Winter 2012
The
Snow Molds Are Coming! Perennial Grassy Weed Control The Value of Education Special Inside —
2013 MTC Turfgrass Conference & Tradeshow,
January 7–8, Educational Program and Registration Form
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contents • Winter 2012 8
UPCOMING EVENT
2013 MTC Turfgrass Conference & Tradeshow, January 7–8, Educational Program and Registration Form
12 TURF TALK The Snow Molds Are Coming!
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MTC Turf News
22 TURF TIPS Perennial Grassy Weed Control… I can do this! Wait, how do I do this?
departments 6
President’s Message
7
Membership Application
28 In Tribute to Stan Zontek
26 CAREER ADVANCEMENT
29 Index of Advertisers
30 Calendar of Events
The Value of Education
30 University of MD Turf Team
MARYLAND TURFGRASS COUNCIL 12 Pressie Lane | Churchville, MD 21028 (240) 413-4312 | www.mdturfcouncil.org MTC Turf News is published quarterly for the MTC by: Leading Edge Communications, LLC 206 Bridge St. Franklin, TN 37064 615-790-3718 (phone) 615-794-4524 (fax) info@leadingedge communications.com
2012 Board of Directors PRESIDENT
Bill Patton, Sr. Turf Center Lawns Spencerville, MD 301-384-9300 (office) 301-980-3094 (cell) turfcenterlawns@yahoo.com Kevin Monaco Turf Equip & Supply Jessup, MD 20794 410-799-5575 (office) 443-250-1182 (cell) kevinmonaco@turf equipment.com
TWO-YEAR DIRECTORS
Vernon W. Cooper All States Turfgrass Consultants St. Michaels, MD 410-745-9643 (office) 443-742-6618 (cell) vernon@allstatesturf.com
Harry Kenney Agrium Advanced Technologies Ellicott City, MD 800-235-6138 (office) 410-375-6148 (cell) hkenney@agriumat.com
VICE PRESIDENT
Brian Gietka Fountain Head Country Club Hagerstown, MD 410-218-0131 briangietka@gmail.com
Lester Dubs Larchwood Landscape Co. Pasadena, MD 443-623-1745 (cell) ldubs@verizon.net
SECRETARY/TREASURER Cheryl A. Gaultney Churchville, MD 410-836-2876 (home) 410-322-8275 (cell) sandqueen10@aol.com
PAST PRESIDENT
Nick Gammill American University W. Hyattsville, MD 202-885-2340 (office) 202-498-8020 (cell) ngammill@american.edu
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Michelle LoConte Montgomery Village, MD 240-413-4312 (office) 240-597-1420 (fax) mdturfcouncil@verizon.net
THREE-YEAR DIRECTORS Rick LaNore MRW Lawns, Inc. LaPlata, MD 301-870-3411 (office) 301-609-1852 (cell) rick127928@rocketmail.com
Bill Warpinski Central Sod Farms Centreville, MD 800-866-1387 (office) 410-827-5000 (cell) billw@centralsod.com
ONE-YEAR DIRECTORS Randall Pinckney Manor Country Club Rockville, MD 301-929-1707 (office) 240-286-1989 (cell) rpinckney@mail.manorcc.org Tom Ritter Avenel Community Assn. Potomac, MD 301-299-5916 (office) 301-299-7169 (fax) tritter@avenel.net Jamie Roell Anne Arundel Co. Rec. & Parks Millersville, MD 410-222-6250 (office) 443-370-2582 (cell) rproel09@aacounty.org
Winter 2012
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From the President
See You at
Turfgrass
2013!
W
ell, this is my final chance to address you. It has been my pleasure to serve you as the president of the MTC for the last two years. While serving with the Council since August 1975, I have met many great people in our industry, and these contacts and friends have always shown me the reason why it was necessary to spend the time and energy of serving on the MTC board. Many important issues have involved all of us, while some involved just one of our member organizations, but the Council has always sprung into action to investigate and support the turfgrass professionals involved. United together, we provide a mighty voice; individually, we are just a whisper in the wind. The Council had just formed a short time before I started with Maryland Department of Agriculture. The state’s golf course superintendents and sod farmers saw a need to have an organization where we could learn from each other, where we could educate as well as receive education, and where we could show that turfgrass professionals were everywhere and were a force that touched every citizen in Maryland in one way or another. As time went on, other turf professionals — from lawn care companies, hydroseeding companies, professional grounds management and athletic fields, as well as managers from grounds units of boards of education, recreation and parks, and others — joined our association. Just a few months after I began working with the MTC, another great asset to our industry joined our ranks. The group needed someone to keep the books, take the minutes of the association and generally keep this group going on the
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MTC Turf News
right path. John Strickland convinced his daughter, Cheryl Gaultney, to help us out, and she decided to stay and is still serving as our secretary/treasurer to this day. Cheryl has always been a fabulous resource as well as a guiding light for this group. Cheryl has finally asked to step back and will officially retire after our Turfgrass 2013 conference. Please take a moment to stop by the registration desk sometime during the conference and thank Cheryl for her continued service. She will surely be missed and leaves behind shoes that will be difficult to fill with anyone as dedicated as Cheryl. If anyone is aware of someone who may be willing to serve as the secretary/ treasurer of the MTC, please contact me or any member of the board of directors. The MTC has been instrumental in so much over the years that I could fill all the pages of this issue and still run out of room. One of our greatest achievements was the expansion of the University of Maryland’s Turf Program from one turf professor working out of the equipment shed at the old Hopkins Research Farm to the state-of-the-art Turfgrass Research Facility in College Park, which is staffed by four of the most renown turfgrass researchers, teachers and Extension specialists in the country,
as well as a support staff that is also one of a kind. Unfortunately, we are all maturing and getting older. In these economic times, it will be once again up to the MTC and all its allied associations to go to the mat to keep our Turfgrass Facility and push to keep our professional staff at full force, as more and more are coming to the time in life where they are looking at retirement. In fact, if you missed the Field Day this summer, you may not have heard that Dr. Peter Dernoeden has decided to retire sometime next spring or summer. So, during “cocktail hour” at Turfgrass 2013 in the Exhibit Hall on Monday afternoon (4 p.m. to 6 p.m.), we will take the opportunity to show Pete just
how much he has meant to us all. Mark your schedule now to have a cold beer or soda with Pete to thank him. All of our exhibitors will also be present, so take a moment to see them, too. Make plans now to attend Turfgrass 2013, January 7–8, at the Stamp Student Union on the University of Maryland College Park campus. Monday’s program will focus on the training for the new Certified Fertilizer Applicator, and Tuesday will provide your re-certification for your Pesticide Applicators License. The program for the conference can be found on pages 8–10 in this issue of the MTC Turf News. Remember, there are discounts for members at the conference, so bring your membership card with you.
