998).7 This historical framework of contemporary migrations indicates a development in the economic sphere, while in social spheres it goes backward
In the new search and territorial organization from the countryside to the city, territorial limits were determined. Provoking the genesis of the new dividing and transitional zone between rural and urban, named as a suburb. The suburb has some physical particularities about its rural
6 Matías Busso, Juan P. Chauvin, and Nicolás…
7 Jorge Martínez, Alejandro Canales, Carolina Stefoni, and Daniela Vono. "América Latina y el Caribe: migración internacional, derechos humanos y desarrollo." edited by Jorge Martínez. Santiago De Chile: Publicación de las Naciones Unidas (2008) :19-39.
https://news.https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/2535/S2008126.pdf?sequence=1un.org/es/story/20 20/01/1468241
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edge, causing friction and inequality between sectors. Given the majority percentage of housing in cities, an expansion plan is made, which starts from the very center of the city (urban area), until reaching wild spaces (rural areas) (figure 2) 8
Figure 2 Urban to rural land distribution, 2011.
Demonstrating that the city and its surroundings always attend to growth, while the field lives subject to earthly subtractions. Another factor that shows the use of urban areas towards the rural has been shared in global communications from the UN, who states that these lands were not only rural land; In addition, they were used to produce crops, tubers, vegetables, and offspring of species such as cattle.9 With this to the second point of disparity, from a subsistence area of 8.IBISSTUDIO."¿Qué es el desarrollo urbano y cómo afecta en áreas rurales?". IBISSTUDIO: Ingeniería Civil, LiDAR. Last modified, 2016. https://acicorporation.com/espanol/que-es-el-desarrollo-urbano-y-como-afecta-enareas-rurales/ 9.William L. Swing, "Migración: Yendo del campo a la ciudad por elección." OIM: ONU benefica para todos. Last modified October 16, 2017. https://www.iom.int/es/news/migracion-yendo-del-campo-la-ciudad-por-eleccion
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peasant populations. Demonstrating that the city and its surroundings always attend to growth, while the countryside lives subject to land subtractions. Another factor that shows the use of urban areas towards the rural is how the land that was fertile for planting, today is a deposit for tons of garbage. This has been shared in global communications from the UN (United Nations), which states that these lands were not only inhabited land; In addition, they were used to produce crops, tubers, vegetables, and young species such as cattle.10 With this to the thirdpoint of disparity, from a field of subsistence of peasant populations.
As mentioned above, these rural groups have a greater dependence on natural resources that are being appropriated by other sectors. This factor also affects their monetary status, since they depend on the product of the land (agriculture), not only for their own or community consumption but also to sell surplus production and obtain profits. Taking us to our third factor of the city against the countryside, with the rural exposure to a market for which it was not prepared and still presents inequity of opportunity in positioning (figure 3). Farmers with small businesses face viability conflicts due to a highly competitive production and export market.11
10.William L. Swing, "Migración: Yendo
11.Sonia E. Rojas, "An unlevel playfield: Rural social factors in detriment of the Colombian peasantry." Escuela Militar de Cadetes "General José María Córdova". Revista Científica General José María Córdova (2020): 884-904 https://www.redalyc.org/journal/4762/476268282008/html/
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Figure 3. Effects of inequality in smaller-scale agricultural markets, 2012.
The lack of sectoral policies and reforms has maintained and repeated historical trends such as migration. Due to scarce job opportunities in rural areas, displacements to the city are pushed and family compositions begin to break down since the younger population is the one that pays for the land. The rural sectors are left with a greater aged population, lost in labor and the cultural identity of the peasant lifestyle. What makes us emphasize that when these factors are affected in the identity of the communities and peasant practices, our cultural roots also suffer a totalitarian population deconstruction.12 The lack of cultural, perceptive, and natural recognition (figure 4) of our rural lands as alive and capable of generating capital, tourist attraction, and ties social, leads us to a sectoral rejection.
12.UNESCO. Cultura: futuro urbano; informe mundial sobre la cultura para el desarrollo urbano sostenible. UNESCO,2016, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000248920.
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Figure 4. Key components of rural landscape, 2018.
This, in addition to being contradictory for many territories in which the peasants show their historical and socio-cultural heritage, frames a strategic resource conflict in the face of the creation of "inclusive, creative, and sustainable" spaces.13 These factors are not justified in declaring the rural sector as a victim, but rather as an opportunity to regulate equity and celebrate cultural diversity. However, to understand the impetus in the line of research towards the rural sector and its identity components, we must focus on the collective of the sector and the individual
13.Alba-Maldonado,Jose."Identidadculturalcampesina,entrelaexclusión,laprotestasocialylasnuevas tecnologías.RevistaCriterioLibreJurídico"(Proyectofindecarrera,UniversidadPedagógicayTecnológicade Colombia, 20 de diciembre de 2014).https://revistas.unilibre.edu.co/index.php/criteriojuridico/article/view/653/4627
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of the: peasant. The peasant sector comprises great labyrinths of understanding, beginning with its definition of the word "peasant." If we were to seek a concrete answer or at least a majority understanding, we would fall into a debate. Throughout history, different schools of thought have advocated assimilating the role of this class or social sector
The peasant essence begins in the Middle Ages as a response to a need and an explicit division of labor in the fields. The relationship between the feudal system and vassals intensified in agricultural systems until formalizing the denomination of agrarian workers or "peasants". These workers were lower in the social hierarchy (figure 5), seen as villagers in charge of paying taxes and a certain relative autonomy granted over land; in the same way, having to satisfy their superiors.
