Re-Defining Native

Re-DeďŹ ning Native: Re-tracing the Origins of the Amazonian Parrots of California a Fulbright Fellowship Research Leif Estrada

An International Research Project produced for the Fulbright Foundation 2016

AMAZONIAN PARROTS Re-Defining Native: Re-tracing the Origins of the Amazonian Parrots of California a Fulbright Fellowship Research

by Leif Estrada, MDesS-ULE ‘16 | MLA I AP ‘16 | BArch ’12 http://leif-estrada.com

a caricatured logo based upon Anheuser-Busch’s company logo by Leif Estrada

CONTENTS foreword origins extraction + “naturalization” breeding for economy international trade infrastructural connectivity demand for tropical birds Busch Gardens involvement as theme park mascots

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09

in advertisement Busch Gardens closure + dispersal “natural” dialectic Los Angeles parrot species + urban distribution the parakeets of northern California San Francisco parakeet species + urban distribution problematizing the “natural;” case studies afterword acknowledgements + bibliography

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

01

foreword

“The present river ecology is a churning soup of exotic and native vegetative communities that have been introduced since the nineteenth century, some by design, others by accident. Tourism, shipping, rail, industry, agriculture, and ornamental vegetation have brought humans, animals, insects, and seeds, from around the globe to colonize the river’s naturalized reaches. These reaches have established a curious equilibrium with their ecologies, depending on nutrient-rich flows from sewage treatment and urban runoff…” (1) David Fletcher, “Flood Control Freakology”

Among these new successive ecologies thriving along the LA River are the “Los Angeles moss,” plastic bags that line the urban fabric; its trees in turn strengthening the substrate of the river’s

1 David Fletcher, “Flood Control Freakology” in The Infrastructural City edited by Kazys Varnelis (Barcelona: Actar, 2008), 42.

2 Ibid., 42.

3 Uncredited Interviewee, “Urban Legends” in The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill by Judy Irving (Independent Lens, 2003), 45:10.

bed; informal residents of the river fishing for floating plastic bottles and cans to generate their daily income, in turn preventing an eventual collection of non-degradable wastes at the mouth of the river in Long Beach; bat ecologies roosting under the bridges that stitches the urban fabric of Los Angeles, maintaining the mosquito population. However, among the new alternative ecologies dialectically thriving with city-life are the “mysterious” population of “ragtag teams” of parrots and parakeets soaring, not only the skies of Los Angeles, but also of San Francisco in Northern California. (2) Sightings of these colorful birds, however, were only recorded as early as the 1980’s (Los Angeles) and 1990’s (San Francisco), despite what popular urban legends may say dating back to the 1930’s. (3)

This book serves as a historical and cartographic research tracing back the origins of the Amazonian birds and positing a possible means of their “migration” to the golden state and how they have “naturalized” within a new environment.

As the ornithological classification of the now-Californian parrots are considered to be non-native; they are facing threats from opposing environmentalists, who believe that these birds should not be fostered and welcomed into the state, much more allocated governmental funds towards their care and maintenance.

However, I would like to argue that the very existence of these parrots in the Californian cities are not only due to our contributory negligence but also due to our “natural” processes of production for economic and practical values.

Parrots in flight in California Image from The California Parrot Project

A suggestion of such environmentalists includes the mass eradication of the species as they are not “natural” in the environment and poses threat to the ecosystem. (4)

4 David Schulke, “Proclamation” in The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill by Judy Irving (Independent Lens, 2003), 1:23:00.

02

origins

~4000 mi.

?

Telegraph Hill

San Francisco

Busch Gardens

Los Angeles

Parrots and parakeets are not migratory birds, so how were they able to migrate 4000 miles away?

Parrots and parakeets are non-migratory birds and are native in the Amazonian region, primarily in the jungles along the borders of Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. Parrots, however, sub-migrate when there is a disturbance in their food sources but return to their territorial habitat, when these sources are restored. However, due to the continued industrialization and urbanization of the Amazon, the “natural” habitat of these birds are destroyed hence the need to find new territories, which would provide them food and safety from other predatory species in the jungle.