This is your organization. On our board of directors, we need people like me who have served for many years, but we also need new people with fresh ideas on how we can help turfgrass professionals and the Maryland turfgrass industry. Don’t wait to be asked — come to a monthly board meeting, and see if this could be something of benefit to you. After all, this is your organization, and it is only as helpful to you as you make it. Thanks for your support these past two years, and thanks for letting me serve.
Vernon W. Cooper
2011–2012 MTC President
MTC Membership Application ____________________________________________________________________ Name Title ____________________________________________________________________ Address ____________________________________________________________________ City, State, Zip Code E-Mail Address ____________________________________________________________________ Company Affiliation ____________________________________________________________________ Company Address ____________________________________________________________________ Company City, State, Zip Code ____________________________________________________________________ Business Fax Business Phone ____________________________________________________________________ Cell Phone Member of: [ ] ESGCS [ ] MAGCS [ ] MSA [ ] MSTA [ ] MTA [ ] PGMS [ ] OTHER __________________________________
I wish to also apply for membership for the following professional members of my crew, utilizing the company address listed above: _____________________________________ _____________________________________ _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Please list additional names on a separate sheet & attach to this form or feel free to copy this form if you desire individuals to utilize their home addresses. ENCLOSED ARE: _______ MTC Membership Dues $15.00 per person $___________ _______ Donation to Turfgrass Survey $_____________________ _______ Donation to Turfgrass Endowment Fund $___________ (tax deductible) Total Enclosed $_______________________ Please make checks payable to: MTC or MARYLAND TURFGRASS COUNCIL
Winter 2012
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Upcoming Event
——— Join Us for the ———
2013 MTC Turfgrass
Conference Tradeshow!
————————— and —————————
January 7–8 Registration: 7:30 a.m. – 4:00 p.m. in hallway outside of Tradeshow (Grand Ballroom, Room 1206).
9:45 a.m. Can Micro-Clover Offer an Option in Reducing Nitrogen Fertility Inputs? Dr. Mark Carroll, Univ. of Maryland
GOLF TURF SESSION / Colony Ballroom, Room 2203 Moderator: Mr. Ken Ingram, Univ. of Maryland
EDUCATION PROGRAM
10:30 a.m.
1:00 p.m. – 4:00 p.m.
Monday Morning, January 7 GCSAA Approved Educational Points
GENERAL SESSION / Colony Ballroom, Room 2203 Moderator: Mr. David Funk, Paint Branch Turfgrass Research Facility, University of Maryland Complying with the 2011 Fertilizer Use Act — Certification to Fertility Program Options
9:00 a.m. Complying with the 2011 Fertilizer Act: Your Fertilization Program Options Dr. Thomas Turner, Univ. of Maryland
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Stamp Student Union, University of Maryland College Park, MD ———————————
MTC Turf News
Training and Certification Requirements That Will Meet the 2011 Fertilizer Act Dr. Gary Felton, Univ. of Maryland
11:30 a.m. – 6:00 p.m. TRADESHOW / Grand Ballroom Lunch provided on the Tradeshow floor free of charge for all registered attendees from 11:30 a.m. to 1:00 p.m.
Monday Afternoon, January 7 1:00 p.m. – 4:00 p.m. GENERAL SESSION / Grand Ballroom Lounge Training for Fertilizer Applicator Certification in Maryland Dr. Gary Felton, Univ. of Maryland Dr. Kevin Mathias, Univ. of Maryland Dr. Thomas Turner, Univ. of Maryland
Seminar: Poorly Understood and Difficult-to-Manage Pests of Bentgrass Turf Dr. Peter Dernoeden, Univ. of Maryland Mr. Steve McDonald, Turfgrass Disease Solutions
4:00 p.m. – 6:00 p.m. SOCIAL Dr. Peter Dernoeden has decided to retire after all his years of service to the University of Maryland, the citizens of Maryland and to us, turfgrass professionals worldwide. Please join us in the Exhibit Hall to express our thanks and best wishes to Pete. Complimentary cocktails and snacks, on Tradeshow Floor (Grand Ballroom) FREE of charge for all registered attendees.
2013 MTC Turfgrass Conference & Tradeshow
Tuesday Morning, January 8 Registration opens at 7:30 a.m., outside of Grand Ballroom. Trade Show open 7:30 a.m. to 2:00 p.m., Grand Ballroom.
7:00 a.m. – 8:30 a.m. IAA – UMD Alumni Breakfast Meeting Prince Georges Room, Room 1120 This is a separate event from the educational sessions, and pre-registration is required. For more information, contact Dr. Kevin Mathias at 301-405-4692. Ticket reservations are on a first-come, first-served basis.
8:30 a.m. – 11:30 a.m.
Pesticide Recertification Day
For Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and District of Columbia applicators. Attendance is required at both morning and afternoon sessions to qualify.
LAWN TURF SESSION / Hoff Theater Moderator: Mr. Tom Ritter, Avenel Community Association
8:30 a.m. How Weather Extremes Affect Turfgrass Insect Control in Lawns Dr. David Shetlar, Ohio State University
9:15 a.m. Making Urban Soils More Sustainable for Lawn Turf Dr. Stuart Schwartz, UMBC
Registration Form To qualify for the Pre-Registration rate, all forms and payment must be received by 12/31/2012
____________________________________________________________________ YOUR NAME (as it should appear on badge) ____________________________________________________________________ COMPANY ____________________________________________________________________ ADDRESS ____________________________________________________________________ CITY, STATE, ZIP CODE ____________________________________________________________________ EMAIL (Include a current email address. Email confirmation will be sent.) ____________________________________________________________________ PHONE ____________________________________________________________________ MTC Member # Additional Registrants from the same group: ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
Weed-Control Combinations for Lawns Dr. Mike Agnew, Syngenta Crop Protection
Non-Members Pre-registration
$115
$155
Full Conference
$65
$90
At the door
At the door
Full Conference
$125
$165
1 Day (Mon/Tues)
$75
$100
1 Day (Mon/Tues)
I would like to become a MTC member. Total Registration Fee:____________________________________________________ Enclosed is my check for: $__________ made payable to: MTC Turfgrass 2013 Mail check to: 20667 Highland Hall Drive, Montgomery Village, MD 20886 Please charge my:
10:00 a.m.
