GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL DIMENSION OF THE ARCTIC by Lena Geerts Danau

LENA GEERTS DANAU

GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL DIMENSION OF THE ARCTIC NATURE FRAMED AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE IN THE ARCTIC

ROYAL COLLEGE OF ART CHS ARCHITECTURE 2020 WORD COUNT: 9835

THROUGH THE USE OF THE ARCTIC REGION, I WISH TO ADDRESS THAT A NATION CAN HAVE A GEOGRAPHICAL AS WELL AS A POLITICAL CONTEXT. THE ARCTIC IS A SIGNIFICANT REGION THAT CAN TEACH US MORE ABOUT THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND, AT THE SAME TIME, PROVIDE A NEW FRAMEWORK TO GOVERN AREAS WITHOUT CLEAR BORDERS. THE PARTICULAR GEOGRAPHIC SITUATION EXISTING IN THE ARCTIC THAT IS CAUSED BY CLIMATE CHANGE GIVES US INSIGHTS INTO POLITICAL AND GOVERNMENTAL REGIONS OF INFLUENCE. VIA A GLOBAL GOVERNING SYSTEM, WE COULD LINK THE GLOBAL PROCESSES CAUSED BY THE CLIMATE CRISIS WITH THEIR LOCAL MANIFESTATIONS.

INDEX

01 - INTRODUCTION: THE ARCTIC

04 - HYPEROBJECTS

- 07

- 31 - 34 entanglements of structures at different scales - 36 denial of climate change - 37

introduction

local vs global impacts

02 - GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION - 11 - 14 the arctic as a ‘void’ - 16 nature used for capital - 18 introduction

rethinking the concept of territories

03 - GOVERNING THE ARCTIC - 21 political bodies - 24 partnership - 26 the ‘law of the sea’ - unclos - 27 introduction

05 - CONCLUSION conclusion

- 40

06 - BIBLIOGRAPHY - 45 - 51 background readings - 53 general

additional explanations

INTRODUCTION: THE ARCTIC

The story of the Arctic begins with a temperature rise (the whole world warmed 0.9 degrees Celsius since 1880), the ice is melting (1981-2010 baseline, drop of 13% per decade), and a race for the Arctic starts. These changes mark new geopolitical transformations within the region. Currently, eight states (Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, Russia, The United States, Finland, Sweden, and Iceland) control land in the Arctic circle while only the first five of them have coastlines located within this region. Each of these nations has its values, rights, and privileges. Since the previously inaccessible land now opens up, the Arctic Ocean has become contested geography. Each of the nation’s fight for their rights to control a part of the geographic territory. But before the whole area will be able to open up for economic development, sovereign governments need to figure out who owns what.I II III The dissertation consists out of a paper and ‘a bank of evidence.’ The combination of both invites the reader to not only think about the geographic and political implications of several global warming phenomena within the Arctic region (described in the paper), but also look at the changing environment which poses new questions related to several fields (showed and explained within the ‘bank of evidence’). 07

INTRODUCTION: THE ARCTIC

The ‘bank of evidence’ provides a human viewpoint on the implications climate change has in the Arctic environment. It unfolds the interests and developments in the Arctic caused by colonialist apparatuses with a series of maps and pictures. Besides, it also shows how the Arctic environment looks like, who is living in this area, how climate change poses new questions related to the politcal as well as the economic field, and finally how states express there interest in the area and try to make claims over certain parts of land. This booklet of pictures and maps is used to position the paper into the wider framework of events happening in the Arctic environment. The first chapter of the dissertation outlines the geographic position of the Arctic. In this chapter, I explore the concepts of ‘void,’ ‘territories,’ and ‘the use of nature for capital purposes’. Firstly, we can see the Arctic as a void, a geographical as well as a political one. This void allows individual countries to make claims of ownership over the land that is coming free and currently isn’t owned by any country. Secondly, the Arctic provides a frame for a new way of thinking about areas and their political sovereignty. I use the concept of an archipelago to create a new legislative as well as a geographic framework for the Arctic region. Thirdly, I discuss the increasingly shrinking Arctic sea ice, which provides clear shipping routes for trade as well

as the coming free of resources embedded underneath the sea ice. In this chapter, I point to the current struggle around the relationship between nature and humans. In the second chapter, I discuss the governing of the Arctic to provide a way to look into the international entanglements in the Arctic region. I use the combination of existing political bodies, the UNCLOS convention, and the notion of partnership to explain that cooperation is a useful tool to structure and sustain cross-border Arctic relations. The existing political bodies, as well as the UNCLOS convention, help to structure these geopolitical relations and provide a new legislative framework for the Arctic environment. The concept of partnership showcases why communication on every level, the local as well as the global, is necessary to change the political situation. In the third chapter, I use the idea of a Hyperobject to elaborate on the global and local impacts of climate change. The information provided in the previous two sections related to the Arctic environment gives a framework to rethink our current national articulation of the climate crisis. Besides, this chapter also serves to draw attention to the global impacts of the melting of the Arctic sea ice and looks for a way to make climate crises part of people’s consciousness.

GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION

Extreme weather conditions characterize the Arctic region. The difference between summer and winter is huge. During summertime, the sun never goes down, and in wintertime, the sun never comes up, so the area remains in darkness. The terrain varies highly from tall mountains to flat, vast, plain tundra, and snow and ice cover great expanses of the sea.IV These harsh climatic conditions make it very difficult for people to inhabit this area. Still, some indigenous people1 already live in the Arctic for millennia, they are called the Inuit’s and live in scattered communities of different sizes. Their lives intertwine closely with the local resources, and their access to food depends on wildlife harvesting.V

1 See chapter communities in ‘the bank of evidence’ to find out how these communities manage to live in the harsh climatic conditions of the Arctic environment. 2 “Arctic Amplification” is a phenomenon that causes higher temperatures near the poles compared to the planetary average because of a combination of feedback processes. For example, when sea ice melts in the summer, it opens up dark areas of water that absorb more heat from the sun, which in turn melts more ice. This “feedback loop” also includes the effects of melting snow and thawing permafrost. Arctic Amplification is most pronounced in winter and strongest in areas with large losses of sea ice during the summer.XCII 3 See chapter melting ice in ‘the bank of evidence’ for more information

Today the Arctic is warming twice as fast compared to other areas on our planet because of the phenomenon of Arctic Amplification2.VI Currently, temperatures climbed four degrees Celsius all year round. All climatologists estimate that by the year 2100, the Arctic sea ice will melt3 every summer. The geographical (melting ice, scientific evidence of resources in the seafloor) and political (Russians planting a flag on the seabed) developments in the period between 2007 and 2008, transformed the geography, biodiversity, and governmental units of this desolate region.VII

GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION

The newly discovered valuable condition gave rise to increased attention from several countries. This condition goes back to the history of the Arctic. More specifically, to the Triassic4 and early Tertiary5 period . At these times, greenhouse gasses warmed the world far hotter than it is today. The Arctic itself almost had a tropical climate: this was caused by a higher global temperature and by the fact that the Arctic was situated in warmer latitudes because of tectonic plates.VIII The climatic conditions of the Arctic during this period, namely high temperature and a lot of organic life on the surface level, gave rise to the high amount of gas as well as oil deposits, now located in the basins of the Arctic ocean floor. Scientists estimate this seafloor is home to almost 30% of natural gas and 13% of the oil deposits around the world.IX Since 1979 researchers kept satellite records to estimate the decrease of the Arctic ice. Now, the ice has lost 40% of its area, which introduces a new geographic situation in the Arctic ocean.X The oil and gas deposits come free and can provide potential wealth for the countries that own this land and can export these resources. So, new economic opportunities for the future of the Arctic come to rise, this forms an explanation for the increased attention in the Arctic region.XI XII

4 The Triassic Period occurred between 251 million and 199 million years ago. It marked the beginning of major changes that were to take place throughout the Mesozoic Era, particularly in the distribution of continents, the evolution of life, and the geographic distribution of living things.XCIII 5 The Tertiary Period occurred 66 million to 2.6 million years ago. It was marked with an interval of enormous geologic, climatic, oceanographic, and biological change. It spanned the transition from a globally warm world containing relatively high sea levels and dominated by reptiles to a world of polar glaciation, sharply differentiated climate zones, and mammalian dominance.XCIV

GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION

RETHINKING THE CONCEPT OF TERRITORIES The climatic and geographic situation within the Arctic region gave rise to a discussion about the geographical position and the political framework we could use for the arising new land (when fully melted the Arctic Ocean covers 14.06 million square kilometres)XIII. Both the geographical position as well as the political framework influence each other and decide how we perceive this land differently. The quote ‘The world is an archipelago’ from the philosopher Edouard GlissantXIV offers a way to rethink territories and their political sovereignty. The term archipelago refers typically to a group of islands closely scattered in a body of water. All these islands have their own identity but are still part of one political community. For this reason, the world, or more precisely the Arctic, which consists of several nations but thought of as one, is an archipelago.XV Geographically the Arctic circle, a line of latitude about 66,5 degrees north of the Equator, defines the area of the region we call the Arctic.XVI Five states that directly border the Arctic lay in this region. These states are Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, Russia, and the United States and form the Arctic Five6. Besides these five bordering nations, also Finland, Sweden, and Iceland have rights and privileges within the Arctic, but they are not located within the Arctic Circle and are not part of the Arctic Five. Therefore, we are not yet able to understand ‘who owns the Arctic’ and ‘what is the political extend of the Arctic.’XVII Perceiving the Arctic environment as an archipelago transforms it into a more relatable space. It gives us the opportunity to understand the ownership and extend of the Arctic environment. Within an archipelago, several countries, each with a limited area, but constructed into one legislative body get in dialogue with each other. As a consequence, blurred borders between the countries arise. Hypothetically we could say that the different landmasses within the Arctic at once form one political body which is still geographically separated by pieces of the ocean. The archipelago now comprises several voices of the various nations and creates a new framework for Arctic sovereignty. Within this idea we can install a new understanding of the word nation, which is traditionally seen as a country with limited borders and only one legislative body.XVIII