Unbeknownst to many, these birds’ main predators are extractors, who seek to catch the colorful birds with the intention of making profit off of them. This activity became popular in the mid-twentieth century and continues until today despite its illegality with the formation of NAFTA and the Wild Bird Conservation Act. (5)

5 Jose Gobbi, Debra Rose, Gina De Ferrari and Leonora Sheeline, “Parrot Smuggling Across the Texas-Mexico Border” (Washington DC: Traffic USA and World Wildlife Fund, 1996), iii.

Parrots in the Amazon jungle Image by Tom Cheatham

03

extraction + “naturaliaztion”

Colombia

Ecuador

As the birds are extracted from the Amazon, they are trucked back to Mazatlán, Mexico along the Central American coastline.

An alternative water route smuggles tropical birds to Cancun and redistributed to Miami.

Peru

Despite the enacted prohibition of the extraction and smuggling of the tropical birds from the Amazon; this did not stop and halt the illicit activity. The extraction and smuggling processes were very methodical that the illegal trade routes were only discovered very recently. (6) The extractors enter the Amazonian jungle, where the parrots have created their territorial habitat and are extracted between the borders of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru and trucked back up north at nightfall to avoid potential arrests.

The shipment then breaks off in Panama, where 50% of the birds are brought to Cancun across the water to be sold, usually to those interested in Florida, particularly Miami (where the birds have been known to have “naturalized” the urban landscape.) (7)

6 Juan Carlos Cantú Guzmán, Maria Elena Sánchez Saldaña, Manuel Grosselet and Jesús Silva Gamez, “The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico” (Defenders of Wildlife, 2007), 9.

7 Ibid., 42.

The other half of the shipment continues its journey further north, towards Mazatlán; where the birds are bred in captivity before they are sold. This is in contrast with those that are brought to Cancun, which are immediately sold.

They are then dispersed to 4 major regions in Central Mexico (D.F., Aguascalientes, León and Guadalajara) to be sold in pet stores, where the birds are of high demand due to their “exotic nature,” to be tamed as pets.

Over time, the parrots have “naturalized” in 12 Mexican provinces, where they can be spotted just as any other bird due to escapes and releases. As these birds became a common ecology, the pet market lost interest as one can easily catch one, instead of spending money to purchase one. (8)

8 Ibid., 44.

04

breeding for economy

As the birds are bred, they entered the economic market, and are dispersed all over Mexico; where they have “naturalized.�

Mazatlán served as the main parrot breeding hub in Mexico, before the birds enter the market to be distributed to 4 major distribution centers, which then sells them to local pet stores.

The extraction of these birds, despite illegality, did not prevent the activity from persisting. After all, it generated an average annual income of two-million dollars, collectively, to those who are part of the act. That is around two per-cent added to the average annual GDP value per capita. It is no wonder the extraction and illegal distribution continues until today despite laws created by NAFTA. (9) As the birds lost popularity as pets in Mexico due to their “naturalization,” it was only a matter of time that the birds enter international trade.

Parrots in breeding captivity at Mazatlán Image from tripadvisor.com

9 José Gobbi, Debra Rose, Gina De Ferrari, and Leonora Sheeline, “Parrot Smuggling Across the Texas-Mexico Border,” (Traffic USA and World Wildlife Fund—US, 1996), iii.

05

international trade

Not only, were the parrots a high demand nationally in Mexico, but also abroad as it entered international trade.

The late 60’s and early 70’s was the time for which the parrot trade across the US-Mexico border experienced a great economic boom, where the tropical bird trade utilized existing infrastructural roads to connect the extracted resources to be distributed to American cities along the borders; from Brownsville, Texas to San Diego, California on the west coast.