Members Pre-registration
VISA
MASTERCARD
Fax Credit Card Registration to: (240) 597-1420 Card#________________________________________________________________
10:45 a.m.
Exp. Date:__________________________________ Security Code:_ ______________
Sustainable Turfgrasses for Lawns Mr. Kevin Morris, Director, NTEP
Name as it appears on credit card:___________________________________________ Billing address for credit card:______________________________________________ City, State, Zip:_________________________________________________________ Winter 2012
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Upcoming Event • continued
GOLF TURF SESSION / Colony Ballroom, Room 2203 Moderator: Mr. Brian Gietka, Fountain Head C.C.
8:30 a.m. The Innovative Superintendent– Assistant Superintendent Mr. Dean Graves, Chevy Chase Club Mr. Brett Walter, Chevy Chase Club Mr. Ross Miller, Trump National G.C. Mr. Chris Harriman, Cattail Creek C.C.
9:15 a.m. Can We Selectively Remove Unwanted Perennial Grasses in Golf Turf? Mr. Steve McDonald, Turfgrass Disease Solutions
10:00 a.m. Plant Health Products for Putting Green Turf Dr. Erik Ervin, Virginia Tech
10:45 a.m. Year in Review Mr. Keith Happ, USGA Green Section
ORNAMENTAL CARE SESSION / Atrium Room 1107 Moderator: Mr. Lester Dubs, Larchwood Landscape Co.
8:30 a.m. Scales, Bugs and More: Biology and Management of Key Pests in Ornamentals Dr. Paul Shrewsbury, Univ. of Maryland
10:00 a.m. Assessing New Pesticide Options for Insect and Mite Control in Ornamentals Dr. David Shetlar, Ohio State Univ.
10:45 a.m. Major Pest and Plant Problems of Ornamentals in 2012 Dr. Karen Rane, Univ. of Maryland
ATHLETIC FIELD TURF AND SOD SESSION / Charles Carroll Room, 2203 K Moderator: Mr. Jamie Roell, Anne Arundel Parks and Recreation
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MTC Turf News
TRADESHOW CLOSES
Tuesday Afternoon, January 8 Pesticide Re-Certification Session / Colony Ballroom, Room 2203 Moderator: Mr. Vernon Cooper, All States Turfgrass Consultants and MTC President
1:00 p.m. Maryland Turfgrass Council Annual Meeting
8:30 a.m.
1:15 p.m.
Evaluation of Event Covers for Sports Turf Dr. Erik Ervin, Virginia Tech
Insecticide Modes of Action: Increase Your Understanding and Maximize Insecticide Efficacy Dr. David Shetlar, Ohio State Univ.
9:15 a.m. Selecting Turfgrass Species and Cultivars for Playability and Sustainability Mr. Kevin Morris, NTEP
10:00 a.m. The Prince and the Pauper: Athletic Field Renovations at UMCP Mr. Bill Reinohl, Univ. of Maryland Mr. Alex Steinman, Univ. of Maryland Dr. Kevin Mathias, Univ. of Maryland
10:45 a.m. Improving Highly Compacted Turf Fields for Environmental Credits Dr. Stuart Schwartz, UMBC
9:15 a.m. The Asian Longhorned Borer And Ambrosia Beetle – What Impact Will These Tree Pests Have in 2013? Mr. Stanton Gill, Univ. of Maryland
2:00 p.m.
11:30 a.m. – 1:00 p.m. LUNCH Provided on the Tradeshow floor FREE of charge for all registered attendees.
2:00 p.m. Improving Turf Disease Control with Products that Enhance the Plant’s Natural Defenses Dr. Bruce Clark, Rutgers University
2:45 p.m. Turf Monitoring Tools You Can Count On Dr. Kevin Mathias, Univ. of Maryland
3:30 p.m. MDA Regulation Update Mr. Dennis Howard, Maryland Dept. of Agriculture
Turf Talk
The
Snow Molds Are Coming! By Peter H. Dernoeden, Ph.D., Dept. Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland
S
now protects dormant turfgrass plants from desiccation and frost, but it also provides a microenvironment conducive to the development of pathogenic fungi that are tolerant of low temperatures. During cold periods between late autumn and spring, there is no shortage of fungi capable of damaging turf. The most common low-temperature diseases in the Mid-Atlantic region are Microdochium patch, Typhula blight and yellow patch. Less common are cottony snow mold, snow scald and frost scorch, which are normally found in very cold climates in northern tier and Rocky Mountain states and Canada. Other diseases known to be active under snow cover or at snow melt during late winter or early spring months in the Mid-Atlantic region include red thread, Drechslera leaf spot and Pythium snow blight. Crown hydration, freezing, desiccation and ice damage also are important winter problems, especially in areas north and west of the Maryland transition zone. Winter diseases are collectively known as the snow molds, but only Typhula blight requires snow cover to be damaging. The snow molds are remarkable because they are active at temperatures slightly above freezing. Snow molds are damaging when cool-season turf is dormant or when its growth has been retarded by low temperatures. Under these conditions, turfgrasses cannot
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MTC Turf News
actively resist fungal invasion. In general, these diseases develop during overcast periods when temperatures are cool to cold (32ºF to 60ºF) and there is an abundance of surface moisture. The winter diseases noted here do not affect bermudagrass or zoysiagrass.