All around the world, the limits of a country reach to the territorial waters of a nation. Within these national waters, a country has exclusive rights to use the resources embedded in the seafloor. This extension is called the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)7. Taking a look at the Arctic seabed, gives us a better understanding of the possible conflicts arising from the establishment of the EEZ. Currently, there is no agreement over the position of the borders8 of every nation located within the Arctic Circle. This uncertainty makes the Arctic region particularly interesting to talk about the concept of the EEZ.XIX The current situation in which every nation can exploit the resources within its EEZ allows the surrounding countries of the Arctic ocean to claim sovereignty over their local assets embedded within this EEZ. The problem here is that at this point, the claims from the different nations that are surrounding the Arctic ocean are overlapping. So, there is no agreement over the precise location of the borderlines within the Arctic sea yet. Therefore, some parts of the sea don’t belong to anyone, and since nobody owns these pieces of land, nobody can claim the resources located within these regions.XX

6 The Arctic Five is the grouping of the five Arctic littoral states (Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States of America) in addressing Arctic affairs. It must be emphasized that this association has no independent power or existence apart from the states that comprise it. This, however, does not deprive the association of importance. Gatherings of and concerted action on the part of the Arctic littoral states have significant implications for the region.XCV 7 An Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a concept adopted at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (1982), whereby a coastal State assumes jurisdiction over the exploration and exploitation of marine resources in its adjacent section of the continental shelf, taken to be a band extending 200 miles from the shore.XCVI 8 See chapter borders in ‘the bank of evidence’ to understand the actors that are involved and try to claim a piece of land.

To conclude, this situation of claiming a part of your land that extends into the ocean is particularly interesting in the Arctic since countries govern each an individual piece of the Arctic ocean. As from 2007, scientific models and graphs give us evidence about the high amount of exploitable natural resources underneath the Arctic surface.XXI Since these pieces of land are up for grasp, a rise in attention from the surrounding countries to claim the area exists. But, if we want to understand this situation of claiming land through history, we need to take a closer look at the concept of territorializing an area, Whitehead Jones translates this concept as the use of space to control and regulate nature. In the sense of the Arctic, this means the claiming of land to be able to exploit the resources embedded within this land. Territorialization is already part of our culture for a long time. It consist out of two factors, firstly, it construct a space in which political knowledge can be gathered, this gives the state the chance to know nature by it’s spatial form and location. But secondly, it also envolves the regulation of nature through national boundaries, and this factor is important to consider within the Arctic environment. It indicates how we deal with the notion of a nation-state, a notion that gives the possibility to claim ressources located within specific national boundaries.XXII XXIII 15

GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION

THE ARCTIC AS A ‘VOID’ During history, people made several attempts to claim particular pieces of the land. Now the dominant trend in the Arctic is clear. Global warming pushes back the Arctic ice cap what gives the chance to develop new shipping routes9 and offshore petroleum mining10. As a consequence, several states try to claim parts of the sea in the north pole that are melting. In 2007 Arthur Chillingarov, an Armenian-Russian polar explorer planted a flag on the Arctic seabed with the words ‘The Arctic is Russian.’ As a reaction, the Canadian foreign minister Peter Mackay responded; ‘During the 15th century, it was common to use this method to claim territory, but now the situation differs’. This reaction came too fast since the intention of the flag-planting wasn’t about claiming the territory, it was more a symbolic statement, just as the flag-planting on the moon of the US in 1969. Thus, the flag-planting here was a statement to show that the Russian scientists are on the front of the technological shift. Still, the act of planting a flag indicates expansionism, not exploration, and in this way, brings new political negotiations into view. As a response to the dispute, the Danish government invited the surrounding Arctic ocean states to Greenland in 2008. There the four countries (Canada, Russia, Denmark, Norway) signed the Illulisat declaration11, in which they agreed on working together within an existing framework of international law.XXIV XXV The reaction from the Canadian minister shows that today the situation to claim land differs from the one in history. In the past, it was possible to claim a territory if this land was untended, uncivilized, and uncultivated.XXVI Now, this isn’t the case anymore. Justification of land claims depend on scientific findings. These findings are legalised within the EEZ. The problem in the Arctic is that claims are overlapping, and so these zones aren’t clearly defined yet.XXVII

Furthermore, nobody owns the Arctic; which implies that the region is a political as well as geographical void. To clarify this notion of void, I will make a comparison between the geographical borders and the governing system used within the Arctic and Amazon. Both are incredibly large and widespread pieces of nature -14.06 million square kilometres when fully meltedXXVIII and 7,794 million square kilometres, of which 64% in BrazilXXIX respectively- but the geographical and political situation differ drastically. Brazil owns the Amazon; it is a country with fixed borders that decides on the use of the resources in the rainforest. While the extent of the Arctic region is unclear since there are actor evolved within the decision-making organs from around the whole world (FE. In governing bodies such as the Arctic Five, Arctic Council12). Besides this governmental organisation also transforms the region into a much-valued colonialist apparatus since the borders aren’t defined, this implies that countries can claim a specific part of the area. To conclude, both the Arctic and the Amazon physically influence global processes. Still, the Amazon is locally governed while the Arctic is more challenging to comprehend since it is governed by global governing mechanisms.XXX XXXI

9 See chapter shipping routes in ‘the bank of evidence’ to get an overview of the evolution of the NWP and the related economic developments. 10 See chapter resources in ‘the bank of evidence’ to understand the build infrastructure that goes hand in hand with the digging for resources. 11 The Ilulissat Declaration was announced on May 28, 2008 by the five coastal states of the Arctic Ocean (United States, Russia, Canada, Norway and The Kingdom of Denmark), meeting at the political level during the Arctic Ocean Conference in Ilulissat, Greenland to discuss the Arctic ocean, climate change, the protection of the marine environment, maritime safety, and division of emergency responsibilities if new shipping routes are opened.XCVII 12 The Arctic Council is a relatively fixed and ordered body that has been referred to as a “quasi-international organization” (Nord, 2016: 34). It labels itself, however, a “high level intergovernmental forum” given that it is not an international organization with independent legal character, but rather a space and framework for state action (Rottem, 2016: 169). It brings together numerous actors in a hierarchical organization to consider Arctic matters.XCVIII

GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION

NATURE USED FOR CAPITAL The rising interest in the Arctic and the idea of territorializing an area is closely intertwined. The Arctic is a sample model for the effects of climate change as well as for the political power of countries that claim sovereignty. Today, within the legislative framework, we see nature as a national resource. In contrast, the effects of the arising events in the environment are not limited to national borders. They extend and have implications on the global processes of our Earth.XXXII As such, greenhouse gas emission and pollution from activities around the world have an impact on the temperatures within the Arctic. Consequently, changes produced by this rise in temperature will, in their turn, affect the world again through, for example, an increase in sea levels.XXXIII So, this introduces the concept of globalization processes which can be political and environmental; processes where a local phenomenon has an impact on the global climate condition. The globalization processes came into view during neo-capitalist society. These processes exceed the national bounds of the nation-state. Since several nations claim and export the resources within the Arctic seafloor to the whole world, these resources transformed from being national to simultaneously being global. This transformation of a national resource used on a worldwide market changed the power relation between nature and society. Consequently, globalization influences the conservation of nature, since states start to influence regions that lay beyond their territories. Neil Brenner, in this sense, called for a rejection of the spatial fetishisms. This term is associated with the narrow, territorially conceived notions of state space. By reframing our notion of state space, he asked for greater attention to be given to the integrals space of the state. This integral space is described as: ‘the territory-, place-, and scale-specific ways in which state institurions are mobilised to regulate social relations and to influence their locational geographies.’XXXIV This concept of integral space is moving away from fixed borderlines. It brings the idea of fluid spaces, in which depending on the viewpoint connection between various nations, come into the picture.XXXV

Currently, within the Arctic, the state is operating nature for capital via the new trade routes and the resources that come free because of the melting ice. So, in this way the state uses products of nature for economic purposes, to accumulate their capital. The description of a state from Max Weber13 makes nature part of the concept of the state. ‘We have to say that a state is a human community that claims a monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.’XXXVI Thus, with globalization in our mind, we should rethink this description. Globalization can influence the conservation of nature trough the exploiting of resources, if a nation isn’t able to conserve nature while exploiting resources, this will have drastic impacts on the Arctic environment. So, we need to search for a body to sustain a healthy relation between the natural resources and the human exploitation of these resources.XXXVII An example of an organization that takes into account these two factors is the Arctic council. The Council needs to follow the auspices of the Ottowa Declaration14. As a consequence, it can only talk about ’issues of sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic,’ and ‘should not deal with matters related to military security.’ This focus implies that when the Council wants to extract resources, it needs to conserve the natural environment of the Arctic.XXXVIII