Many species of birds were tightly packed in cages that are loaded in trucks, uknowingly and illegaly smuggling parrots to the US. It is still unknown the exact number of birds that crossed the US-Mexico border between the 60’s until today. However an estimate of around 65,ooo birds are believed to enter the US within one decade, based on tally from confiscated shipments.(10)

Confiscated shipment of illegally smuggled parrots across the border Image from Profepa Guerrero

10 Guzmán, Saldaña, Grosselet and Gamez, 35.

06

infrastructural connectivity

The completion of the Baja California Highway in 1973 provided a new trade route for the illegal smuggling of parrots across the border.

The implementation of NAFTA advocated for the halting of bird exploitation, with Profepa closely monitoring the border for such suspicions on bird smuggling. Over time, the routes of the shipment have been deduced and became known to officials resulting in the decline of bird smuggling (or at least those that heve been confiscated). (11)

However, the completion of the Baja California Highway provided an alternative route, which funneled more shipments to San Diego by 1974. (12)

decline in smuggling confiscation

News article about the construction of the Baja California Highway

source: Profepa

11 Ibid., 46.

article courtesy of the LA Times

12 Earl Gustkey, “Quickest Route to the Real Mexico is the Baja Highway” (LA Times, May 14, 1978), HI.

07

demand for tropical birds

“Birds are even being bought as investments by people who see that a bird in the hand today may be worth twice as much tomorrow.” (13)

LA Times, “Exotic Birds: Costly New Pet Craze Sweeping U.S.”

As the parrots became a popular pet trend, the birds became of high demand. Pet owners saw the birds as investments. With prices ranging between nine-thousand dollars to up to twenty five-thousand dollars (per bird) owners expected at least the doubling of its market price. This is mainly due to the illegality of their importation to the US. If Paris Hilton popularized the accesorization the pooch-in-purse look, the parrot-on-the-shoulder look was quite popular in LA. #piratestyle.

13 Anne LaRiviere, “Exotic Birds: Costly New Pet Craze Sweeping U.S.” (LA Times, September, 30 1978), SD-A1.

Bird-collecting as investments was so serious that bird owners had to install anti-theft devices to prevent the stealing of their precious valuables. That is probably thousands of dollars more tacked on the initial expenditure on the investment with one bird alone.

In 1972, a disease known as “Exotic Newcastle” swept eight counties in Southern California, putting them under quarantine and eradicating those believed to have been carrying the disease. A total of seven million birds were killed both by the virus and viciously by the Department of Agriculture.

Despite the theft and diseases these parrots brought along with them, bird owners were not discouraged from valuing these revenue-generating species. (14)

14 Ibid., SD-A1.

News article about the rise of parrot smuggling article courtesy of the LA Times

News article about the parrot pet craze and seeing them as “investments� article courtesy of the LA Times

08

Busch Gardens involvement

Busch Gardens, Van Nuys, Los Angeles

Busch Gardens

Los Angeles is known for its theme parks including Disneyland, Universal Studios, Knott’s Berry Farms; however, the Busch Gardens was not able to compete with the popularity of the other parks. This changed as the Busch Gardens became in charge of the care of the confiscated parrots, attracting more visitors.

Busch Garden’s heroic act to be the birds’ caretaker was rewarded with the birds’ aid in resuscitating its business.

Shortly after the completion of the construction of the Baja California Highway, authorities from the Fish and Wildlife Service confiscated a shipment of 205 green parrots and parakeets in San Diego.

In need of experienced caretakers, the federal government sought the care for the illegally imported birds. This is when the Busch Gardens came in the picture. The adult-oriented (being a beer garden, near its brewery) theme park has a small bird sanctuary and heroically volunteered to take care of the birds as they saw it as a profitable tourist-attractor for their park. The government agreed by lightly saying to “send the tab” over. (15) The care for the parrots and parakeets indeed proved to be of great economic resurgence for the park as it now catered, not only with adults, but also the children.