Figure 5. Peasant class in the social hierarchy, 2013.
Historically, two classic positions drive the formalized debate of the 20th century toward the definition of this group. The Russian Lenin leans towards a denomination of a non-
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homogeneous social class that, regardless of its composition, seeks profit as a response to capitalism.14 Unlike his compatriot Chayanov, who pushes us towards the observation of a land worker based on satisfying the needs of his family.11 Just as there was an inferior and classic look towards the peasants, the opposite also happened: the idealization of life in the countryside. This concept is named: bucolic and comes from the Greco-Latin world. This emerges as an association of the rural region as a pure, serene space, far from the surrounding city of vices and bustle.15
Becoming an inspiration for literary and artistic manifestations. Where the main character shows a noble and pastoral moral character of work. These and countless categorizations and postulates, even with their similarities, continue with multiple understandings mostly tied to the role that the sector plays in each time and space of capital systems. This aspect shows that the peasant cannot be separated from the historical context. Each period transforms and redefines the group according to its capital accumulations and lifestyles.
Culturally, the peasant is distinguished by practices and acknowledgments with themselves, their family, neighbors, and their rural environment (figure 6).
14.Alba-Maldonado, Jose. "Identidad cultural...
15.Pérez-Porto, Julián, and Ana Gardey. "Definición de bucólico." Last modified , 2012. https://definicion.de/bucolico/
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Figure 6. Characteristics of the rural individual, 2014.
For them, the collective is the basis and order of identity. The identity of agriculture is expressed as an ancestral link, either with its descendants from the area or belonging to others.16 The heritage is not only carried as pride but rather the generations pass on their experiences, knowledge,and landsthat sustain thebelonging. Thesecommunitiesdid not begin with formalized studies for the development of their work. Based on necessity, they were developed, through practices and errors that led to shared techniques and knowledge. The key to the peasantry lies in 16. ICANH. Elementos para la conceptualización...
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practices and errors that led to shared techniques and knowledge. The key to the peasantry lies in the conscience concerning the land, they do not push aggressive developments or contrary to nature; they mimic natural processes.
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Revealed Resistances: From the Ideological Currents of the Post Peasantry
The study of peasant currents is characterized by the comprehensive search of the rural sector to an extension of our changing contemporary society. However, the research line increases its importance because the social disciplines have not achieved a proven verdict.17 The peasantry was a sector of great importance and contribution that reached a central axis in pre-industrial societies. But the national phenomenon of Industrialization marked a transformative post-peasant division from rural to urban societies. After the phenomenon, different lines of thought arose that elucidated predicting the probabilities of the future peasant. Either the sector would remain united asapersistentcollectivetocapitalismor,onthecontrary,theywouldbeabsorbedbythemercantile system.
Mexican ethnologist and social anthropologist, Arturo Warman identifies five schools of thought on the peasant and agrarian sector: the Anthropological School, the Neoclassical School, theMarxist perspective, RussianPopulism, andtheDependencyTheory.18 Within theschools, two main ideological currents stand out, resulting in a critical analysis of the peasant problem. First presenting the Neo-populist school led by Aleksandr Chayánov (figure 7), known as the Chayanovista or peasant current, and second, the Marxist school led by Vladimir Ilʹich (alias Lenin) (figure 8), known as the Leninist or de-peasant current.19
17.Martínez-Saldaña, Tomás. "Teoría del campesinado contextualizada en la historia de México." Academia. Accessed September 2, 2022.
https://www.academia.edu/12821769/Teor%C3%ADa_del_campesinado_contextualizada_en_la_historia_de_M%C 3%A9
18.Tapella, Esteban. "Globalización y Transformación de la Estructura Social Agraria en Argentina: ¿Nuevas Ruralidades, Nuevas Políticas?." Academia. Accessed September 2, 2022.
https://www.academia.edu/12821769/Teor%C3%ADa_del_campesinado_contextualizada_en_la_historia_de_M%C 3%A9
19.Tapella, Esteban. "Globalización y Transformación...
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Figure 7. Notable Russian agrarian economist, Aleksandr Chayanov, 1917.