Microdochium patch (aka pink snow mold or Fusarium patch) Microdochium patch is among the most common and destructive cold-weather diseases of turf. This disease may be referred to by at least three different names. Although the original name of the causal agent was Fusarium nivale, the fungus was reclassified in 1983 as Microdochium nivale, and the disease was named Microdochium patch. Historically, however, the disease was known as Fusarium patch in the U.K. and as pink snow mold in the U.S. Some pathologists argued that pink snow mold was an inappropriate name because the disease can occur in the absence of snow. Henceforth, the names Fusarium patch and pink snow molds were adopted to refer to the disease when it occurred either in the absence or presence of snow, respectively. Therefore, Fusarium patch, Microdochium patch and pink snow mold are all commonly used names for the same disease. Today,
Microdochium patch is the mostaccepted name for this disease, regardless of whether or not it is associated with snow cover. Microdochium patch attacks a wide range of cool-season turfgrass species under snow, at snow melt or during extended periods of wet, overcast weather from autumn to spring, including perennial ryegrass, annual and Kentucky bluegrasses, bentgrasses and tall and fine-leaf fescues. It is most destructive, however, to annual bluegrass and creeping bentgrass golf turfs and immature tall fescue. Microdochium patch is especially destructive to cool-season grass seedlings during the first autumn-to-spring period after seeding. This is due to overstimulation of growth and succulent tissues resulting from the high levels of nitrogen fertilizer applied during establishment, as well as the immaturity of plants. The disease can be especially severe when seedlings are covered with blankets. It therefore is important to check under blankets frequently for the presence of this and other diseases. Conditions favoring Microdochium patch include: low (32°F to 45°F) to moderate (46°F to 65°F) temperatures; high relative humidity; overcast weather, with abundant moisture; prolonged, deep snow; snow fallen on unfrozen ground; wet or poorly drained sites; wet shade;
lush turf stimulated by late-season applications of excessively high amounts of nitrogen fertilizer; and alkaline soil conditions. Prolonged periods of cool to cold, overcast and rainy weather are particularly conducive to disease development. The disease may appear anytime between autumn and spring. In immature or seedling turf, Microdochium patch can be active from early autumn to late spring. In older mature turfs in the Mid-Atlantic states, the snow-free phase most often appears in April or May. May outbreaks of Microdochium patch often surprise or confuse turf managers because they think of this disease as a “snow mold” and the presence of snow.
Symptoms in the absence of snow The snow-free stage of this disease primarily is a problem in close-cut golf course turfs and is not commonly observed in higher-cut cool-season grasses in roughs, lawns or sports fields. On mature creeping bentgrass or annual bluegrass greens, tees and fairways, the snow-free Microdochium patch phase initially appears as circular spots or patches that are 1" to 3" in diameter (Photo 1). These patches generally have a pink or reddish-brown color and may increase in size to 6" or more in diameter. During the early stages of disease in the absence of snow, however, the small spots (1" to 2" diameter) may have a whitish-tan center with a pink or reddish-brown fringe. Gray-colored smoke rings of M. nivale mycelium also may appear at the edge of affected spots or patches in the absence of snow. Reddish-brown rings or “frog eyes” can occur, particularly in seedlings (Photo 2). Mycelium on the leaf blades produces fruiting bodies called sporodochia, on which large numbers of crescent-shaped spores are borne. These white or salmonpink-colored sporodochia are very tiny and appear as flecks on dead tissue. These flecks may be seen with a hand lens when the disease is active, but they generally cannot be seen on dried tissue. Spores are easily spread by water, machinery and foot traffic. Therefore, when spores are dispersed by mowers, blighting can appear in streaks or even
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Photo 1. Small, reddish-brown spot symptom with mycelium of Microdochium patch in the snow-free phase of the disease in creeping bentgrass.
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Photo 2. Reddish-brown spots, rings and patches of Microdochium patch in creeping bentgrass seedlings. Disease developed under blankets and in the absence of snow.
Winter 2012
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Turf Talk • continued
straight lines (Photo 3). This streakingeffect often is confused with a Pythium disease, especially during late spring outbreaks of Microdochium patch.
Symptoms in the presence of snow
Photo 3. Streaking symptoms of Microdochium patch in creeping bentgrass caused by redistribution of spores by mowers.
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Large, circular patches are most likely to appear when the disease develops underneath a deep snow cover. Patches developing under snow range from 3" to 18" in diameter. As snow recedes, turf at the fringe of the tan-colored patches appears pink (Photos 4 and 5). The pink appearance is produced by the pink or salmon color of M. nivale mycelium. The pink fringe around patches fades in time and may not be evident following the advent of drier conditions. Plants eventually collapse, and leaves are matted. Matted leaves have a tan or white color, but on close inspection they may display a pale pinkish cast. When damage occurs under snow, the extent of injury usually is more severe than without snow cover. In Maryland, higher-mown blighted turf (i.e., lawns, golf roughs and sometime fairways) often recovers even in the absence of fungicide use.
Management
Photo 4. Bleached-white colored patches with fringes of pinkish mycelium of M. nivale, which developed under snow on a golf green. Photo courtesy of Dr. Cale Bigelow.
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Microdochium patch injury can be reduced by using a complete N-P-K fertilizer in autumn and by avoiding excessive, late-season applications of watersoluble nitrogen. Where soils are alkaline and Microdochium patch is common, ammonium sulfate may be suggested as a nitrogen source. Modest amounts of nitrogen applied in spring assists in promoting recovery of blighted plants. Continue to mow into late autumn to ensure that snow will not mat a tall canopy, and remove fallen tree leaves. On western Maryland golf courses, snow fences and windbreaks should be used to pre-
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MTC Turf News
Photo 5. Microdocium patches in an immature tall fescue lawn. Note pale pinkish cast at the peripheries of several of the patches.
Winter 2012
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vent snow from drifting onto chronically damaged greens. Microdochium patch prevention with fungicides is warranted for golf course turf (especially golf greens) and stadium athletic fields where cool-season grasses are grown. In particular, it is important to protect seedlings and immature turfs. Fungicides are best applied preventively in late autumn or early winter and just prior to the first major snow storm. It is especially important to protect young seedlings. Subsequent applications to golf greens or other prone locations (e.g., shade and north-facing slopes and immature turfs) should be made during midwinter thaws and at spring snow melt in areas where the disease is chronic. Strobilurin or QoI fungicides (e.g., Compass, Disarm, Heritage, Insignia), DMI/SI fungicides (e.g., Banner MAXX, Bayleton, Eagle, others). iprodione (Chipco 26 GT, others) and thiophanate (3336 Plus, others) are the primary penetrant fungicides used to target Microdochium patch. Chlorothalonil Daconil, others), fludioxonil (Medallion) and PCNB (also known as pentachloronitrobenzene or quintozene, may only be applied to golf course roughs) are contact fungicides used to target this disease. Two or more of these fungicides from different chemical classes (i.e., don’t mix two strobilurins or two DMI fungicides) normally are applied in a tank-mix combination to improve the level of control, as well as to provide a broader spectrum of control for other diseases that may occur at the same time (such as Typhula blight and yellow patch). Curative applications should contain a tank mix of a penetrant and a contact fungicide.