News article about the economic benefits of the parrots article courtesy of the LA Times

15 Mike Causey, “Alien Parrots Cost U.S. A Lot of Crackers” (LA Times, October 13, 1978), B3.

09

as theme park mascots

By the time the Busch Gardens adopted the parrots and parakeets as mascots, the theme park generated revenues, which helped fund for the expansion of the Busch Gardens, further catering more to both adults and children.

Indeed, a “friendly welcome awaits everybody,” as the kids can learn about nature, while mommy and daddy drink beer under the sun-shade umbrellas.

The addition of the tropical birds created the “natural” aura, which the theme park was lacking. Being a vacation hotspot, the Busch Gardens’ replication of “natural” elements from the tropics, such as waterfalls provided a serene escape from the hustle and bustle of the city of Los Angeles, which ironically is located within the dense urban fabric.

Park pamphlet

courtesy of the Harvard Map Collections and Anheuser & Busch

Along with the parrots at the Busch Gardens are other birds such as swans, amingoes, penguins and storks to complete the bird casting of an ideal Edenic paradise.

Park pamphlet

courtesy of the Harvard Map Collections and Anheuser & Busch

Busch Gardens Expansion courtesy of Anheuser & Busch

10

in advertisement

During this time, the use of tropical birds in ads were most popular particularly in products endorsing leisure activities, such as smoking and drinking.

The relaxing “nature” of these animals was a great marketing technique for such products as in turn it generated large amounts of revenue.

It is the birds’ connection to their origins, being the tropics, that made the advertisement successful paired with the promise of experiencing leisure-ness from the products, as if one can be on a short get-away and escape the stressful reality of the city to relax in “nature.”

cigarette + liquor ads

At the time of the resurgence and rising popularity of the Busch Gardens amongst adults and children, Anheuser and Busch further took advantage of actual owenership of live parrots to not only showcase their theme park but also jump in the current advertisement band wagon at the time by promoting their main brew: Budweiser.

This once again proved to be economically productive for the company as the parrots truly brought in the business both for the park and also making Budweiser known as the “king of beers.”

Until today, the use of parrots in liquor advertisement is of a common practice. Other products such as Corona also made the parrot its advertising mascot. Could this be an homage to the “naturalized” parrots of Mexico? vintage ad for Busch Gardens + Budweiser courtesy of Anheuser & Busch

11

Busch Gardens closure + dispersal

All seemed to be going well for the Busch Gardens three and a half years after they saved the birds from “deportation” back to their “natural” habitat.

The birds not only generated revenue, which resurged the name of the theme park, but most importantly gave Anheuser and Busch the eternal status as an American brewery.

However in 1979, the Busch Gardens was forced to close its doors, as the federal government could not sustain to support the care of the birds any longer, especially after being sent a tab worth $110,000 for the birds’ care over the last three and a half years. The cost for the care of each of the 205 birds were sixty cents per day. (16) news articles about the Busch Gardens closure courtesy of LA Times

16 Ibid., B3.

It is even noted in an article from the LA Times that some federal officials believe it will be cheaper to “deport” the birds back to their country of origin even if they all rode first class.

be a mystery, however. These are the birds that were originally confiscated along the border. Urban legends say that the Busch Gardens released them after the park closure, but no confirmation has been made regarding this.

The government eventually settled and paid the $100,000 and the remaining was covered by the Fish and Wildlife Services, however discontinued its support for their care.

After the closure of the park, many of the birds were dispersed all over the city with the LA and San Diego Zoos taking in the larger birds such as the swans, penguins, flamingoes and storks, while the colorful parrots and macaws were transported to the Tampa Busch Gardens, which are still at the location until today. (17) What happened with the green parrots and parakeets seems to street view of the current state of Anheuser & Busch courtesy of Google Street View

17 Martha Willman, “Busch Garden Dream Ends” (LA Times, February 15, 1979), SF1.

12

“natural” dialectic

Despite the unconfirmed accounts of the release of the green species of parrots and parakeets from the Busch Gardens, the city of Los Angeles have since become home to what may be the same birds and/or descendants of those originating from the park.