13 Weber (1864-1920) was a German economist, philosopher, and sociologist who wrote widely on human societies and institutions. He was also one of the first people of the 20th century to tackle the concept of the modern state, something that most scholars thought too obtuse to handle.XCIX 14 The Ottowa Declaration is a declaration on the establishment of the Arctic Council, 1996 (Joint communique of the governments of the Arctic countries on the establishment of the Arctic Council)C 15 The UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released a new report - Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis - on September 27th, 2013. Many scientists from Arctic Council members contributed to this IPCC report, and the findings have informed the Council’s climate change related work, notably in guiding further scientific efforts and in adaptation actions important to Northern communities.CI

To conclude, the term climate change is not only about pollution of nature, but also about a shift in how we deal with global governing systems that can influence environmental processes. Within the Arctic, a new way of thinking about territory emerged, namely the political system of the archipelago. This system maintains or monitors a different relationship between nature and society from the global to the local scale. A concrete example is the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)15; this panel provides possible solutions on a global scale instead of the narrow scale of the individual nation. It pinpoints that even within a global environment, countries will eventually experience the impacts of climate change. These impacts mostly influence the fields of agricultural production, human/animal population, and also through losses of territory.XXXIX XL

GOVERNING THE ARCTIC

This chapter introduces the actors that play a role in the political rearrangement of the Arctic environment. Currently, five countries, namely: Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, Russia, and The United States, form the total environment of the Arctic. Furthermore, also Finland, Sweden, and Iceland have rights and privileges within the Arctic region. Each country comes back into one or more of the existing political bodies, furthermore, several other voices also exist within the Arctic, namely, the indigenous people, the commercial actors, the states with their representatives, and the scientists. The inclusion of these actors provides another way of looking at power relations embedded within our geopolitical system and places the political field of the Arctic under another sunlight. It shows the influence of multiple fields and perspectives on this geopolitical system.XLI

GOVERING THE ARCTIC

Indigenous people The indigenous people were the start of the political history of the Arctic. In the past, ice covered a large part of the Arctic ocean. Consequently, Inuit people16 could quickly move from one country to another. So, already at that moment, the borders between Canada, Russia, America, and Greenland were blurred.XLII The commercial actors The isolated location of the Arctic made it a difficult place to discover. During the 1500s to 1900s, several explorations with the support of Consortiums of business actors17, as well as military actors18, took place.XLIII Today, the region changes fast and brings resources to the surface. As a consequence, actors from several fields -nations, military, commercial, indigenous people- are all arguing for a place at the table to govern the economic Arctic. XLIV The states and their representatives The melting of the ice gave rise to new investment opportunities in the Arctic region. As explained earlier, the EEZ requires countries to claim a certain land before they can exploit the resources of this land. As a consequence, all the five bordering states started to build a case to claim a particular piece of land. This notion of claiming land is why in the period of the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, the concept of state became important to legalize property within the Arctic region. Besides, also the development and ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS19) in 1982 was a factor that allowed to maintain peace between the various actors located within the Arctic ocean.XLV

The scientists Within this UNCLOS convention, scientists play an essential role. Before a country can claim resources from the Arctic seabed, they need to submit a case. This case consists of scientific data that can prove the extent of their EEZ. So, this scientific effort is essential to allow the bordering nations of the Arctic ocean to claim their piece of land.XLVI XLVII

16 See chapter communities in ‘the bank of evidence’ to uderstand the history of the Nenets and the impact climate change has on their way of living. 17 One of the earliest and most important explorers of the region was Henry Hudson, a very capable navigator who made many important discoveries between 1607 and 1612. He sailed with the HOPEWELL, a ship sponsored by the British Muscovy Company.CII 18 Initially, some explorers believed that enough open water existed for a ship to navigate to the North Pole. This led to the ill-fated Jeannette expedition, led by the U.S. Navy in 1879. The Navy believed that warm ocean currents flowed from the Pacific Ocean into the Arctic through the Bering Strait between Alaska and Russia, maintaining ice-free waters all the way to the North Pole. However, this was not the case, and the Jeannette quickly became stuck in the sea ice shortly after passing through the Bering Strait.CIII 19 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was open for signature on 10 December 1982. The convention lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world’s oceans and seas establishing rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources. It enshrines the notion that all problems of ocean space are closely interrelated and need to be addressed as a whole.CIV

GOVERING THE ARCTIC

POLITICAL BODIES As climate change opens up the Arctic ocean, there is a rise in global interest because of the undiscovered natural resources (oil and gas)20 situated within the Arctic ocean floor. The increased attention and actors within the Arctic asks for new international governance mechanisms. As a consequence, three central political bodies going from the sub-regional to the pan-arctic formed. These bodies are the Arctic Council, the Arctic Five, and the Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), all the actors mentioned above come back in these bodies.XLVIII XLIX Firstly, the Arctic Council is a quasi-international organization that consists of eight members (Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, US). It was founded in 1996 as a high-level intergovernmental forum to create agreements on development and environmental protection. The forum combines several actors into one structure. All these actors have a different power influence. The main actors are the eight-member states (Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, the US, Iceland, Finland, Sweden). Then we have the indigenous people’s organizations, which are permanent participants. And lastly, the Council also consists of the observers; these are non-Arctic states that are approved by the member states to observe Council operations.L LI The Arctic Five, on the other side, is a regional group which had up until now three formal gatherings in Ilulissat, Greenland (2008); Chelsea, Canada (2010); and Oslo, Norway (2015). It consists of five states, all directly located around the Arctic Ocean (Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, US). Compared to the Council, this body can address all issues happening within the Arctic and is more efficient since it can limit the type of actors involved in decision making. On the other side, the Arctic Five can’t conduct any law since it doesn’t have independent power; it only exists because of the states that comprise it.LII LIII

Furthermore, we also have the Inuit Circumpolar Council, founded in 1977. It unifies the Inuktitut speaking people21 from Alaska, Greenland, Canada, and Russia and gives them the possibility to take a joint position in the discussions about the climatic impacts within the Arctic environment. This shared voice is essential since the changing snow and ice conditions, and the decline in animal populations drastically changes their traditional way of life. Besides, the Inuit also help to create more awareness from the south about the immediacy of the climate change crisis within the Arctic environment.LIV

20 See chapter resources in ‘the bank of evidence’, explains why these resources are located within the Arctic region and how they influence the existing political as well as natural enviroment. 21 See chapter communities in ‘the bank of evidence’ to understand how the Nenets (a tribe living in the Arctic region) are living and what the important factors are for the indiginous people living within the region of the Arctic circle.

The establishment of these three different bodies raises concerns; the Arctic Five undermines the intention of the Arctic Council to create an international governing body since it only consists of the five bordering ocean states and, in this way, doesn’t include other voices from around the world. On the other side, also the Arctic Council has some limitations as a forum to conduct fast Arctic international governance, the Arctic Five can help the Council with this limitation since it can put quick pressure on Arctic issues. So, the combination of both is interesting because it combines the fast-non-binding pressure agreements of the Arctic Five with the binding international agreements of the Arctic Council. Besides, also the Inuit’s are necessary to create a sense of intimacy in the Arctic region. To conclude, the combination of the local human scale, as well as the international bodies, can construct a new legal framework for the fast-changing environment of the Arctic.LV

GOVERING THE ARCTIC

PARTNERSHIP As explained in the previous chapter, several bodies work together at various scales to govern the Arctic. The bodies consist of the surrounding nations as well as the indigenous people, the commercial actors and the scientist. To bring the interest points of each of these groups together, the bodies I touched upon earlier try to built a frame in which the voices of each party can be heard. I will use the term ‘partnership’, from Mitchell James to propose a solution to govern the changing environment of the Arctic region. A region that needs to deal with political uncertainty, social and demographic change, and shifting landscapes. ‘Partnership’ can give structure to maintain peace and bring all the different voices existing in the region together. LVI Currently, the factors that need to be tackled within the Arctic poses challenges for humans to respond, but at the same time also open the field for new ideas and approaches. The notion of partnership has proven to be very efficient in reducing hazards. For exemple, during Hurricane Katrina it worked as a efficient and potential instrument for change. It brings together several voices and bridges the gap between public and privat sectors as well as between experts and laypersons.LVII These charasteristics show that within the Arctic, this notion can work as a potential instrument of change and bring together the priorities of all actors to govern the area. The disadvantage of partnership is that it only lasts as long as these nations have the same interest and experience a similar benefit. Within the Arctic, this is a delicate balance since the environment is rapidly changing, which poses different benefits for the various parties. Therefore, the connection will probably weaken or disappear.LVIII Now, the Arctic Five and Arctic Council try to govern this delicate balance. They use soft laws to establish a global habitat, a place that is influenced by different actors from around the whole world; in the Arctic Council, these actors got the status of observers.LIX As such, China and France both called itself a ‘near-Arctic state,’ and other nations such as Swiss expressed itself to be a ‘vertical Arctic country’; even Scotland said they were the ‘closest Arctic neighbour.’LX

