Chapter 01: The Written and The Reviewed

The word ‘Gentrification’ is a term that can loosely be interpreted and perceived in many ways. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the definition of Gentrification is the process in which a poor area (as of a city) experiences an influx of middle-class or wealthy people who renovate and rebuild homes and businesses, which often results in an increase in property values and the displacement of earlier, usually poorer residents.

Currently in London, upon commencing this research, there are 122 social housing estates in the capital that are under-threat to be demolished, with the borough of Tower Hamlets leading with 9 estates heading for removal, and the borough of Lambeth with 8, where Cressingham Gardens Estate is located. Some of which have been given the go-ahead, and some are still awaiting decision (Lawrence, 2022).

Many of these housing estates in the illustration above came about in Britain in the 1980’s, at a time of developing modernist and socialist principles that directly correlates with neo-liberalist idealism and economic culture. Even to this day, those in various national leadership openly discloses their intent of dismantling social housing which was heavily encouraged because of a privatisation scheme (Kelly, 2022). In the 1980’s, there was a revival of interest in the Brutalist architectural style of living often associated with social housing, as well as private sector occupants despite being associated with areas of deprivation at which the media and politicians has played a huge part in that perception of ‘sink estates’ (Minton, 2017).

THE ‘SINK ESTATE’

The very idea of ‘sink estates’ has been a term that I have encountered quite frequently when discussing and exploring the issue of gentrification and regeneration of social housing. Sink estates are referred to as British Council housing characterized by a high degree of economic and social deprivation. Although there is a strong correlation between crime rates and reduced settlements in metropolitan areas, such settlements are not necessarily areas with high crime rates. Although it has not been officially noted by who and where the definition was first coined, but the most notable use of the term was during one of Tony Blair’s 1998 speech. A year prior, when he was elected as prime minister in 1997, he delivered a speech at Aylesbury Estate in the London Borough of Southwark, promising that “The new homes appearing on this site will be better for those who move in, and what looks like a building site today will become a brand-new landscape for this part of London” (Blair, 1997 cited in Evening Standard, 2010).

However, it was argued that the term was flawed and a misrepresentation of what these so-called ‘sink estates’ actually are. Victoria Pinoncely from The Guardian argues that areas such as Aylesbury Estate in Southwark and Packington Estate in Islington are not ‘sunk’ areas, which takes the term quite literally. They are merely areas that were ‘starved’ and lacked crucial consideration and investments on amenities such as accesses, public spaces, and infrastructure. Therefore, the knock-on effect is what is perceived as social deprivation and lack of maintenance management, for example, are amplified further; especially when estates such as Aylesbury could have been greatly benefitted by revitalisation through public investment. She argued that the word ‘starved’ is a more appropriate term for such areas, as the word ‘sink’ has very negative connotations that suggests social negligence, decline and deterioration (Pinoncely, 2016). To an extent, there are some truths to that; but not to the fault of those living in them. Many of these estates have been legally neglected by their respective local councils without the provision and consideration for repairs and attention when they desperately needed them. These merely became excuses for those in authority to put forward plans for their removal as an easy way out of the issue (Burnside, 2016).

Hall, 1980 cited in Cooper et all, 2020

The emergence of these so-called ‘sink estates’ has also been argued to have been influenced by multiple factors over the years. It has been highlighted that the Right-to-Buy scheme implemented by the former British prime minister, Margaret Thatcher in the 1980’s has been noted as a key driving force to said issue. Though the objective of the mandate began with pure intentions at which the term ‘Thatcherism’ was first coined, the goal would then allow a free market approach, but later have resulting repercussions that will have a massive impact on the issue of gentrification (Cooper et all, 2020). “Thatcher drew on classical liberal ideas of individual liberty, tax cuts and the free market, combining them with traditional conservative values of nationalism, self-reliance, patriarchal respectability and ‘law and order” (Hall, 1976 cited in Cooper et all, 2020). The ideology of Thatcherism is often seen as the bridge and the social consideration that ultimately separates the struggle between ‘the state’ and ‘the people’ (Hall, 1980 cited in Cooper et all, 2020).

In the end, the Right-To-Buy scheme, in simpler terms, allowed the people to have freedom in the purchase of their own home, notably those in social housing, without their power being held over them; to stimulate the attitudes of independence and self-reliance that are now the bedrock of a free society. Because people who have had access to social housing at the time, now have the ability to purchase their home; with many simply just moved on after the purchase. Therefore, either selling their properties back to the council or to private landlords or affluent professionals. This exchange of capital and property now means that there are fewer homes that exist in communities where Right to Buy was vigorously pursued (Cooper et al, 2020).

With that said, Anna Minton in her book Big Capital: Who is London For?, argues that the problem has deeper roots that can be traced long before Thatcher’s implementation of the Right to Buy scheme. In 1972, Oscar Newman who is an American architect released a book titled ‘Defensible Space: People and Design in the Violent City’ that discusses the presence of crime in social housing (‘projects’ they are referred to in the United States). His main argument in the book touches on the idea that crime should not be pointed as the culprit to social deprivation. Rather, he argues that there are opportunities that can simply be solved through smart and effective urban planning. His belief was to replace tower blocks and skyscrapers in New York City, with low-rise projects where private spaces, territories and boundaries can easily to distinguished with one another, therefore giving citizens a sense of ownership and individualism.

With these views, Newman’s neoliberal and individualistic perspective gave him traction across the pond when the BBC asked him to undertake a review concerning his philosophies and suggested a visit to Aylesbury Estate in London. Long story short, Newman took part in filming a documentary that regrettably put Aylesbury Estate in such a bad light, suggesting that crime is the reason for such downfall when, at the time, crime rates at Aylesbury Estate were low and bore no resemblance to housing projects that Newman has been studying in the United States. From then on, the estate has been used as propaganda and a symbol for regeneration (Minton, 2017).

This led up to a conversation that politicians alike took interest in. From Margaret Thatcher’s Right-to-Buy scheme to Tony Blair’s attempt at an election agenda from the very beginning. This approach was further encouraged by another former prime minister, David Cameron when he delivered a press release speech in 2016 concerning the issue of regeneration and the building of more homes, particularly in the city of London (Cameron, 2016). His press release instigated a chain of events, that eventually encouraged many regenerations plans to go ahead.

The chain of events through the last fifty years or so that I have briefly outlined in this chapter, have had major impacts on urban planning and the built environment, especially in big cities like London. Whether or not, they have directly impacted the current housing crisis and social issues such as gentrification… that’s another subject that will need further discussions. However, the case of Cressingham Gardens Estate is one of many regeneration stories that have suffered at the hand of poor management, political manipulation and decision-making of those in power.