Figure
Our first peasant current, supported by the Russian agrarian economist Chayanov, affirms the permanence and expansion of the peasant due to the strength of his collective. It is this particularity of community force that keeps them alive before capitalist currents. For Chayanov to conclude and support this premise, it should be mentioned that in his time (1860) and native country, capitalism was adopted towards agriculture. Given that the intellectuals of that time thought that a future based on agriculture and complementary activities was possible.20 Under this line of thought, the Neo-populist school was created as a defender of the peasantry. As a leader, Chayanoy gave rise to the understanding of community union among the peasants, realizing the 20.Rahman, Atiur. Peasants and Classes: A Study in Differentiation in Bangladesh. London: Oxford University Press, 1986.
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8. Former Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union, Vladimir Ilʹich., 1920.
need to develop a theory of the peasant economy and its particulars. Well, the sector presented unusual characteristics to the classical economies of that time:
(1) production decisions did not respond to principles of maximizing profits such as corporate agriculture, (2) the use of family labor is prioritized over hiring wage earners, and (3) production seeks to meet the needs of own consumption (single family income).21
The study frames how the family composition becomes the structure of the peasantry. Based on the family satisfying its own needs, production and consumption take place. While in the face of economic need they continue to rely on agricultural production and sometimes secondaryworkofhandicraftsorsurplus marketing.Tiedto this,"peasant rationality" isexplained. Given the need for family self-sufficiency, the peasant worked until he reached what was necessary, even at the cost of excesses or labor exploitation. Similarly, family composition/size is explained as a key factor in the amount of production and distribution of natural resources.22 As a second decampesinist theory we have a current based on Marxism, led by the Former Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union, Vladimir Ilʹich (alias Lenin). The Leninist perspective poses the opposite of the Chayanovista, affirming the disappearance of the peasant as a culture and economy in the face of capitalist development. To such an extent that the peasant at some point will be forced to join the market and become just another proletariat. Marxism recognizes the peasant as a pre-capitalist society and how capitalism with its different factors of production, wage labor, and other factors, has pushed the "disintegration of the peasant."23
21. Netting, Robert. Smallholders, Householders. Farm Families and the Ecology of Intensive, Sustainable Agriculture. California: California: Stanford University Press, 1933. 22. Archetti, Eduardo P. Campesinado y estructuras agrarias en América latina. Vol. 18. Paraguay: Revista paraguaya de sociología, 1981. 23. Marx, Karl. "Capital A Critique of Political Economy." In The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole, edited by Friedrich Engels, Vol. 3. New York: International Publishers, NY, 1894.
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Lenin focuses the current on all the ambiguous factors of the peasantry resulting in an analysis of contradictory socio-economic relations. Conditions inherent to capitalism such as: "Competition, struggle for economic independence and acquisition of more profitable land; the concentrationofproductioninthehandsofaminorityasaconsequenceofhavingforcedamajority to become proletarians."24 The Leninists, unlike other currents, in addition to pointing out the negative role of capitalism in the rural sector, emphasize how differentiations of power are created within the same rural relations (figure 9).
Figure 9. Lenin’s two lines model of the spread of capitalism in agriculture,2015.
Rural relations.
24. Shanin, Teodor. Definingpeasants: essays concerning rural societies, expolary economies, and learning from them in the contemporary world. Osford: Department of Sociology, University of Manchester, 1990. https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19911886845.
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Inthisruralistsocialclass,weseeinadescendingway,fromtheruralbourgeois,themiddle peasant, and the salaried peasant. The wealthy peasants (bourgeois) owners of land and with mercantile integration together with the peasants without their own land and low income, are the most common and in friction. While the middle-class peasant mixes both classes and is the one who creates resistance to the decomposition of thesector. For Lenin this resistance will end as they end up choosing or being forced to remain in the other two classes. The debate between the Chayanovists and the Leninists raises an ambiguous space of understanding, interpretation, and feeling. The main theme of the peasant current supports the line of thought based on this research. Punctually highlighting the success factor of the peasant sectors, their union, their community, and the collective. Sustaining that part of the existing formula practiced by this sector works, while the rest of the equation is not concrete or entirely ideal. First, because its postulates are developed as a micro theory; the investigated sector shows demographic characteristics tied to the site and to capitalist policies that supported agriculture. capitalists focused on other sectors, could easily decline.25 Second, the theory defines the peasant only with a family circumstance where the members work for their own needs, contrary to our current situation where most of the peasant sectors no longer have this workforce of their relatives or descendants. The third decadent point, shared by the anthropologist and sociologist Eduardo P. Archetti, is the investigative lack of the peasant sector in the face of external factors, such as the relationship between peasants with agronomic practices and non-agronomists, access, organization, and land tenure, relationship and physical distance with the markets.26 Even with the deficient factors, Chayanov postulates the capacity for reproduction and economic persistence without the need to transform the peasant