The difference between the type of law that is implemented, influences the degree of rigidness. A soft law is comparable with an agreement, as such it is used when several parties share the same opinion, but it doesn’t necessarily forces you to follow this agreement. While, a hard law forces you to strictly follow the descisions made and written down.LXI To explain how the combination of both can lead to a binding agreement, I will use an example of soft law constructed within the Arctic Council, namely the Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (AMSA)22. Because of the increased international interest paid to the Northwest Passage (NWP)23, the AMSA report, which is soft law, stressed the need for a Polar Code, a hard law. As a consequence, the Polar Code24 entered into force to deal with the possible increased traffic within NWP. This example explains a positive effect on the creation of a binding agreement through soft law. Unfortunately, this isn’t always the case. Some of the reports don’t lead to actions; this is due to the way various groups -scientists, media, law, politics- relate to each other. Only if these groups work together on every level, it is possible to construct a binding law.LXII

22 The Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment was approves at the 2009 Ministrial meeting in Tromsø. The focus of the AMSA is marine safety and marine environmental protection, which is consistent with the Arctic Council’s mandates of environmental protection and sustainable development. Based on the findings of the AMSA, recommendations were developed to provide a guide for future action by the Arctic Council, Arctic states and many others. The report was conductued by the Council’s Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) working group, under the guidance of Canada, Finland and the United States as lead countries and in collaboration with the Emergency Prevention.CV 23 The NWP is the name given to the various marine routes between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans along the northern coast of North America that span the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.CVI 24 IMO’s International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) is mandatory under both the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). The Polar Code covers the full range of design, construction, equipment, operational, training, search and rescue and environmental protection matters relevant to ships operating in the inhospitable waters surrounding the two poles. The Polar Code entered into force on 1 January 2017.CVII

GOVERING THE ARCTIC

THE ‘LAW OF THE SEA’ - UNCLOS Another law that creates the political field within the Arctic ocean is the ‘law of the sea,’ which is also called the UNCLOS convention. All the surrounding nations signed this convention in 1982. From this moment on, up till now, it keeps the relations in the high Arctic stable. This convention came into view when the Arctic heightened significance. Mostly from the viewpoint of the Soviet Union, but also the US showed its interest in the region. Since these superpowers are direct neighbours across the north pole and there is unclear ownership within this region, they both established several military bases25 around the coastline. These bases increase threat awareness and are essential factors to consider the governance within the Arctic region.LXIII The UNCLOS convention gives countries a 12 nautical mile (22km) territorial sea. Furthermore, each nation also has the right to an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). This zone extends up to 200 nautical miles (360km) from their coastline. As explained earlier, within the EEZ, every nation has the right to claim the resources and parts of shipping routes related to their land. From the 1980s, the ice is melting further, and even more land is coming free. As a result, countries now have the right to submit claims for an ‘extended continental shelve’ (defines the EEZ). States can provide maps that give information over the shape and geology of the seafloor to prove the extent of their continental shelve. Here we see that political questions have scientific answers.LXIV Consequently, every nation turned its scientists to map the seafloor; they use submarines to measure the depth of the ocean at various points. With the information about the precise extent of their continental shelve, the countries make a claim.LXV They can submit this claim with supporting scientific evidence to the UN Commission of the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS)26. This commission consists of scientists and advises whether the claims are justified or not. In the Arctic, the commission encounters the issue that several claims overlap, so further negotiation is necessary.LXVI LXVII LXVIII

If we look back at the globalization chapter, a new way of thinking about borders is required. Now the borders in the Arctic ocean are blurred, which implies the resources within the ocean are ‘a global commons’27 (a term used by Silvia Federici to explain that ‘a common good need to be free space and should aim to overcome the divisions existing among us’).LXIX Instead of using these blurred borders to create a new global governing system, the UNCLOS convention, tries to sustain peace in the Arctic ocean by giving countries the possibility to claim a certain part of the ocean and consequently have more rights to this land than others. As a result, this law again frames nature as a national resource and in this way undermines the new thought process of global commons.

25 See chapter military bases in ‘the bank of evidence’ to get an idea of who is establishing these bases and under which form this military presence exists. 26 The purpose of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (the Commission or CLCS) is to facilitate the implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (the Convention) in respect of the establishment of the outer limits of the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles (M) from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. Under the Convention, the coastal State shall establish the outer limits of its continental shelf where it extends beyond 200 M on the basis of the recommendation of the Commission. The Commission shall make recommendations to coastal States on matters related to the establishment of those limits; its recommendations and actions shall not prejudice matters relating to the delimitation of boundaries between States with opposite or adjacent coasts.CVIII 27 Silvia Federici is a Feminist labor theorist, in a conversation woman reclaim the commons, she talks about the need to challenge capitalist economics and social relations through “commoning”—and how it informs current debates around women’s access to health and reproductive care.CIX

‘HYPEROBJECTS’

As the previous chapters introduced, we need to rethink borders and their implications on our geopolitical system. This chapter will use the term ‘Hyperobject’ to look differently at the entanglement of phenomena across various scales, their impacts on the settlements within the Arctic environment, and the rethinking of our geopolitical system. Timothy Morton calls climate change a ‘Hyperobject’: a thing that surrounds us, envelops, and entangles us, but that is too big to see in its entirety. We perceive them in our local environment through their influence on other things (FE., melting ice). Therefore, the Hyperobject itself is ‘nonlocal,’ which makes is possible for humans to say that we don’t have anything to do with for example the pumping of billions of barrels of oil from Exxon. But still we can perceive the local manifestations of the hyperobject, which allows us to shift our engagement with climate change.LXX

‘HYPEROBJECTS’

So, if we want to understand the entanglements behind a Hyperobject, we need to link the concepts with its structures. The structures exist out of things, who deliver other things, such as rain, plastic bags, car engines, etc. all of these things influence the local manifestations of the Hyperobject. An example of such a manifestation is the BP Deepwater horizon disaster28 that happened in 2010. The oil spilled during this disaster covered humans as well as nature over a large area. This event was a high news topic for a couple of weeks, now, the oil is still influencing the environmental conditions, but the world already moved forward thinking about the next spectacle.LXXI This nonlocal aspect, namely the fact that the story is not closely related to your everyday life, makes it difficult to relate to this event. Moreover, it also makes it difficult to understand the global impacts of this event that form the total definition of the Hyperobject.

28 THE BP OIL spill of 2010 started suddenly, explosively, and with deadly force. As a crew on the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig worked to close up an exploratory oil well deep under the Gulf of Mexico, a pulse of gas shot up, buckling the drill pipe. The emergency valve designed to cap the well in case of an accident, the “blowout protector,” failed, and the gas reached the drill rig, triggering an explosion that killed 11 crewmembers. Over the next three months, the uncapped well leaked 3.19 million barrels of oil into the Gulf’s waters, which can be compared with more than 300 Olympic-sized swimming pools, making it the biggest oil spill in United States history.CX

‘HYPEROBJECTS’

LOCAL VS GLOBAL IMPACTS Within this notion of the Hyperobject the local and the global scale are separated; however, the transformation of an effect visible on the micro-scale (a traffic) reconfigure the events happening at the macro-scale (a rise in greenhouse gas emissions). Within the Arctic environment, transformations as melting ice are mainly caused by greenhouse gas emissions and pollution from global activities that took place outside of the Arctic environment. So, we see that a local implication of climate change, that is configured in a specific space, time and matter can extend in size and reach global proportions.LXXII Consequently, the phenomenon in this sense is a natural resource that allows us to shift the discussion of climate change from the local to the global scale. As explained through this paper, we understand the implication of climate change through local effects configured within a limited area. Because of the unclear border situation within the Arctic, which gave rise to international attention, this area is perfect to think about a global governing system. In this way, the Arctic can help to reconfigure our thinking about climate change, which requires a shift from the local scale to the range of the whole world.LXXIII Today climate change is mainly explained through tangible topics. People use local manifestations of the events that lay in their ability to understand, such as weather patterns. But the structures that lay behind this local impact (FE. the weather) are complicated to grasp. Furthermore, these local impacts are affected by the past and influence the future, which implies that climate change doesn’t relate to the notion of immediacy. This is visible in for example timelines of the earth’s rising temperatures, who clearly show that weather and climate are dynamic processes. So, this temporal factor of the term climate change makes it even more challenging to understand the widespread impact of these local phenomena.LXXIV

Within the Arctic, this notion of immediacy is visible. The storage of greenhouse gas emissions and heat from the past, present and near future have an impact on the temperature in the Arctic environment. As a consequence, by mid-century the winter temperature will increase 3-5 degrees and by the late century the temperatures will even rise 5-9 degrees.LXXV This interconnectedness of events in time, as well as space, implies the concept of ‘spacetimematterring’29. This concept shows that entities, space, and time only exists within, and through their specific intra-actions, they are always interconnected and appear as one. So, not only the visible local effect serves as a tool to analyze climate change, but we also need to consider all the structures that gave rise to this local effect, if we want to understand the scale of climate change.LXXVI LXXVII