Since the Busch Gardens’ closure, the city seems to have forgotten the once relaxing escape that the park provided as many seems to be surprised with sightings of green parrots all over Los Angeles, claiming that these birds are “unnatural citizens” of the city and are non-native therefore must be eradicated.

Did the Angelenos forget the once-valued birds? It seems as though that the birds are not of importance anymore without practical or economic values to be extracted from them. parrot and parakeet species “naturalized” in California

The parrots are symbiotically existing with other “non-native� vegetations, whic provide their food.

Myoporum Laetum

13

Los Angeles parrot species + urban distribution

Sightings of the birds are constantly being recorded by the California Parrot Project, which studies the new habitat of the species and the location of distribution of each specific parrot colony.

Interestingly, not only did the parrots “naturalized” in a new environmental setting, but also chose to territorialize flat areas of the urban, instead of choosing the wooded areas of the valleys.

As recorded by David Fletcher, these parrots have colonized areas of the Los Angeles river, along its “synthetic” concretized edges; dwelling in palm trees eating other invasive flora that have also “naturalized” in the city, especially along the LA River.

They seem to have adapted dialectically along with the “synthetic” material of the urban.

(18)

From its possible origin, being the Busch Gardens, the green parrots and parakeets have expanded beyond the epicenter of the release and have created territorial colonies all over the city and county.

18 Fletcher, 42.

14

the parakeets of northern California

Over the next 10 years or so, sightings of similar species of parrots are being recorded in northern California as early as in the 1990’s.

The city of San Francisco has fabricated many stories of how the birds have ended up in the city, among those are: (19) - an old lady living in Russian Hill, whose wish when she passes is to release the parrots from their cages - a delivery truck who left its back doors open, accidentally dropping cages of wild Amazonian parrot and escaping - a pet store owner downtown who, one day, went crazy from the noisy birds and released them.

19 Uncredited Interviewees, “Urban Legends” in The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill, 45:10.

All the accounts, however, seem to have one thing in common based on the interviews, in that they happened back in the 1930’s, but with no evidentiary support to claim that these birds have “naturalized” in the city. Afterall, the bird extraction and trade did not boom until the 1950’s.

The only recordings available are from news articles, which documents the sudden and random sightings of these birds in San Francisco, particularly in Telegraph Hill, as early as 1990’s and not earlier.

screenshot of the opening scene from The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill image from the documentary

“wild� parakeets of Telegraph Hill image by Leif Estrada

15

San Francisco parakeet species + urban distribution

In the early 2000, a documentary was released about the famous cherry-headed conures of Telegraph Hill, which analyzes the potential origins of the birds and most importantly their role in the ecological processes in the urban environment.

The documentary, however, did not pose a connection with the existing parakeets in Los Angeles; which are the same exact species that are now thriving in San Francisco ten years after the believed release of the green parrots and parakeets from the Busch Gardens.

After their “naturalization� in the urban of Los Angeles, the smaller parrot species; the parakeets started to enter the market of local trade again, however, not as big as the trade that happened in previous years.

This time, the smaller species were being caught and sold to local pet stores throughout California as they are much easier to catch than their larger counterparts.

Could it be that the parakeets of San Francisco be related to the ones in Los Angeles?

The six known species seen in LA are the exact ones that are being spotted in the northern coast, and did not ourish ten years after the release.

16

problematizing the “natural;” case studies

The parrots of California are not the only thriving successive ecologies that are causing a blur between the lines of “synthetic” and “natural” processes. Among those are the delta smelts in the California River Delta and the flourishing ecology of the Rocky Mountain Arsenals.