25. Archetti, Eduardo P. Campesinado y estructuras... 26. Archetti, Eduardo P. Campesinado y estructuras...
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collective.11 This is when the second current, the Leninists, debate all the unknowns that the Chayanovists could not define. Exposing how the same peasantry is excluded from the current market and within its community there are even more social divisions of internal economic competition. The only criticism that is made of this current is about the time it will take to see the peasant disintegration. The questioning is covered by the British sociologist Teodor Shanin in his writings: Defining Peasants, exemplifying Latin American cases such as Mexico of 1910 and 1970 that did not present statistics descending from the peasantry, and in other countries such as Brazil there was an ascendancy towards the population that returned to the countryside.27 None of these positions has been rejected or proven. The debate has passed into the background ideologically; some continue to highlight the community family union of the peasantry, while others only seek to clarify the role before capitalism. For this research, awareness is made that there are no established parameters of a homogeneous society towards the peasantry, but two basic factors are identified before the ideological currents. First, it is a factor of resistance of the peasant against the capitalist relations of the market. Under the suspicion of a certain fear of the individualization of the group that has kept them existing and with certain self-sufficiency. This resistance has deprived them of making their own space in the market without having to become wage earners. Second, we have a factor of the market towards the peasant. Where knowledge and equitable opportunity in capital processes are not being given to small producers and agricultural merchants due to mass production, less labor, and power relations. Concluding that both theories show the causes and effects of the current situation. Proposing how these deficiencies of internal and external management towards the peasant sector can result in an integrated, profitable, identity and collaborative market.
27. Archetti, Eduardo P. Campesinado y estructuras...
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The Threshold of Ruralia: Spreading Sustainable Practices from the Land
The investigations of rural environments tend to lean towards objectives and concepts of rural geography. Covering from the sociocultural and economic evolution of ruralia to the dynamics of agroecological transformation in search of a historical and current understanding of agrarian combinations. In the first instance known from the natural environment, then the mental and physical relationship of the rural inhabitants in the environment and therefore the transformations of this group at the territorial level. As a product of these mutations, we can observe different phenomena such as: "demographic changes, climatic oscillations, social conflicts, agrotechnical innovations, among others."28
Captured in a territorial dimension, the peasants come from a rural area with which they have a close sentimental relationship. For this research, the peasant populations are not being understood as an explicit residential denomination ofthecountryside, but as aparticularlifestyle.29 This group develops a link with the surroundings, through the identification and appreciation of the identity biological references of the environment. Biological referents are understood as the physical system of geography. They provide wealth and ecological resources, as well as distinctive natural boundaries such as mountain ranges, hills, and rivers. These natural systems provide ecosystems for plant and animal biodiversity. Faced with this set of natural resources and their potential as diversity and functionality of soils, rural societies have taken advantage of the territory to carry out activities and communities of diverse agro accumulation. Within these communities, agronomist work stands out, in the same way, there are other rural groups of the peasantry such as 28.Errazuriz, María C. "La Geografía Rural: Tendencias y perspectivas." Cuadernos de Geografía V, no. 1 (1999): 16. 29.ICANH. <Elementos para la conceptualización de lo “campesino” en Colombia, Insumo para la inclusión del campesinado en el Censo DANE 2017>(Documento técnico elaborado por el ICANH, febrero de 2017). https://www.dejusticia.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Concepto-t%C3%A9cnico-del-Instituto-Colombiano-deAntropolog%C3%ADa-e-Historia-ICANH.pdf
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artisans and miners.
Rural groups dedicated to agriculture productively generate various jobs using the land to plow, sow, cultivate, harvest and breed.30 Within their knowledge they address harvest periods, reproductive cycles, order, and maintenance of vegetation and animals. In addition to purchases and sales of seeds, animals, and tools. For all these productive tasks to be possible, the peasants must carry out some transformations in the field. Starting from the identification of the soil, the size of the plot, and the type of crop. Knowledge of the morphology of the land is important, with thistheagriculturalexploitationthatcanbedoneis determined.Thelandcan bea latifundio(figure 10), known as extensive land for cultivation that belongs to the same owner or business group. On the contrary, the land or small parcels are known as smallholdings, divided among several owners (figure 11)
Figure 10. Extension of latifundio land,2014.
Figure 11. Extension of smallholdings land, 2014.
30.COIARM. <El Ingeniero Agrónomo, la profesión." Colegio Oficial de Ingenieros Agronomos de la Region de Murcia. Last modified September 9, 2022> https://coiam.es/index.php/profesion/109-actividades-profesionales-delingeniero-agronomo.
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Depending on the identified dimensions of the land, the agricultural extension to be carried out will be known, named polyculture or monoculture. Polyculture is focused on a single product; this practice tends to be carried out for market purposes. While monocultures concentrate on the production of several crops, usually carried out by one farmer. “Polyculture occurs above all in traditional societies, whose farmers produce for their supply, marketing the surpluses.”31 Having determined the land and the type of agricultural extension that can be carried out on it, we can move on to the cultivation process in the land.