29 Karan Barad constructed the concept of ‘spacetimemattering.’ It talks about the dynamics between phenomena that occur at different moments in time and space. It means; ‘a dynamic ongoing reconfiguring of a field of relationalities among ‘moments,’ ‘places,’ and ‘things,’ where scale is iteratively (re)made in intra-action.’ Intra-action explains that entities cannot exist as things-in-themselves but find meaning and expression through their co-creative relations with other entities.CXI

To pose to the interconnectedness of entities, space and time, the oil exploration within the Arctic serves as an example. The Arctic holds the world’s largest untapped oil and gas reserves as stated in the chapter geographic location, this leaded to an increases interest of countries to exploit and export this area. But these explorations pose tremendous risks to the vulnerable Arctic ecosystems and communities, and at the same time, they also contribute to the climate crisis through increased greenhouse gas emissions. Today, there is a misconception around the race for the Arctic, namely that the race is limited to nations. As visible in this example of the oil industry, this isn’t the case, because, several companies are hunting for oil. These companies export their product on the global market of the oil industry. Consequently, we see how the entities (oil and gas) influence the space (Arctic environment) over a long period of time (oil market).LXXVIII LXXIX Currently, companies need to take into account the regulations that exist around exploiting resource within a specific area. This is due to our geopolitical system that relies on geographical borderlines who determine the environmental rules set within an area. For the oil industry, this is a problem, because oil in this system is framed as a national resource, but the oil market is global. As a consequence, this industry asks for a global legal framework as well. Even more, currently it is impossible for companies to conduct economic activities within the Arctic region, since there is uncertainty about the point of which area belongs to who. So, this makes that it isn’t clear for companies which law they need to follow and consequentially they can’t exploit any resources yet.LXXX 35

‘HYPEROBJECTS’

ENTANGLEMENTS OF STRUCTURES AT DIFFERENT SCALES In an age of ecological emergency, we need to be aware that an event is never local; it is always a combination of several other events that are occurring somewhere on our planet. So, if we want to understand the systems that lay behind climate change models, we need to reconfigure our way of thinking, going away from the idea that every action you take has a direct visual effect. Since this is a very rational thought, it makes it difficult to shift this way of thinking and take it to another level. A level in which you include a longer time frame, so it becomes possible to think about possible reactions in the future. LXXXI Currently, in our engagement with the ecological crisis, there is no way to exclude ourselves from the events that are happening. We closely intertwine with the processes that occur on our globe. So, we are open to the environmental phenomena around us. To explain this openness, think about air, everybody in the world breaths it wherever they are. The atmosphere is spread around the whole world and is the last common property that belongs to all people collectively. So, we could ask ourselves:’ Can we think in the same way as we think about air, about our global governing system?’. To make an analogy with the reports constructed by the Arctic Council, we see that they also cover an area that isn’t limited to one specific nation’s border. But the problem is that these structures of commonality are broken down by the market, by private interests, or by national negotiation. As a result, uncertainty arose around the claiming and the laws that are specific to an area.LXXXII

DENIAL OF CLIMATE CHANGE Since it is difficult to relate to climate change as an interconnected global phenomenon as explained through the notion of the Hyperobject, there is a possibility for denial of climate change.LXXXIII In this line, Paul Rodaway said: ‘The perceived environment is split into values and facts. When we combine both it can lead to the making of decisions.’ With this quote he meant that for example a graph that shows the effects of global warming (facts) isn’t enough to see the total environment, since there is still a lack of social values. So, to establish binding agreements on the topic of climate change, we need to establish a closer relationship between these social values and the physical facts, not only on the human level but also on the governmental level.LXXXIV

30 In his brilliant new work (New Dark Age - Technology and the End of the Future), leading artist and writer James Bridle surveys the history of art, technology, and information systems, and reveals the dark clouds that gather over our dreams of the digital sublime. Within this book he writes about the increase in technological complexity of the world around us.CXII

Today our computational systems expand and shows us more clearly what we could possibly know. This system can resolve the discrepancy between physical facts and social values since it allows us to have more knowledge, but in the end, the results of all this knowledge, makes the climate models even more difficult to comprehend and, in this way, they become unfathomably complex.LXXXV LXXXVI This counterintuitive premise of the unknowable, is explained by James Bridle,30 and comes back in the term ‘Global warming.’ We use an enormous amount of numbers to explain Climate change; this gives the term a negative connotation in the media and leads to nonresponse.LXXXVII As described in the previous paragraph, this nonresponse isn’t due to a lack of information or concern, but a result of socially organized denial.LXXXVIII As a result, we keep it out of our everyday lives and don’t look at it as a local political issue, which makes it impossible to govern the impacts of climate change.LXXXIX

‘HYPEROBJECT’

Another way to develop ecological awareness is a sense of intimacy to relate to the events that take place. For example, the last three years, in Belgium, there were several periods of drought during the summer. This caused a lack of water and as a result people weren’t allowed anymore to wash their cars, fill their swimming pools, etc. This drought had direct consequences on people’s daily live, which resulted in an increased ecological awareness. Within the Arctic, we can find this intimacy back into the daily lives of the indigenous communities. This is due to the fact that they just as in the previous example directly experience a transformation of their way of living.31 These transformations are mostly visible in the change in vegetation and animal population, but also in coastal erosion and rising sea levels. Both of these factors impact the lives and cultures of the indigenous people living within this region. Besides also the discovering of the resources led to rise in interest and an exteme development of the rural area. The Indigenous people have a difficult task, at one hand they want to try to maintain there livestyle, but on the other side, the developments within the area ask for a switch in their lifestyle. Finding a new balance between sustaining their society and supplying the global market is a difficult task for them. Looking at the communities in the Arctic makes it easier for us to see which extreme consequences climate change can have on our future lives.XC

31 See chapter communities and development in ‘the bank of evidence’ to get an idea of how the current developments changes the landscape of the Arctic and the way of living for the indigenous people.

CONCLUSION

Through the Arctic, and more specifically with the example of the Arctic Council, I explained the working of a new global governing model. Within this model Worldwide cooperation between nations is necessary to tackle the events caused by climate change and happening within the Arctic environment. Especially since power isn’t isolated within the narrow-conceived notion of a nation’s state space. XCI New ways to govern an area, as pointed out within this paper, open up new opportunities for countries to work together. Furthermore, it is not possible to perceive the Arctic region as one single nation. Bodies such as the Arctic five and Arctic Council make it challenging to understand the exact borderlines of the area. Besides, for a long time, it was unclear who inhabits the Arctic, which made it difficult to perceive as a human territory. Now, the knowledge about the inhabitation in the Arctic leads to increasing worldwide awareness of the impact climate change has within the Arctic. Especially because the indigenous communities provide an intimacy that help to achieve a global and common sense of urgency. Still, it is complicated to relate to the events happening within the Arctic and connect these events to other impacts situated somewhere else on the globe. Here the notion of a Hyperobject, can work as a tool to connect the global with the local and creates the feeling that climate change comes closer to our daily environment.

CONCLUSION

The Arctic functioned within this dissertation as a tool to explain the significance of this region not only within its unclearly defined borders but, more importantly, around the whole world. On the one side, this paper reveals the significance of the Arctic region as a place to perceive the effects of climate change, and on the other side, it also points to the international attention that is paid to the Arctic by unveiling the governing bodies such as the Arctic Council and the Arctic Five. These bodies are unknown for various people but are extremely important to sustain peace within this Northern region. Thus, the question is, could these governing systems who composes the Arctic region lead to an understanding of this territory as a place, a geographic area owned by several nations and besides also provide a global governing system for the impacts of climate change.

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XCVIII

XCIX

Study.com. “Max Weber’s Theory of the Modern State: Origin & Analysis - Video & Lesson Transcript.” Accessed July 6, 2020. https:// study.com/academy/lesson/max-webers-theory-of-the-modern-state-origin-analysis.html.

“Arctic Council.” Ottowa, Canada, September 19, 1996.

CII

“Arctic Exploration: The History | Lindblad Expeditions.” Accessed July 3, 2020. http://world.expeditions.com/destinations/polar-regions/ arctic/the-experience/read-up-gear-up/staff-article16/.

CIII

“Exploration: Arctic | National Snow and Ice Data Center.” Accessed July 3, 2020. https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/exploration/arctic. html.

CIV

“Overview - Convention & Related Agreements.” Accessed July 3, 2020. https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm.

Canada: V.M. Santos-Pedro; Finland: K. Juurmaa; United States: L. Brigham, Chair. “Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment.” Assessment. Arctic council, PAME, April 2009.

CVI

Inc, IBP. Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment Report: Strategic and Practical Information. Lulu.com, 2013.

CVII

“Polar Code.” Accessed July 3, 2020. http://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/polar/Pages/default.aspx. 51

CVIII

“FUNCTIONS OF THE CLCS.” Accessed July 3, 2020. https://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/commission_purpose.html.

CIX

Monteagudo, Graciela. “Women Reclaim the Commons: A Conversation with Silvia Federici.” NACLA Report on the Americas 51, no. 3 (July 3, 2019): 256–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714839.2019.1650505.