The delta smelts for instance are mediated by wildlife agencies and helped trucked across the river and released, where other predatory fishes are awaiting their prey. However, the wildlife agencies believe they can’t interfere with the “natural” process of the smelts being fish food, as they are only helping their migration along the river (which runs upstream, making it difficult for the smelts to navigate). (20)

releasing of the delta smelt

20 Jane Wolff, Delta Primer: A Field Guide to the California Delta, (William Stout, 2003), 103.

The new ecological “nature” of the Rocky Mountain Arsenal, is also among those fluctuating between the organic and mediated processes.

As toxic as the site is, the animals are thriving in the abandoned site. (21) This seems to put into relief that the “synthetic” is but a new form of the “natural.” After all, is there even a pure form of “nature” today?

It seems as though the normative defenition of “nature,” is one that is operates without human agency. The idea of an entity being “natural” has an attachment to a historical definition and one that seems to discredit nature’s capacity to adapt and evolve with the current environment. Do we also define something whether it is “natural” or “synthetic” based on the values we successive ecologies in the Rocky Mountains Arsenal

21 William Cronon, “In Search of Nature” in Uncommon Ground, (W.W. Norton and Company, 1996), 28.

17

afterword

extract from them, whether practically or economically?

“After a while they become second nature to us and we do our best to ignore them as something we can accept or flee from but not change... Treating such things as normal and inevitable in effect naturalizes them, placing them beyond our control and excusing us from having to take responsibility from them making it easier to pretend they have little or nothing to do with our own actions.” (22) William Cronon, “In Search for Nature” in Uncommon Ground

I believe that if we further understand that the evolution, adaptation and eventual “naturalization” of the parrots from the Amazon to California and other places in the country and the world was due to our contributory negligent processes of

22 William Cronon, “In Search for Nature” in Uncommon Ground, (W.W. Norton and Company, 1996), 31.

industrialization and urbanization, then we would be able to accept these new thriving ecologies into our “second nature,” where everything operates in a symbiotically benefitting process towards the production of successive projective ecologies.

“We recognize that, as non-native species, parrots in California are scorned by some and ignored by many. We take no position on the desirability of maintaining parrot populations in the state (nor those of introduced eucalyptus, palms, trout or turkeys). Parrots are symptomatic of the expansion of urban habitats dominated by non-native plants; they also illustrate the capacity of humans to move wildlife around the planet for economic, social or aesthetic reasons. They are here, for better or worse, and continue to pose interesting biological questions.� (23) Garrett Kimball, Curator of Ornithology, LA Natural History Museum California Parrots

image by the California Parrot Project

23 Garrett Kimball, The California Parrot Project website, (California Parrot Project, 2010).

18

acknowledgments + bibliography

This historical and cartographic research would not have been possible without the vast support of knowledge from the following groups and individuals:

Edward Eigen, Associate Professor of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Harvard Graduate School of Design Matthew Wilson, Visiting Assistant Professor of Landscape Architecture, Urban Planning and Design, Harvard Graduate School of Design; Assistant Professor of Geography, University of Kentucky

Fulbright Advisors: Neil Brenner, PhD, Fulbright Advisor, Professor of Urban Theory, Director of the Urban Theory Lab, Harvard Graduate School of Design Bradley Cantrell, Fulbright Advisor, Program Director of Landscape Architecture, Associate Professor of Landscape Architectural Technology, Harvard Graduate School of Design

The Harvard University Museum of Comparative Zoology, Ornithology Department Scott Edwards, Curator of Ornithology, Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology, Professor of Biology, Harvard University The Harvard University Map Collections Joseph Garver, Librarian for Research Services and Collection Development, Harvard University

Erle Ellis, PhD, Fulbright Advisor, Visiting Associate Professor of Landscape Architecture, Harvard Graduate School of Design, Professor of Geography and Environmental Systems, University of Maryland-Baltimore

Los Angeles Natural History Museum Garrett Kimball, Curator of Ornithology, Los Angeles Natural History Museum

International Sponsors: Brazil: Felipe Milanez, PhD, Political Ecologist, World-Renowned Documentarian, UN-Dubbed "Forest Hero," Professor at the Federal University of Recôncavo da Bahia

Mexico: Dr. César A Domínguez Pérez-Tejada, Director of the Institute of Ecology at the National Autonomous University of Mexico

The California Parrot Project David Fletcher, Associate Professor of Architecture, California College of the Arts -BOOKS Cronon, William. “In Search of Nature” in Uncommon Ground. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.