Typhula blight (aka gray snow mold) Also known as gray snow mold, Typhula blight normally occurs under snow cover or in the presence of melting snow; outbreaks in the absence of snow are uncommon. Typhula incarnata is the most common incitant, whereas T. ishikariensis generally is found in colder mountainous regions of western Mary-
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MTC Turf News
land where snow cover is more prolonged. Typhula blight is more damaging under prolonged deep snow, particularly during melt as snow recedes. Normally, Typhula spp. do not infect and kill the stems of mature plants, and blighted turf would be expected to recover during spring as soils warm. Conversely, Microdochium nivale can invade stem tissues and kill tillers and/ or entire plants.
Symptoms Symptoms initially appear at snow melt as tan, light-brown, yellow-brown or gray patches that are 2" to 4" in diameter (Photo 6). Under snow cover or in receding snow in the presence of a lot of cold water, patches may enlarge to two feet in diameter and coalesce. As the snow recedes, a sparse to dense amount of grayish mycelium may be seen on patches (Photo 6). Margins of active patches may have a “halo� of grayishwhite mycelium. Blighted leaves are grayish-white, and leaves are matted. Typhula blight patches usually are larger in size than those of Microdochium patch. Patches may coalesce, resulting in large irregular areas of blighted turf (Photo 7). Typhula spp. survive unfavorable environmental conditions and over-summer as sclerotia. Sclerotia are compact masses of fungal mycelium covered with a darkcolored, protective rind. Typhula incarnata sclerotia initially are smooth, round and pink, but as they mature and dry, they become wrinkled, rounded or flattened, chestnut-brown in color and often are less than 0.125" in diameter (Photo 8). Sclerotia produced by T. ishikariensis are black and irregular in shape. Sclerotia also may appear as tiny, rounded specks or as elongated, blackened or reddish-brown crusts embed-
Photo 8. Immature pink sclerotia of T. incarnata. Photo courtesy of Dr. John Kaminski.
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Photo 6. Gray-colored patch of Typhula blight on a golf fairway following snow melt. Note halo of mycelium on the outer periphery of the patch.
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Photo 7. Typhula blight patches coalesced under snow and during snow melt to cause a non-uniform blighting of this tall fescue lawn.
8 Winter 2012
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Turf Talk โ ข continued
ded in or clinging to necrotic tissue (Photo 9). Large numbers of scleroti may give affected patches a speckled appearance. After sclerotia appear, the disease subsides, and it is unlikely to reactivate. When cool, moist weather conditions return in late autumn, these sclerotia germinate to produce fungal mycelium or a specialized fruiting body (i.e., basidiocarp) upon which spores are borne. Basidiocarps are inconspicuous and seldom observed in nature.
Management
Photo 9. Small, reddish-brown and dried T. incarnata sclerotia on blighted tall fescue leaves.
9
As soon as possible in spring, it is helpful to brush or rake blighted areas to break up matted leaves and encourage drying. As soon as it is warm enough, apply about 0.9 lb. N/1,000 ft2 to stimulate growth and thus promote recovery of turf. Chemical approaches for managing both Typhula blight and Microdochium patch are the same, with a few exceptions. Chloroneb (e.g., SP), flutolanil (ProStar) and polyoxin D (Affirm or Endorse) control Typhula blight, but not Microdochium patch. Many turf managers mix two or more fungicides to provide a greater spectrum of activity and longer and more consistent control of winter diseases.
Yellow patch (aka cool-temperature brown patch) Yellow patch, sometimes called cooltemperature brown patch, develops during prolonged cool (50ยบF to 65ยบF), overcast and moist periods from late autumn to early spring. Yellow patch is a disease of bentgrasses, annual bluegrass and sometimes perennial ryegrass and Kentucky bluegrass turf. The disease may develop in late autumn or winter, but in many regions, it is most prevalent in early spring. The casual agent is Rhizoctonia cerealis.
Symptoms Yellow patch most frequently is observed on creeping bentgrass or annual bluegrass golf greens, tees and fairways,
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MTC Turf News
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Photo 10. The yellow ring symptom of yellow patch (aka cool temperature brown patch) on an annual bluegrass golf green. Larger photo courtesy of Mr. Steven McDonald.
where it produces yellow or reddishbrown rings or circular yellow patches a few inches to one or more feet in diameter (Photos 10 and 11). The yellow ring symptom mimics and easily can be confused with brown ring patch (aka Waitea
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Photo 11. Looping and intermingling reddish-brown rings of yellow patch on a creeping bentgrass golf green.
patch). Brown ring patch, however, is a disease favored by mild, rainy weather in spring and usually appears in May in Maryland. The yellow or reddish-brown rings can loop or intermingle like rings on the
Olympic flag, and more than 100 rings or yellow patches can develop on a single green (Photo 11). When weather conditions shift to sunny and dry periods, blighted turf at the edge of patches or rings may develop a brown or tan color.
Winter 2012
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Turf Talk • continued
These brown rings or arcs are disfiguring and can remain evident for many weeks. Often, however, the rings and patches fade during sunny and dry periods, causing little apparent damage if temperatures are warm enough to promote foliar growth.
Damage generally is superficial, but significant thinning of turf may occur during prolonged wet and overcast weather between late autumn and early spring. Yellow patch tends to be most severe in wet, poorly drained or shaded sites.