Science. “We Still Don’t Know the Full Impacts of the BP Oil Spill, 10 Years Later,” April 20, 2020. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ science/2020/04/bp-oil-spill-still-dont-know-effects-decade-later/.

CXI

Barad, Karen. “Nature’s Queer Performativity” in Qui Parle: Critical Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol. 19(2):121-158, Spring/Summer 2011.

CXII

James Bridle. “New Dark Age.” Accessed July 7, 2020. https://www.versobooks.com/books/3002-new-dark-age.

BACKGROUND READINGS ‘Anthropocene Observatory’. Accessed 27 March 2020. https://www.territorialagency.com/anthropocene. Heater Davis, ‘The Land And Water And Air That We Are: Some Thoughts On COP 21’. SFAQ / NYAQ / LXAQ (blog). Accessed 14 January 2020. http://sfaq.us/2016/03/the-land-and-water-and-air-that-we-are-some-thoughts-on-cop-21/.

Holder, Josh, Ekaterina Ochagavia, Lindsay Poulton, Monica Ulmanu, Emma Graham-Harrison, John Mullin, David Levene, and Terry Macalister. ‘The New Cold War: Drilling for Oil and Gas in the Arctic’. the Guardian. Accessed 5 April 2020. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2015/jun/16/drilling-oil-gas-arctic-alaska. ‘How a Melting Arctic Changes Everything’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 27 March 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/. ‘Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 8 January 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/. ‘Russian Ambition Tops World-Changing Arctic To-Do List’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 27 March 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-economic-arctic/. Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/. ‘Invasive Globetrotters | GRID-Arendal’. Accessed 6 January 2020. http://www.grida.no/resources/13342. Cotton, William R., and Roger A. Pielke Sr. Human Impacts on Weather and Climate. Cambridge University Press, 1995. Elmar Altvater. ‘The Capitalocene, or, Geoengeneering against Capitalism’s Planetary Boundaries’. In Antrophocene or Capitalocene, 5:138–54. PM Press, 2016. Jane Bennett. Vibrant Matter. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2010. Keller Easterling. Extrastatecraft: The Power of Infrastructure Space. Verso Books, 2014. Michael Byers. Who Owns the Arctic?: Understanding Sovereignty Disputes in the North. Douglas & McIntyre, 2009. Paul Virilio. Open Sky. London: Verso Books, 1997. Robin Churchill, and Geir Ulfstein. ‘The Disputed Maritime Zones around Svalbard’, n.d., 551–93. ‘TREATIES AND OTHER INTERNATIONAL ACTS SERIES 12886’, n.d., 26.

LENA GEERTS DANAU

WITH THANKS TO MY CHS TUTOR JANE HALL

LENA GEERTS DANAU

A BANK OF EVIDENCE NATURE FRAMED AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE IN THE ARCTIC

ROYAL COLLEGE OF ART CHS ARCHITECTURE 2020

INDEX

01 - COMMUNITY

06 - SHIPPING ROUTES

indigenous communities - 08

evolution north-west-passage - 38

daily live - 10

economic developments - 40

02 - DEVELOPMENT

05 - RESOURCES

rise of cities - 18

estimates - 44

changing landscape - 20

infrastructure to exploit the resources - 46

03 - MELTING ICE

07 - MILITARY PRESENCE

effects climate change - 24

international interest - 52

sense of intimacy - 26

array of military forces - 54

04 - BORDERS

08 - BIBLIOGRAPHY

rethinking territories - 32

text - 61

new land claims - 34

illustrations - 63

COMMUNITY

If we imagine a picture of the Arctic, we think of vast expanses of ice and polar bears. But the Arctic is also home to 4 million people from which 10% are indigenous. The effects of climate change are having drastic impacts on the communities within the Arctic since climate change would cause changes in vegetation and animal population as well as coastal erosion and rising sea levels. Both factors will impact the lives and cultures of the Arctic people who depend on these resources.I The next pictures give an overview of the daily life of an indigenous community located within the Arctic circle, called the Nenets.

North

FINLAND

Sea SWEDEN NORWAY

Indigenous Peoples

Norwegian Sea

Atlantic Ocean

ICELAND Barents Sea

COMMURUSSIA NITY

Greenland Sea

North

FINLAND

Kara Sea

Sea SWEDEN NORWAY

GREENLAND (DENMARK) Norwegian Sea

Atlantic Ocean

ICELAND

Laptev Sea

Arctic Ocean

RUSSIA

Barents Sea

Bafﬁn Bay

Greenland Sea Kara Sea

GREENLAND (DENMARK)

East Siberian Sea Hudson Bay Okhotsk Sea

Chukchi Sea

Laptev Sea

Beaufort Sea

Arctic Ocean

Bafﬁn Bay

ALASKA (UNITED STATES) East Siberian Sea

Bering Sea

CANADA

Okhotsk Sea

Hudson Bay Chukchi Sea

Beaufort Sea

ALASKA (UNITED STATES)

Bering Sea

Paciﬁc Ocean

CANADA

Paciﬁc Ocean

Permanent participants of the Arctic Council Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON) Sámi Council Inuit Circumpolar Council

Permanent participants of the Arctic Council

Gwich’in Council International

Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON)

Aleut International Association

Sámi Council

Arctic Athabaskan Council

Inuit Circumpolar Council Gwich’in Council International Aleut International Association Arctic Athabaskan Council

ARCTIC INDIGENOUS PEOPLE | GRID-ARENDAL | FIG. 01 THIS MAP GIVES AN OVERVIEW OF THE INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES WHO LIVE WITHIN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE. ALL OF THE FIVE NATIONS THAT BORDER THE ARCTC OCEAN HAVE THEIR INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY.II

COMMUNITY

ARCTIC POPULATION | TIMOTHY HELENIAK | FIG. 02 THIS GRAPH EXPLAINS THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE. CURRENTLY MORE THEN 4 MILLION PEOPLE LIVE WITHIN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE FROM WHICH NEARLY HALF OF THEM IS RUSSIAN. THE OTHER PEOPLE ARE ALL SCATTERED OUT ACROSS THE DIFFERENT NATIONS. BESIDES THE ARCTIC REGION IS ALSO HOME TO INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES. THEY COUNT ALMOST 500,000 PEOPLE. III

COMMUNITY

NENETS FAMILY MEAL | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 03

COMMUNITY

NENETS MIGRATING TO THEIR NEXT SETTLEMENT AREA | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 04

COMMUNITY

NENETS SETTLEMENTS AND VILLAGES IN RUSSIA | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 05

COMMUNITY

NENETS HUNTING AND PREPARING THEIR MEAL | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 06

COMMUNITY

CEMETERY OF THE NENETS IN POINT HOPE | KADIR VAN LOHUIZEN | FIG. 07

COMMUNITY

NENETS MAN IN FRONT OF AN HELICOPTER | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 08

DEVELOPMENT

The Arctic people state; ‘what happens in the Arctic, does not stay in the Arctic’ with this statement they want to create awareness over the critical role the Arctic plays in sustaining live around the whole planet. Now several activities take place around the Arctic ocean; these Businesses serve the global market economy as well as the local economy. The variety of these activities means that the various groups or settlements around the Arctic ocean all experience the effects of climate change differently. For the people living and staying within the Arctic region, the balance between supplying the global market, but at the same time also trying to build a sustainable society is a difficult task. IV The pictures underneath frame the developed Arctic environment, which stands in clear contrast with the life of the indigenous communities.

Arctic population and development

Alaska (USA) Fairbanks NORTH ALASKA

BL IC

Queen Elisabeth Whitehorse Islands

KIVALLIQ

Yellowknife

IÑ

CANADA Qaanaaq

FO RT SM IT

AN D

KIT

ALO

Norilsk

NET S A.O .

Queen Elisabeth Islands NE

Novy Urengoï RUSSIA Nadym

Vorkuta

Resolute

NL AN D

Archangelsk

Tromsø

Svalbard (Norway)

AND

ENE

BAFFIN BAY

ICEL

FAROE IS.

Iqaluit

SIBERIA TIMAN AM PECHORA Naryan YMar ALO -N

HAMMERFEST SVALIS Qaanaaq Murmansk

Norilsk

WESTERN

Ivujivik

ETS) A.O. Salekhard USINSK

LGANO-NEN

TAYMYR (DO

HUDSON BAY

Greenland (Denmark)

FINLAND SWEDEN NORWAY

Ilulissat Kangerlussuaq Nuuk

UK KITIQTAAL AVIK NUN

Tiksi

Dudinkha

-NE

SA SVERDRUP Svalbard ARCTIC .O. BARENTS OCEAN BASIN (Norway) KIVALLIQ SEA

GR EE NL

BAFFIN BAY

H IKM EOT

Ivujivik Iqaluit

YAM

A.O.

WESTERN SIBERIA

N KO YU

LUK

AVIK

NO-NENETS)

MYR (DOLGA

TAY BEAUFORT MACKENZIE

WESTERN CANADIAN BASIN

KITIQTAA NUN

ARCTIC OCEAN

KA ALAS

SVERDRUP BASIN

Resolute

RUSSIA

Fairbanks NORTH ALASKA

EOT

LI C

IKM

KIT

OKHOTSK SEA

BERING Tiksi SEA Anadyr

RE P

FO RT SM IT

HUDSON BAY

Alaska (USA)

CANADA

Anchorage

CHUKOTKA A.O.