First, a land clearing is carried out against weeds that can harm the work on the land and then the cultivation. The second step is to fertilize the soil to obtain an appropriate substrate that feeds the roots and generates ideal germination. Once the adequate substrate and the ideal location for the crop are guaranteed, it can be sown.32 The sowing method for crops can be manual or mechanical, everything will depend on the resources that the worker has. Given the interest of this research in traditional rural agricultural societies, we will focus on manual sowing. It consists of depositing seeds in the place where the crop will complete its production cycle. Therefore, the seeds must be properly spaced as required by the crop. When cultivating directly on the ground, certain aspects must be taken care of, such as the soil with which it will be covered, lack or excess of humidity, and germination percentages.33 Depending on the crop and considering its sowing time, point of maturity or germination, and exact time of collection is passed to the harvest. In the harvest it happens the same as in the sowing, it can be both a manual process and a machine one.
31. Munton, Morgan. "Geografía Agrícola." Omega, Barcelona, 1975. Plans-Derruau y otros: Geografía Física. Geografía Humana,EUNSA, Pamplona, 1993.
32.Larrosa, Arnal. "Cómo preparar el campo para el proceso de siembra." LARROSA. Last modified February 12, 2018. Accessed September 9, 2022. https://www.larrosa-arnal.com/blog/preparar-campo-proceso-siembra/.
33.Linzaga Elizalde, Carmen, Yolanda Escalante, and Evaristo Carreño Román. "FORMAS DE Preparar el terreno de siembra para obtener buenas." Colegio Superior Agropecuario del Estado de Guerrero. Revista Alternativa. Volumen 5, número 13, July 2007., 2-6 https://uniprofesoraalba.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/siembra.pdf
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The manual process is used for crops that require greater care in harvesting, such as fruits, cereal grasses, and vegetables (figure 12).
Figure 12. Past and present cropping calendar, 2019.
Mechanical processes tend to be used in large-scale industrial production. As for harvest time, they can vary in four circumstances. In cases such as crops of leaves, roots, or stems, the time of harvest is before the flowering of the plant. In the case of the fruits, their harvest is when they are ripe, and others are halfway through, so they continue their maturation in the post-harvest. Other fruits must be harvested at maturity for consumption. Lastly, we find the harvest of seeds such as cocoa, coffee, or cereals.34
34.Finca y Campo. Last modified September 9, 2022. http://www.fincaycampo.com/2015/08/cosecha-de-productosagricolas/#:~:text=La%20cosecha%20es%20la%20labor,define%20el%20producto%20a%20obtener.
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At the end of the harvest, post-harvest begins to preserve the fruits or products of the crop in good condition. This process is essential and includes tasks from selection, classification, bagging, and transportation. Post-harvest losses of quantity and quality occur in large quantities for various physical, physiological, and pathological reasons.35 “Globally itis estimated that losses amount to 25% of the total harvest. This means that a quarter of what is produced in the field does not reach the consumer or arrives in poor condition.”36 If unsustainable trends in food production continue, the world will require a 70% increase in agricultural yields by 2050 With the world population expected to reach 9.8 million by 2050 (figure 13), reducing inefficiencies associated with post-harvest losses will be critical to feeding the population of the future.37
35.Torres, Lucía, Fabián Montesdeoca, and Jorge Andrade-Piedra. "Inventario de Tecnologías de Información Para el Cultivo de Papa en Ecuador." Instituto Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP). Last modified April, 2011. https://cipotato.org/papaenecuador/cosecha-y-poscosecha/ 36.Milton, Sola. Selección y almacenamiento de semilla de papa. En: Memorias del I Curso internacional sobre producción de semilla de papa. (Quito: Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, 1978), 154-167. 37.Sizam, Miguel, and Valérie Onffroy de Vérèz. El sector agrícola en la integración económica regional: Experiencias comparadas de América Latina y la Unión Europea. Santiago De Chile: Naciones Unidas, 2000. https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/publication/files/4424/S2000935_es.pdf.
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Figure 13. Global Population Growth and Percent of Growth by Region 2010-2050, 2015.
Due to harvest and post-harvest losses, in addition to other factors such as the possibility of extension of cultivation according to the terrain and resources in manual or mechanical labor, the agrarian peasants maintain their productions within certain parameters. The activity resulting from their services and knowledge has allowed this rural group to survive in the face of adversity; supported their consumption and the reproduction of goods, raw materials, and food. Usually, the rural land worker produces what he needs and, in some cases, uses the surplus to share with neighbors or market them. Giving a certain family and community self-sufficiency based on local and precise responses to a certain economic and social situation, of microeconomics. Although
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this indicates a positive aspect towards the survival of rural groups, it also continues to signify an interdependence between population sectors. Firstly, rural spaces provide raw materials and food for the entire population, regardless of the housing sector. However, the rural sector can produce healthier smallholdings, but on a consumption scale for its environment. While the latifundium productions commercialized in the industry do not always carry the most organic practices or the punctual and manual attention of the peasantry. Even with the practices, benefits, and shortcomings of both, high rates of food losses are shown worldwide (figure 14).