Management Yellow patch severity is reduced by improving surface-water drainage and by squeegeeing-off standing water on golf greens during chilly and rainy weather. Turf should be mowed as needed to avoid a tall canopy prior to winter. The last application of nitrogen prior to winter should be in a slowrelease form. Preventive applications of Affirm/ Endorse, Disarm, Heritage, ProStar and others in autumn suppress yellow patch in the spring. Curative fungicide applications usually involve tank-mixing one of the aforementioned penetrant fungicides with either Daconil, Fore or Medallion (i.e., contact fungicides) to subdue the disease and prevent thinning. Even following multiple applications of different fungicides, the rings and patches may remain evident for long periods. No known fungicides or cultural practices, however, consistently prevent the formation of these rings and patches. In general, fungicide-treated turf will heal more rapidly than untreated turf with the advent of warmer spring temperatures. An application of a watersoluble nitrogen fertilizer will help speed recovery after winter dormancy has broken and turf has resumed active growth. Disclaimer: Pesticide labels are subject to change. Carefully read a current label before using any fungicide. Not all fungicides can legally be applied to all turfgrass sites such as lawns and athletic fields. Many fungicides are sold under generic names, and numerous prepackaged mixtures are available. No discrimination was intended against any product names that did not appear in this article. •
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Turf Tips
.. l. o tr n o C d e e W y s s ra G l ia n n re e P I can do this! Wait, how do I do this? By Jeffrey Derr, Ph.D., Professor of Weed Science, Virginia Tech
P
erennial grassy weeds — including bermudagrass (commonly referred to as wiregrass), dallisgrass, quackgrass and johnsongrass — commonly infest lawns, athletic fields, roadsides and other turf areas, as well as landscape beds. These four weed species are referred to as creeping perennials since they spread vegetatively through rhizomes or stolons, as well as spreading by seed. If left uncontrolled, clumps of these weeds will continue to get larger. There also are clump-type perennial grassy weeds, such as orchardgrass and tall fescue. First, I’ll start with the easy part of this question — controlling perennial grasses in broadleaf ornamentals. Hopefully, I can fill up the space allocated to this article with my answer to this one, so I will not have to answer the harder question: How do I control perennial grasses in turf?
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Control in conifers, broadleaf ornamentals and non-grass monocots This group of plants, which includes trees, shrubs, herbaceous perennials, annual bedding plants and groundcovers, generally has very good tolerance to the selective postemergence grass herbicide group. Chemicals in this class include the systemic herbicides clethodim (Envoy Plus), fenoxaprop (Acclaim Extra), fluazifop (Fusilade II, Ornamec Over-The-Top and others) and sethoxydim (Segment). Among this group, fenoxaprop overall is less effective on perennial grasses than the other three herbicides. For perennial grass control, fenoxaprop has a better fit in turfgrass situations than in ornamentals. I often hear, “I sprayed a systemic herbicide, and it looked good for a month, but the weedy grass came back.”
Although these products are systemic (and thus move downward into roots and rhizomes), multiple applications will generally be needed for long-term control. For a well-established creeping perennial, one application will not provide complete kill of underground plant parts, and uncontrolled buds on rhizomes will send up new shoots. Repeat applications will be needed to completely control under-ground plant parts. Some of these products, such as Fusilade II, require the addition of an adjuvant, either a crop oil concentrate or nonionic surfactant. If you’re making applications during hot, humid weather, avoid the use of crop oils, as these could lead to a contact burn on newly developed leaves or flower petals. I generally do not add anything to Segment, since an adjuvant has been built into the formulation, although some people add a surfactant or crop oil.
Bentgrass in tall fescue — any grass that differs in color or texture from the desired turf could be considered a weed.
Dallisgrass stands out in bermudagrass due to its wider blade.
The wild-type common bermudagrass is often called wiregrass.
Check the herbicide labels for any landscape cultivars to avoid. For example, certain cultivars of juniper and mondo grass (Ophiopogon) can be injured by overtop applications of fluazifop. Non-grass monocots would include such ornamentals as daylily, liriope, iris, lily and hosta. In these ornamentals, clethodim, fluazifop and sethoxydim can be used to selectively control
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Turf Tips • continued
bermudagrass, johnsongrass or quackgrass. If you want to control tall fescue, though, sethoxydim would be a better choice than fluazifop. In established woody ornamentals, another option for controlling quackgrass, tall fescue and orchardgrass would be a winter application of dichlobenil (Barrier, Casoron). The nonselectives glyphosate (Roundup PROMAX, others) and glufosinate (Finale) could also be used for perennial grass control, although you must prevent herbicide contact with desired plants. In general, keep the postemergence grass herbicides away from ornamental grasses and turfgrass. The best way to control perennial weedy grasses around ornamental grasses would be careful (shielded, wiper) applications of a glyphosate product. If you are maintaining bermudagrass or other creeping perennial turfgrass species next to an ornamental bed, maintain a killed strip using a postemergence grass herbicide or glyphosate between the turf and the ornamental beds. Spot spray these materials every month or so during the growing season to keep these turfgrasses or any perennial grassy weeds in that turf out of flowerbeds.
Control in tall fescue turf Probably the most troublesome grass in tall fescue would be bermudagrass. It especially invades under low mowing heights, in drought-stress conditions that place tall fescue into dormancy or during wet summers that lead to a high incidence of brown patch (this disease can thin tall fescue stands, opening the
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canopy for plants like bermudagrass to creep into the area). Bermudagrass can be suppressed by utilizing a program such as applying triclopyr (Turflon Ester) plus fenoxaprop (Acclaim Extra). Two to three applications in the spring and two to three applications in the fall may be required for acceptable control. Dr. Shawn Askew, my colleague on campus, has looked at incorporating mesotrione (Tenacity) into such a program, since it also will injure bermudagrass and since tall fescue has good tolerance to Tenacity. Tenacity can also be used for nimblewill and creeping bentgrass control in tall fescue. Fluazifop could be used instead of fenoxaprop for bermudagrass suppression, but tall fescue has less tolerance to fluazifop. Proper calibration is needed to ensure that the proper rate has been applied. The application rate for tall fescue is 3 to 6 fluid ounces Fusilade II or 20 to 24 fluid ounces Ornamec OverThe-Top per acre. For comparison, the use rate is about four times higher in broadleaf ornamentals — 16 to 24 fluid ounces Fusilade II or 64 to 96 fluid ounces of Ornamec Over-The Top per acre in nursery plants. So, expect greater control in ornamental beds than in tall fescue due to the difference in application rates. Dallisgrass, quackgrass and orchardgrass can also be suppressed in tall fescue through repeated applications of fluazifop. I have also used fluazifop for control of brome (Bromus spp.) in tall fescue. Fluazifop, fenoxaprop or their combination could be used for john-
songrass management, or you could make a wiper application of a glyphosate product. Otherwise, you could spray a nonselective like glyphosate and then reseed the treated area for control of these perennial grasses.