IÑ

RE PU

N KO YU

Yellowknife

SA KH A

KA ALAS

BEAUFORT MACKENZIE

WESTERN CANADIAN BASIN

PACIFIC OCEAN

CHUKOTKA A.O.

Whitehorse

DEVELOPMENT

OKHOTSK SEA

BERING SEA Anadyr

SA K

Anchorage

Dudinkha

TS A .O.

.O.

Vorkuta

FAROE IS.

AND ICEL

NORWAY Reykjavik ICELAND

Indigenous

0% 50 % 100 %

Population distribution: 300,000 composition by main regions

Bodø

Rovaniemi Kiruna

FINLAND

SWEDEN

Faroe Islands (Denmark)

NORWAY

centres 170,000Population60,000 300,000

100 % 50 %

Non-indigenous

Archangelsk

Tromsø

NORWEGIAN SEA

Salekhard USINSK

TIMAN PECHORA Naryan Mar

Population centres

Population distribution: composition by main regions

50 %

HAMMERFEST SVALIS Murmansk

SWEDEN

Faroe Islands (Denmark)

ATLANTIC OCEAN

100 %

SK AN

FINLAND

Kiruna

(Denmark)

ICELAND

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Rovaniemi

FINLAND SWEDEN NORWAY

Reykjavik

Ilulissat Bodø Kangerlussuaq NORWEGIAN Greenland Nuuk SEA

BARENTS SEA

Novy Urengoï Nadym

TS A

Indigenous Oil and gas fields

100 %

Non-indigenous

A.O. : Autonomous okrug

3,000 and less 60,000

30,000

3,000 and less

Main transport routes for raw materials

Large mines Oil and gas fields

0% 50 %

30,000 170,000

Main transport routes for raw materials Large mines Potential routes for raw materials Potential routes for raw materials

A.O. : Autonomous okrug

ARCTIC POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT | GRID-ARENDAL | FIG. 09 WITHIN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE, PEOPLE LIVE IN SCATTERED COMMUNITIES OF DIFFERENT SIZES, FROM MURMANSK IN RUSSIA, WICH COUNT 300,000 INHABITANTS TO VILLAGES WITH ONLY 300 PEOPLE. V

DEVELOPMENT

POTENTIAL PROJECTS AND THEIR ESTIMATED COST BY COUNTRY | GUGGENHEIM PARTNERS | FIG. 10 THIS TABLE GIVES AN OVERVIEW OF THE PLANNED, IN-PROCESS, FINISHED, CANCELED AND DESIRED ARCTIC INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS. IT PROVIDES AN IDEA OF WHO IS SPENDING THE MOST MONEY AND PAYING THE MOST ATTENTION TO THE DESOLATE REGION OF THE ARCTIC NOW TO TRANSFORM IT INTO A DOMINANT ECONOMIC AREA. VI

DEVELOPMENT

NORILSK CITY IN RUSSIA | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 11

DEVELOPMENT

NAVAL ACADEMY IN MURMANSK | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 12

MELTING ICE

Today the Arctic sea ice is melting. The Arctic is warming twice as fast as compared to the rest of the world. Currently, temperatures climbed four degrees Celcius all year round. Most climatologists estimate that by the year 2100, most Arctic sea ice will melt every summer. The rise in temperature has radically changing effects on the geography, biodiversity, and political units of the Arctic. VII Dramatic, but beautiful pictures of the melting sea ice explain or try to give us a sense of intimacy. Are we able to look at these pictures and imagine the dramatic effects the events of climate change are having on our globe?

MELTING ICE

CHANGE IN ANNUAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURES | UNIVERSITY OF EAST ANGELIA | FIG. 13 THE PROBLEM WITHIN THE ARCTIC IS THAT THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ARE TWICE AS VISIBLE AS COMPARED TO THE REST OF THE WORLD. THIS IS DUE TO THE CONCEPT OF ARCTIC AMPLIFICATION. THIS GRAPH SHOWCASES THE DIFFERENCE IN TEMPERATURE RISE BETWEEN THE GLOBAL AND LOCAL SCALE OF THE ARCTIC. VIII

MELTING ICE

TOTAL AREA OF ARCTIC SEA ICE | NASA, NSIDC | FIG. 14 THE RISE IN TEMPERATURE HAS EXTREME IMPLICATIONS ON THE EXTENT OF THE LEVEL OF ARCTIC SEA ICE. THE EFFECTS THAT CAME TO RISE BY THE MELTING ICE AREN’T LIMITED TO THE BORDER OF A NATION-STATE BUT SPREAD AND WILL INFLUENCE PROCESSES AROUND THE WHOLE WORLD. IX

MELTING ICE

ICEBERGS IN THE SEA NEAR GREENLAND | KADIR VAN LOHUIZEN | FIG. 15

MELTING ICE

ICE SHEET WITH RIVER OF MELTWATER | KADIR VAN LOHUIZEN | FIG. 16

MELTING ICE

EDGE OF THE ICESHEET | KADIR VAN LOHUIZEN | FIG. 17

MELTING ICE

ICE SAPLES TO ESTIMATE THE PERMAFROST RANGE | KADIR VAN LOHUIZEN | FIG. 18

BORDERS

Borders got another definition throughout history. In the past, fixed borders were commonly accepted; now, it seems like a border can change its location. Not only physically but also just because several entanglements between nations and climatic phenomena are not limited to one country but can spread around the whole world. In the Arctic sea, the borders aren’t fixed. This is why it is particularly interesting to distinguish two levels: the international (system) level, and the regional (Arctic) level. These two levels are necessary to clarify the interest in the Arctic and the actors that are involved within the Arctic region.X XI The pictures and maps show the various interests and overlapping claims, now existing within the Arctic environment.

BORDERS

EEZ’S AND CLAIMABLE AREAS OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN | INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES RESEARCH UNIT - DURHAM UNIVERSITY | FIG. 19 EACH NATION HAS THE RIGHT TO AN EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE (EEZ), SHOWED WITH THE BLUE SURFACES IN THIS MAP. BESIDES COUNTRIES ARE NOW BUILDING CASES TO CLAIM THE AREA THAT IS CURRENTLY A NO-MAN’S-LAND LOCATED IN THE MIDDLE OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN. XII

BORDERS

OVERLAPPING CLAIMS OF AREAS IN THE ARCTIC OCEAN | INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES RESEARCH UNIT - DURHAM UNIVERSITY | FIG. 20 THE PROBLEM WITH THE CLAIMS THAT ARE SENT OUT OVER THIS UNCLAIMED LAND IS VISIBLE IN THIS SERIES OF PICTURES. RUSSIA, DENMARK, AND CANADA ALL SEND OUT THEIR REQUESTS, BUT WE SEE THAT THESE CLAIMS ARE OVERLAPPING, SO CURRENTLY, A SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE IS DECIDING WHICH CLAIMS ARE CORRECT AND WHICH AREN’T. XIII

BORDERS

ARCTIC LAND GRAB | BILL RANKIN | FIG. 21 countires can justify their claim by sending out submarines. these submarines mapped the arctic seafloor to serve nations of new data with which they can make a claim over the extend of their continental shelve. this map shows the extends and heights of the new measured arctic seafloor. XIV

BORDERS

ARCTIC BORDER MARK BETWEEN RUSSIA AND NORWAY IN THE BARENTS SEA | ANNA ANDRIANOVA | FIG. 22 already some boders within the arctic ocean are defined. this mark is an example of such a fixed border. it points to the particluar location of the border between russia and norway in the barents sea. this showcases some agreements around the precise location of a borderline are already settled.XV 35

SHIPPING ROUTES

Climate change opens up the Arctic ocean which gives rise to an increase of international interest in the region. As a consequence, new shipping routes open up, such as the Nord-West-Passage. This route has an evident and considerable distance advantage between harbors located in the Pacific ocean and harbors located in the Atlantic ocean. Now transport happens trough the Suez and Panama canal, but if the ice within the Arctic Ocean melts, we could use this new Nord-West-Passage. XVI The following pictures show the evolution of this Passage and the occurring economic developments that go hand in hand with the rising attention form several nations to use this North-West-Passage.