Figure 14. Food losses worldwide.
“Later, when the problems of the market and marketing become the most important, there is a slide towards this problem. At the same time, with agricultural modernization and the massive incorporation of capital in the production units in its development.”38 Pushing a growing need to develop alternative techniques to reduce losses that, in turn, comply with food security. Solutions that continue to provide quality food, exercised with sustainable practices and at reasonable
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prices.39 Given the problems in crop production and limitations presented in current processes, the aim is to use an architectural proposal that supplies the quantitative and qualitative programmatic need for regulation in agricultural yields. For these agricultural problems, there are two ways to the solution, either the arable land area is expanded, or the yields (qualitative and quantitative) of the crops are maximized.40 The first option is complicated by the limitations and uses of land, however, the second solution is viable for a rate of agricultural growth and integration of sectors through modern agronomy such as agrobiotechnology.
38."Claves para reducir las pérdidas poscosecha." DECCO:Naturally Postharvest. Last modified May 2, 2019. https://www.deccoiberica.es/claves-para-reducir-las-perdidas-poscosecha/.
39.Silva, George. "Feeding the world in 2050 and beyond – Part 1: Productivity challenges." Michigan State University Extension. Last modified December 3, 2018. Accessed September 9, 2022. https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/feeding-the-world-in-2050-and-beyond-part-1.
40. Córdova-Albores, Liliana C. "Licenciatura en Agrobiotecnología." Universidad de Guadalajara: Red Universitaria de Jalisco. Last accessed September 17, 2022. http://www.cusur.udg.mx/es/licenciatura-en-agrobiotecnologia
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The Advent of Agrotechnologies: Between Transitions and Market Integrations
Trade in agricultural products represents a fundamental market for economic activity and global food supply. Everything related to agriculture is based on man's modifications to his environment, always to make the best use of the soil. The products of that soil become of great importance for the development of markets according to the variations of external or internal supply and demandof the territories.41 Themarket becomesthe contextofplanning andagronomic production ordering, regardless of its primary method of production. Due to the basic need for food, raw materials, energy, and employment, trading in this market is and will continue to be essential. However, the agricultural market faces new production uncertainties due to the inherent risks of agriculture and, in addition, population growth and drift.42
Agricultural markets comprise a space, both virtual and face-to-face, for the sale and purchase of agricultural goods and services. Explicitly, this market agriculture is the recognition of cultivation as a business and not as personal consumption. Therefore, priority is given to maximizing production in search of a higher profit margin. To achieve this goal of profitability, producers try to make changes and improvements that allow them to reduce expenses and increase their amount of production at harvest. Due to this, the agricultural markets tend to lean commercially on the automation of processes through machinery and biological technologies.43 This specialization of agriculture becomes the most efficient way of quantitative production.Ontheotherhand,theagriculturalmarketalsoincludesagriculturebasedontraditional
41. <Uso y Adecuación de Tierras: Mercados Agropecuarios> Unidad de Planificación Rural Agropecuaria. Last accessed September 17, 2022. https://upra.gov.co/uso-y-adecuacion-de-tierras/mercados-agropecuarios.
42. <CDE-FAO Perspectivas Agrícolas 2020-2029> OECD Library. Last modified September 17, 2022.
43. Aida, Mercado. "Como sacarles beneficios a tus cultivos con agricultura de mercado." Lama: Sistemas de filtrado. Last modified January 31, 2022. https://www.lamastore.es/blog/agricultura-de-mercado/.
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methods. Although it tends to be associated with a subsistence method for consumer satisfaction, it also encompasses smaller-scale commercial producers. The particularities of traditional production methods start from their location mostly in less developed countries that need more In Latin America and the Caribbean, the agri-food sector has shown transcendental importance in its economicdevelopment. Thesecountries havethe wealthofnatural resources in alarge partoftheir regions that show the characteristic bases of our modern societies that contribute weight to the GDP and exports of the region.44 Within the countries, Puerto Rico will be chosen as the territory of examination. and intervention. Puerto Rico is an island located in a privileged climatic zone of theCaribbean.Intheory,thisenablesdiversecropproductionthroughouttheyear.TheDepartment ofAgriculture andthePlanning BoardoftheGovernmentofPuertoRicolist awiderangeofnative crops and their production capacity. From dried and fleshy fruits, root vegetables, herbaceous plants, vegetables, and tubers (figure 15).
Figure 15 Variety of crops produced in Puerto Rico, 2017.