Control in Kentucky bluegrass Bermudagrass can be suppressed/ controlled in Kentucky bluegrass using the triclopyr plus fenoxaprop program discussed above. One difference is that the maximum application rate of fenoxaprop is lower for Kentucky bluegrass than for tall fescue. Fluazifop cannot be used in Kentucky bluegrass. Tenacity can be used for nimblewill and creeping bentgrass control, as well as in bermudagrass-suppression efforts. Chlorsulfuron (Corsair) can be used for tall fescue control in Kentucky bluegrass. I am not aware of a selective control for dallisgrass, orchardgrass or quackgrass in Kentucky bluegrass. There had been uses for sulfosulfuron (Certainty), but those uses are no longer on the Certainty label. You could use spot sprays of glyphosate and then reseed the treated area for control of perennials.
Control in zoysiagrass In zoysiagrass, cool-season perennial grasses like tall fescue or perennial ryegrass can be controlled with applications of foramsulfuron (Revolver), sulfosulfuron (Certainty), trifloxysulfuron (Monument) or flazasulfuron (Katana). The Katana label also lists control of quackgrass. Another possible option for quackgrass, tall fescue and orchardgrass control in zoysiagrass is through applications of pronamide (Kerb). Kerb is a restricted-use herbicide, however (it cannot be used in residential situations), and it has the potential to move down hillsides where it could injure sensitive grasses. Certain formulations of atrazine are labeled for dormant applications in zoysia, but its use is limited to the Coastal Plain of Virginia. Atrazine will injure certain cool-season grasses like
continued • Turf Tips
tall fescue, and it is a restricteduse chemical. We utilize the triclopyr plus fenoxaprop combination program for controlling bermudagrass in zoysia. Multiple applications are needed during the growing season. Zoysia may go off color for a period following application. Fluazifop is also a possibility in zoysia, but the application rates are lower than that used in tall fescue. We have suppressed dallisgrass in zoysia through multiple applications of Revolver or Monument. Dallisgrass control improved if MSMA was included in the program. However, most turf uses of MSMA have been discontinued. MSMA can still be used in golf courses sod and highway roadsides (recently, these uses have been extended for at least three years). Celsius, a three-way herbicide combination, can be used in management programs for dallisgrass, johnsongrass and quackgrass. We have been investigating combinations of Celsius and Revolver for improved dallisgrass suppression.
grasses can be suppressed/controlled through the use of products like atrazine, Kerb, Certainty or Celsius. Dallisgrass can be suppressed through applications of Certainty or Celsius.
Summary Perennial grassy weeds are much more of a challenge in turfgrass situations than in ornamentals beds. Available products
may cause some temporary injury to turf, and most can injure ornamentals, so avoid herbicide drift into flowerbeds. Cultural practices that optimize the competitiveness of turf will also assist in the management of perennial grasses. Through multiple applications, possibly over several years, perennial grassy weeds can be managed in both turf and landscape beds. •
Control in bermudagrass
Cool-season perennial grasses like tall fescue or perennial ryegrass in bermudagrass can be controlled through applications of Certainty, Revolver, Monument or Katana. Tranxit is another option for perennial ryegrass control. Winter applications of glyphosate to dormant bermudagrass would also help control coolseason grasses, as would dormant applications of atrazine, although it is not commonly used. Dallisgrass in bermudagrass can be suppressed using products like Revolver, Monument, Celsius and MSMA, if the site is registered. Glyphosate is also a possibility for dallisgrass suppression, since this weed appears to go dormant about a week later than bermudagrass. Applications during this one-week period should reduce the amount of damage to bermudagrass.
Control in St. Augustine Bermudagrass in St. Augustinegrass can be suppressed through applications of ethofumesate (Prograss) plus atrazine during the growing season. Cool-season
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Career Enhancement
The Value Of
Education
By Stanley J. Zontek, Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, USGA Green Section
Editor’s Note: This article was originally published in the USGA Green Section Record on November 10, 2011. Sadly, Mr. Zontek passed away on August 28, 2012, from a massive heart attack. See page 28.
I
recently heard the comment, “I don’t have time to attend turf conferences. I’m just too busy.” Ironically, this was stated at a turf seminar! Here’s the point: I would argue that you should MAKE TIME to attend that conference and, further, bring along your assistant superintendent, general manager, green chairman, golf chairman and anyone else in the club who would benefit from such a meeting. Here’s why: Although the “basics” of golf course turfgrass management never really change — balanced and adequate fertility, root growth, effective water management, weed and disease control,
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thatch management, aeration and topdressing — it is the fine points of turfgrass management that are so important to learn and re-learn. At the very least, you can make informed decisions on what is best for you and your course. With all of the stressful weather that most regions of our country have experienced this year, it is essential that you listen and learn about what worked and what didn’t work. We are in a period of weather extremes, and the best way for your turf to survive is to grow healthy grass. What’s the new research on whether or not bacteria can actually affect golf turf? Is this a new problem to worry about? What’s the latest on control of Poa annua? What about crabgrass and goosegrass control? Weed control in general… did you fight more weeds this year than in the past? If so, then you might need to change something or add something to your program to resolve the problems you now have. Clearly, what you may have done in the past may not work.