October 1996.

Kimball, Garrett. Birds of Southern California. Olympia: R.W. Morse Company, 2012.

Wolff, Jane. Delta Primer: A Field Guide to the California Delta. San Francisco: William Stout, 2003.

INTERVIEWS Edwards, Scott. Personal Interview. 2 April 2014.

NEWS ARTICLES Anderson, Pat B. “Trouble for Bird Breeders: Bad-Tempered Touracos a Bit Cuckoo.” LA Times. January 5, 1978.

Kimball, Garrett. Personal Interview. 29 March 2014.

Causey, Mike. “Alien Parrots Cost U.S. A Lot of Crackers.” LA Times. October 13, 1978.

ESSAYS Fletcher, David. “Flood Control Freakology.” in Infrastructural City: Networked Ecologies in Los Angeles ed.

Kazys Varnelys. Barcelona: Actar. 2008.

Curtiss, Aaron. "Question of How Wild Parrots Flew the Coop Is Up in the Air." LA Times. April 9, 1991.

Gustkey, Earl. “Quickest Route to the Real Mexico is the Baja Highway” LA Times. May 14, 1978.

Guzmán, Juan Carlos Cantú, Maria Elená Sanchez Saldaña, Manuel Grosselet and Jesús Silva Gamez. “The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.” México, D.F.: Defenders of Wildlife. January 2007.

Gobbi, José; Debra Rose, Gina De Ferrari, and Leonora Sheeline. “Parrot Smuggling Across the Texas-Mexico Border.” Washington D.C.: Traffic USA and World Wildlife Fund—US 1996.

Kimball, Garrett. “Population Status and Distribution of Naturalized Parrots in Southern California.” in Western Birds 28. San Diego: San Diego Natural History Museum. September 1997.

Kimball, Garrett, Karen T. Mabb, Charles T. Collins and Lisa M. Kares. “Food Items of Naturalized Parrots in Southern California.” in Western Birds 28. San Diego: San Diego Natural History Museum. September 1997.

Mabb, Karen T. “Roosting Behavior of Naturalized Parrots in the San Gabriel Valley, California.” in Western Birds 28. San Diego: San Diego Natural History Museum. September 1997.

Jones, John A. “Birds Get the Business: A Long Way from the Hot Parakeet Days” LA Times. January 10, 1971.

LaRiviere, Anne. “Exotic Birds: Costly New Pet Craze Sweeping U.S.” LA Times. September 30, 1976.

Schnabel, Maria. “Expensive ‘Import’ from Mexico: Parrot Smuggling Feathers Many Nests.” LA Times.

October 28, 1979.

Schnabel, Maria. “The Mexican Connection: Profitable Parrot Smuggling on Rise.” LA Times. October 28, 1979.

Willman, Martha. "Busch Garden Dream Ends." LA Times. February 15, 1979.

(Author Unknown) "New Busch Gardens Bird Sanctuary." LA Times. February 19, 1977.

(Author Unknown) "Oktober Fest Huge Success." LA Times. September 30, 1976.

Mabb, Karen T. “Nesting Behavior of Amazon Parrots and Rose-Ringed Parakeets in the San Gabriel Valley, California.” in Western Birds 28. San Diego: San Diego Natural History Museum. September 1997.

Rasmussen, Cecilia. "Ultimately, a bird in the hand proved to be of lesser value than a Busch in a can." LA Times. March 7, 1994.

WEBSITES California Parrot Project. The California Parrot Project. 2000-2010 [cited March 17, 2014]. Available from: http://www.californiaparrotproject.org.

An International Research Project produced for the Fulbright Foundation 2016

More information at: http://leif-estrada.com