In addition, the Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture (in 2017) has highlighted economic opportunities in local products such as vegetables andnuts. Vegetables showedan internal demand
44. Molina, Elda. "La agricultura en países subdesarrollados. Particularidades de su financiamiento." 1-7. Habana: Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales (CLACSO), 2015. "http://biblioteca.clacso.edu.ar/Cuba/cieiuh/20150908010537/Financiamientoagricultura.pdf”.
42
for consumption triple the local production. While coffee and cocoa showed high demand at the exportlevel, betting ona high-quality yieldworldwidewith thecapacityforhigherprices abroad.45 Even with the diversified production throughout Puerto Rico, however, the production problem is concentrated towards the size of the island and certain terrestrial concentrations of value and agricultural production. At the island level, we can identify several areas of agricultural value (figure 16).46
Figure 16. Areas of agricultural value in Puerto Rico, 2016.
The land and agricultural concentrations are made up of farms. According to the latest results of the 2018 Census of Agriculture (carried out every 5 years), the number of farms and the total area of the Island experienced a great decrease. Within farms and cultivated land in 2018, Puerto Rico had 8,230 farms and reduced by 37.5% since the 2012 Census (figure 17).47
45. "La abundante cosecha del trópico isleño." Puerto Rico Farm Credit (September 17, 2022). https://prfarmcredit.com/la-abundante-cosecha-del-tropico-isleno/.
46. "Guía Rápida al Plan de Uso de Terrenos de Puerto Rico." Junta de Planificacion. Last modified December, 2016. https://gis.jp.pr.gov/PUT2015/Gu%C3%ADa%20Plan%20de%20Uso%20de%20Terrenos%202016.pdf.
43
Figure 17. Size reduction of farms in Puerto Rico, 2018.
These problems are intensified in a country like Puerto Rico with 85% dependency on food imports; by losing land it will depend even more on foreigners. In addition, the island's production is exposed to external post-harvest factors and environmental changes that influence losses. Due to these needs, modern trends have emerged toward agronomic practices that apply technology to modify and improve agri-food systems. In Puerto Rico, there is recognition and application of these practices through agrobiotechnology (figure 18).
47. "Agricultura de Puerto Rico: Resultados del Censo de Agricultura de 2018." USDA: Census of Agriculture. Last modified, 2018. https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Highlights/2020/census_puertorico_spanish.pdf.
44
Figure 18. Agricultural biotechnology industry in Puerto Rico, 2016.
Agrobiotechnology has applications such as: "genetic improvement, micropropagation of plants, diagnosis of pests and diseases, conservation of biodiversity and agrifood bioprocesses."48
In some cases, agrobiotechnology centers, in addition to researching solutions, share biological findings with the public by way of teaching. In addition, certain centers make and sell treatment products that are respectful and coupled to different families of crops and growth phases.
Within the industrial agrobiotechnology sector, PRABIA stands out as Puerto Rico Agricultural Biotechnology Industry Association. A non-profit association that seeks to strengthen the ecosystem of agricultural biotechnology through crops and scientific and agronomic 48.Córdova-Albores, Liliana C. "Licenciatura en Agrobiotecnología." Universidad de Guadalajara: Red Universitaria de Jalisco. Last accessed September 17, 2022. http://www.cusur.udg.mx/es/licenciatura-enagrobiotecnologia.
45
development programs.49 This association has seven centers in the southern region. PRABIA has partnered with academic and research centers such as the Center for Teaching and Research in Biotechnology and Agrobiotechnology (CEIBA) of the PUCPR of Ponce and the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) of the UPR of Mayagüez. Through an in-depth study on the economic impact of the industry entitled "Economic impact of the Agricultural Biotechnology sector", the role of this association and its benefits to the Island were covered. Among the findings of the report, three main ones are presented. First PRABIA companies contributed $80.2 million to the local economy (figure). Second, there was a volume of 134.0 million in economic activity. Third, there was a return on investment of 5.36 for each dollar given to PRABIA.50 Having this knowledge of the necessity, concepts, techniques, and possibilities of the agricultural market, this research seeks to compact all the factors in a single diversified entity of contributions, in what would be: " Agritecture: Integrated Interventions for Agronomy Production
". Combined agronomy and biotechnology with architecture can generate greater attention, knowledge, and crop production in rural areas. In this way, both sectors would benefit and integrate, the rural providing the land and cultivation, while the urban would provide techniques and machinery. This would be possible through an architectural proposal for a research and production center based on the relationship between agronomy and biotechnology. Composed of a general program of laboratories and industrial planting systems. In search of facing the challenge between conserving the advantages of industrial crops and including a sustainable model as traditional farming models do.51 For investigative and productive punctuality, a family of crops
49. PRABIA. "Economic Impact of the Agricultural Biotechnology Sector." Puerto Rico Agricultural Biotechnology Industry Association. Last modified March 29, 2018. https://www.prabia.org/_files/ugd/815a8b_dc12d38963e340ff836de5538bfb9855.pdf.