Think about it: do you really NOT have the time to learn ways to solve problems, for a better golf course next year? I would wager that you NEED to find time to attend these meetings. Education is an ongoing effort. I have been with the USGA for more than 40 years, and I value the time I spend sitting in the audience and listening to all the comments about everything on the agenda. The older I get, the more time I spend being educated. It makes me better able to answer the questions I am asked, while staying current with all that is happening in our field. Sadly, I see and know about superintendents who no longer attend conferences and lack that thirst for information. It can change a productive turf manager into one who is less effective. Think about it. Are you really too busy to sit down and listen to lectures on the industry that we all share? If you think about it, you need to attend those conferences, lectures and seminars. For that matter, bring a colleague, someone else who would benefit. •
In Tribute
In Tribute to a Turfgrass Giant…
Stanley Zontek, USGA Agronomist By Hunki Yun, USGA
S
tanley J. Zontek, the director of the USGA Green Section’s Mid-Atlantic Region, passed away August 28, 2012, after suffering a heart attack. He was 63 years old and was predeceased by his son, Christopher. The organization’s longest-tenured employee, Zontek joined the USGA in 1971 after graduating from Penn State University. He started his USGA career as an agronomist in the Northeastern Region. He moved to the North Central Region in 1980 before becoming the director of the Mid-Atlantic Region in 1985. “Stanley will be missed tremendously by those of us at the USGA who knew him best and by the thousands of lives he touched outside the organization,” said USGA Executive Director Mike Davis. Zontek, who resided in Avondale, PA, was a world-renowned turfgrass expert who shared his extensive knowledge for 41 years through articles, speeches and course visits. He helped establish many of the best turfgrass practices still in use. During his career, he assisted thousands of courses around the world to achieve the best conditions possible, whether in preparation for USGA championships or for everyday play. In addition, one of his responsibilities was helping to maintain the putting green at the White House. Zontek was recognized for his contributions with many awards, including the 2006 Golf Course Superintendents Association Distinguished Service Award, the 1997 Golf Course Builders Association of America Don A. Rossi Award and the 2007 Crop and Soil Sciences Outstanding Alumni Award from his alma mater. “Stanley was an icon to all of us personally on the Green Section staff and within the industry,” said Dr. Kimberly
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Erusha, the managing director of the USGA Green Section. “We have lost a great friend and an influential voice in the game.” For more than 40 years, Zontek displayed an unwavering commitment to his craft, traveling around the world to help superintendents care for their courses. In addition to his knowledge of turfgrass, one of the keys to this success was his ability to build lasting relationships. As much as he was respected for his professional expertise, Zontek touched many more lives with his passion, generosity and spirit. “Stanley often said that this was a people business, and it was about building relationships,” said Dr. Erusha. “He lived by that sentiment and did it very well. He willingly shared his passion, expertise and experience with people from around the world. For that, all of us who love the game are better for it.” On top of visiting hundreds of courses a year, Zontek worked closely with the superintendents of USGA championship courses such as 2011 U.S. Open host Congressional Country Club and 2013 site Merion Golf Club, which also hosted the U.S. Open in 1971. In this capacity, Zontek worked closely with USGA Executive Director Davis in preparing the course for the championship. “Some of my fondest memories from past U.S. Opens involve spending time with Stan as we worked alongside each other during the championship’s long hours,” said Davis. “He loved the USGA and dedicated his career to serving the game that he loved. He was a true ambassador for the USGA, and in my mind, nobody better personified our work ‘for the good of the game.’” •
index of advertisers
All States Turfgrass Consultants, LLC..............29 BASF...............................................................15 www.basf.com
Buy Sod.............................................................5 www.buysod.com
Capitol Sports Fields........................................15 www.capitolsportsfields.com
Central Sod Farms of Maryland, Inc.................16 www.centralsodmd.com
Collins Wharf Sod Farm.....................................5 www.collinswharfsod.com
CoverSports USA.............................................29 www.gerogroup.com
East Coast Sod & Seed....................................27 www.eastcoastsod.com
Egypt Farms Inc...............................................18 www.egyptfarms.com
Ernst Conservation Seeds................................25 www.ernstseed.com
Genesis Turfgrass, Inc.....................................30 www.genesisturfgrass.com
Growing Soultions, LLC....................................21 www.growingsolutionsinc.com
Horizon Distributors.................Inside Back Cover Maryland Turfgrass Association..............................Inside Front Cover www.marylandturfgrass.org
Mid Atlantic Association of Turf Equipment Managers (MAATEM)..............25 Oakwood Sod Farm, Inc..................................16 www.oakwoodsod.com
Summit Hall Turf Farm, Inc................ Back Cover
www.summithall.com
Syngenta Professional Products.......................19 www.syngentaprofessionalproducts.com
The Turfgrass Group................................... 3, 11 www.theturfgrassgroup.com
University of Maryland / Dr. Peter Dernoeden........................................20 Weedman........................................................30 www.weedmanfranchise.com
Winfield Solutions............................................16 MTC Turf News is the Maryland Turfgrass Council magazine. Subscriptions are complimentary to MTC members. The statements and opinions expressed herein are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the association, its staff, its board of directors, MTC Turf News, or its editors. Likewise, the appearance of advertisers, or their identification as MTC members, does not constitute an endorsement of the products or services featured in any issue of MTC Turf News. Copyright Š2012 by the Maryland Turfgrass Council. MTC Turf News is published quarterly. Presorted standard postage is paid at Nashville, TN. Printed in the U.S.A. Reprints and Submissions: MTC allows reprinting of material published here. Permission requests should be directed to MTC. We are not responsible for unsolicited freelance manuscripts and photographs. Contact the managing editor for contribution information. Advertising: For display and classified advertising rates and insertions, please contact Leading Edge Communications, LLC, 206 Bridge Street, Franklin, TN 37064, (615) 790-3718, Fax (615) 794-4524. Winter 2012
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Calendar of Events
December 11–13
January 9–11
February 6–7
Virginia Tech’s Turfgrass Short Course
Mid-Atlantic Nursery Trade Show
Golf Industry Show
Baltimore Convention Center Baltimore, MD
San Diego Convention Center San Diego, CA
January 15–19
February 14–15
Fredericksburg Expo & Conference Center Fredericksburg, VA
STMA Annual Conference & Exhibition
January 7–8, 2013 35th Annual MTC Turfgrass Conference & Trade Show Adele H. Stamp Student Union University of Maryland College Park, MD
January 8–9 Eastern Pennsylvania Turf & Ornamentals Conference and Tradeshow Crowne Plaza Hotel King of Prussia, PA
Daytona Beach, FL
January 28–31 VTC Annual Turf & Landscape Conference and Trade Show Fredericksburg Expo & Conference Center Fredericksburg, VA
January 31
Chesapeake Green 2013 — A Horticulture Symposium Maritime Institute & Conference Center Linthicum Heights, MD
February 26–28 Western Pennsylvania Turfgrass Conference The Four Points by Sheraton Pittsburg North Mars, PA
Northeastern Pennsylvania Turf Conference & Trade Show Woodlands Inn Wilkes Barre, PA
University of maryland turfgrass team Pete Dernoeden, Ph.D.
Tom Turner, Ph.D.
Mark Carroll, Ph.D.
Kevin Mathias, Ph.D.
Dave Funk
Dept. of Plant Science & Landscape Architecture University of Maryland College Park, MD 301-405-1337 pd@umd.edu
Dept. of Plant Science & Landscape Architecture University of Maryland College Park, MD 301-403-4431 tturner@umd.edu
Dept. of Plant Science & Landscape Architecture University of Maryland College Park, MD 301-405-1339 mcarroll@umd.edu
Institute of Applied Ag. University of Maryland College Park, MD 301-405-4692 jkm@umd.edu
Paint Branch Turfgrass Research Facility University of Maryland College Park, MD 301-403-8195 dfunk@umd.edu
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