50. PRABIA. "Economic Impact of the... 51. FAO. "Hacia una agricultura sostenible y resiliente en América Latina y el Caribe. Análisis de siete trayectorias de transformación exitosas." Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura. Last modified, 2021. https://www.fao.org/americas/prioridades/agricultura-sostenible-y-resiliente/panorama-2021/es/.
46
will be chosen, based on the highest demands mentioned above from fleshy to dry fruits (coffee and cocoa) and vegetables. (Figure 19) Figure 19. Production and comparative demand of crops, 2022.
Crop family Type of majority consumer demand
Consumption Local production Vegetables “Hortalizas” import 2,981,321 876,135 good
Guánica, Juana Diaz, Santa Isabel, Coamo & Barranquitas.
1. On the international market, very few local products are as successful as tomatoes. 2.At the island level if it represents a high purchase demand.
It would help improve the local quality of handling from harvest to postharvest.
Fruits (fleshy to dry) export 172.57 155.29 upper
Center of the island from Orocovis to Mayagüez.
1. The international market is willing to pay high prices for the highest quality grain (coffee).
2. Adequate climatic conditions for its production (above the majority producers such as the US).
With coffee, up to 100% production for local consumption could be achieved.
Given the comparative graph between the crops in demand on the Island, the family of fleshy to dry fruits is chosen. Specifically, cocoa as a crop for the proposal.
47
Quantity of demand on the island (pounds per capita) Production quality PR `
Production region in PR
Competitiveness or niche in the market
Benefit of agrobiotechnical techniques
Conclusions
The investigation began by pointing out a problem about imbalance and sectoral neglect between urban and rural. Under the observation that today a large part of tasks and activities are carried out in urban areas, for which more attention is given to services and facilities in this sector. However, the sectors outside of them, such as the rural sector, have remained, showing a sense of self-sufficiency. This peculiarity was identified as a link between the rural sector and its land and the community relations that take place in it.52
With the observation of this sectoral inequality, we move on to point out the factors that cause it. Emphasizing that this is not a new problem, but several processes accumulated by globalization and innovations since the Industrial Revolution. With this the city and the metropolis grow, the works are concentrated in other areas that are causing migrations, new territorial limits, loss of traditions, among others. Even with these factors, rural societies continued to be characterized by taking advantage of the natural resources they possess and the potential of soils for performance and diverse agricultural accumulation communities.53 The rural community continued to exercise its ancestral and pragmatic knowledge towards agricultural and agronomic activities. Inclining mostly to traditional crop productions to satisfy their family needs and if they have surpluses, market them. Through these sustainable crops that require large extensions of land and labor, a great variety of agricultural products have been diversified. However, the sector with its traditional methods faces a problem of qualitative and quantitative losses worldwide. In addition, rural sectors with agronomic value present irreversible trends in the reduction of arable land; requiring improvements in food systems to provide physical and productive supply for the current and future population.
52.Alarcón, Jorge. "Revitalización del… 53.ICANH. <Elementos para la…
50
On the other hand, the industrial sector has also used agronomic methodologies through themaximization ofproduction,improvement technologies andfocus orselectionofcropfamilies. These new agricultural trends show great economic opportunities, greater capacity for regulation and production. The recognition and application of these practices has created an emerging industry by joining the field of agronomy and biotechnology: emerging agrobiotechnology.54
Given what was presented and studied above, this research seeks to take advantage of the improvements and crop production capacity demonstrated by the trends of agrobiotechnological industries. In this way, efforts would be made to maintain a productive regulation of crop supply and reduction of losses.
51
54.Córdova-Albores, Liliana C. "Licenciatura
Agricultura de Puerto Rico: Resultados del Censo de Agricultura de 2018." USDA: Census of Agriculture. Last modified, 2018. https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Highlights/2020/census_puertorico_spanish.pdf.
Alarcón, Jorge. "Revitalización del campo”. Proyecto fin de Carrea, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2019. https://www.archdaily.co/co/926892/estos-son-los-ganadores-denuestra-convocatoria-2019-de-tesis-de-grado-en-colombia
Alba-Maldonado, Jose. "Identidad cultural campesina, entre la exclusión, la protesta social y las nuevas tecnologías.Revista Criterio Libre Jurídico"(Proyecto fin de carrera, Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, 20 de diciembre de 2014).https://revistas.unilibre.edu.co/index.php/criteriojuridico/article/view/653/4627
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Córdova-Albores, Liliana C. "Licenciatura en Agrobiotecnología." Universidad de Guadalajara: Red Universitaria de Jalisco. Last accessed September 17, 2022. http://www.cusur.udg.mx/es/licenciatura-en-agrobiotecnologia
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54
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Figure 17. USDA. (2018) "Agricultura de Puerto Rico: Resultados del Censo de Agricultura de 2018."
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