SHIPPING ROUTES

AS THE ICE MELTS ARCTIC SHIPPING ROUTES EXPAND | N. K. HAINES, E. HAWKINS | FIG. 23 THESE SERIES OF PICTURES SHOWS HOW THE FUTURE OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN WILL LOOK LIKE. THE EVOLUTION STARTS FROM 2015, WHERE ICEBREAKERS OPEN UP THE ARCTIC OCEAN (RED LINES). THE USE OF TRANSFER ROUTES WITHOUT ICEBREAKERS IS ONLY POSSIBLE CLOSE TO THE LAND. IN 2075 THE ICE IN THE WHOLE SEA IS ALMOST FULLY MELTED, AND AS A CONSEQUENCE, ICEBREAKERS WILL ALMOST NOT BE NECESSARY TO USE ANYMORE. XVII

SHIPPING ROUTES

EACH COUNTRIES ICEBREAKER FLEAT | US COAST GUARD | FIG. 24 THE ICE IS MELTING, AND OPENING UP NEW SHIPPING ROUTES BECOMES A POSSIBILITY WITH THE USE OF ICEBREAKERS. THIS TABLE MAKES THE PRESENCE OF RUSSIA WITHIN THE ARCTIC REGION EVEN MORE PROMINENTLY VISIBLE. SINCE SCIENTISTS ARE SURE THE ICE WILL MELT AND NEW ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES WILL OPEN UP, RUSSIA STARTS TO BUILD AN OVERWHELMING FLEET OF ICEBREAKERS. XVIII

SHIPPING ROUTES

ICEBREAKER THAT OPENED THE ROUTE FOR SHIPS TO SAIL FROM MURMANSK, IN RUSSIA, TO HUANGHUA, IN CHINA | DAVIDE MONTELEONE | FIG. 25

SHIPPING ROUTES

CONTAINERS STACKED AT A PORT IN NUUK | DAVID GOLDMAN | FIG. 26

RESOURCES

The climatic conditions of the Arctic during the geological times of the Triassic and Tertiary period, namely high temperature and a lot of organic life on the surface level, gave rise to the high amount in gas as well as oil deposits. Now scientists estimate the basins of the Arctic ocean floor are home to almost 30% of natural gas and 13% of the oil deposits from around the world. Since 1979 researchers kept satellite records to estimate the decrease of the Arctic ice. At this moment, the ice has lost 40% of its area, which introduces a new geographic situation in the Arctic ocean. The oil and gas deposits come free and can provide potential wealth for the countries that own this land and can export these resources. So, the new economic opportunities for the future of the Arctic come to rise, this forms an explanation for the increased attention in the Arctic region.XIX XX XXI The next pictures and maps show estimates of the possible places where we can find these resources and who can claim the resources, besides they also provide a view of the increasing infrastructure that is necessary to exploit these resources.

RESOURCES

BORDERS AND AREAS WITH HIGH PROBABILITY OF OIL AND GAS RESERVES IN THE ARCTIC REGION | USGS | FIG. 27 THIS MAP SHOWS THE AREAS WITH HIGH PROBABILITY IN OIL AND GAS RESERVES AND ALSO THE EXISTING BORDERS AND PARTS OF UNCLAIMED LAND. THE DRILLING FOR THESE RESOURCES IS ONLY POSSIBLE BECAUSE OF THE MELTING OF THE ICE, WHICH MAKES THE OIL AND GAS RESERVES MORE ACCESSIBLE. THIS SITUATION CAN SET SIGNIFICANT OIL COMPANIES AS WELL AS COUNTRIES AGAINST EACH OTHER SINCE THEY ALL TRY TO EXPLOIT THE LAST UNTAPPED RESERVES FROM A PART IN THE WORLD WHERE THE TERRITORIES ARE UNCLEAR. XXII

RESSOURCES

ESTIMATED TERRITORY HOLDINGS OF UNDISCOVERED ARCTIC OIL | E WONG | FIG. 28 WITH THIS TABLE, THE POWER OF EACH BORDERING FIVE COUNTRIES OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN IS MADE VISIBLE. IT EXPLAINS WHY THE INTEREST FROM THE TWO SUPERPOWERS RUSSIA AND THE US HEIGHTENS. XXIII

RESOURCES

NOVOPORTOVSKOYE OIL FIELD | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 29

RESSOURCES

OIL RIG IN THE BEAUFORT SEA | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 30

RESOURCES

NICKEL REFINERY | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 31

RESSOURCES

BOVANENKOVO GAS FIELD | YURI KOZYREV | FIG. 32

MILITARY PRESENCE

Military bases came to rise from the moment that the Arctic heightened significance. Mostly the Soviet Union, but also the US, showed its interest in the region. Since these superpowers are direct neighbors across the north pole and there is unclear ownership within this region, they both established several military bases around the coastline. These bases increase threat awareness and are essential factors to consider the governance within the Arctic region. XXIV The graphs show the presence of military bases and the connected establishment of international bodies. Besides, the pictures give an overview of the vast array in which form this military presence exists, going from ground-based operations to air and even marine forces.

MILITARY PRESENCE

LOCATION OF MILITARY PRESENCE IN THE ARCTIC | HERITAGE FOUNDATION ET AL. | FIG. 33 ‘MILITARY AND ECONOMIC CONCERNS ARE DEEPLY INTERTWINED IN THE ARCTIC,’ WROTE STEPHANIE PEZARD. THIS QUOTE INDICATES THAT NO NATIONS WITHIN THE ARCTIC WANTS TO DE-STABILIZE THE HIGH NORTH. STILL THIS MAP CLEARLY SHOWS ALL THE SURROUNDING NATIONS OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN ARE PROTECTING THEMSELVE WITH THE SETTLEMENT OF MILITARY BASES. XXV

MILITARY PRESENCE

ARCTIC COUNCIL ATTENDANCE | SEBASTIAN KNECHT | FIG. 34 THE ARCTIC COUNCIL HAS RISEN ATTENTION SINCE SEVERAL NATIONS WANT TO PLAY A ROLE WITHIN THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN. EIGHT COUNTRIES, SIX INDIGENOUS GROUPS, AND A GROWING NUMBER OF OBSERVERS ATTEND THE BI-ANNUAL COUNCIL SESSIONS. THE PURPOSE OF THE COUNCIL IS TO SUSTAIN THE RELATION BETWEEN ALL THE ACTORS WITHIN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE. XXVI

MILITARY PRESENCE

RUSSIA’S ARCTIC TREFOIL MILITARY BASE ON ALEXANDRA LAND ISLAND | TASS\TASS | FIG. 35

MILITARY PRESENCE

RESOLUTE BAY FOR MILITARY | KADIR VAN LOHUIZEN | FIG. 36

MILITARY PRESENCE

RUSSIAN RECONNAISSANCE UNIT MEMBERS OF THE NORTHERN FLEET’S ARCTIC MECHANIZED INFANTRY BRIGADE | LEV FEDOSEYEV | FIG. 37

MILITARY PRESENCE

U.S. SOLDIERS DROP OVER THE DONNELLY TRAINING AREA NEAR FORT GREELY, ALASKA | LOUIE PALU | FIG. 38

MILITARY PRESENCE

THE US COAST GUARD | KADIR VAN LOHUIZEN | FIG. 39

MILITARY PRESENCE

NORWEGIAN NAVY | DAVID GOLDMAN | FIG. 40

BIBLIOGRAPHY

TEXT I

III

‘Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 8 January 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/.

IV V VI

Tina Schoolmeester, Hanna Lønning Gjerdi, John Crump, Björn Alfthan, Joan Fabres, Kathrine Johnsen, Laura Puikkonen, Tiina Kurvits, Elaine Baker. Global Linkages. Nairobi and Arendal: UN Environment and GRID-Arendal, 2019. https://grid.cld.bz/Global-Linkages. Tina Schoolmeester, Hanna Lønning Gjerdi, John Crump, Björn Alfthan, Joan Fabres, Kathrine Johnsen, Laura Puikkonen, Tiina Kurvits, Elaine Baker. Global Linkages. Nairobi and Arendal: UN Environment and GRID-Arendal, 2019. https://grid.cld.bz/Global-Linkages. “Russian Ambition Tops World-Changing Arctic To-Do List.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed July 1, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-economic-arctic/.

VII

Society, National Geographic. “Arctic.” National Geographic Society, October 6, 2016. http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/ arctic/.

VIII

“How a Melting Arctic Changes Everything.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed March 27, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/.

The Arctic Institute. “The Nuances of Geopolitics in the Arctic,” January 7, 2020. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/nuances-geopolitics-arctic/.

XII

Wilson Rowe, Elana. Arctic Governance : Power in Cross-Border Cooperation. Manchester University Press, 2018. https://library.oapen. org/handle/20.500.12657/29988.

XIII

“Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed January 8, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/.

XIV

Wilson Rowe, Elana. Arctic Governance : Power in Cross-Border Cooperation. Manchester University Press, 2018. https://library.oapen. org/handle/20.500.12657/29988. 61

“Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed January 8, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/.

XVI

Steve Score. “Socialism Today - The Scramble for Arctic Resources,” October 2007. http://socialismtoday.org/archive/113/polar.html.

XVII

“Russian Ambition Tops World-Changing Arctic To-Do List.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed July 1, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-economic-arctic/.

XVIII

“Russian Ambition Tops World-Changing Arctic To-Do List.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed July 1, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-economic-arctic/.

XIX

Magazine. “Arctic Landgrab,” May 1, 2009. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/05/healy/.

XXI

Dingman, Erica. ‘Is There Really a Race for the Arctic?’ Accessed 15 April 2020.

XXII Holder, Josh, Ekaterina Ochagavia, Lindsay Poulton, Monica Ulmanu, Emma Graham-Harrison, John Mullin, David Levene, and Terry Macalister. “The New Cold War: Drilling for Oil and Gas in the Arctic.” the Guardian. Accessed April 5, 2020. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/ ng-interactive/2015/jun/16/drilling-oil-gas-arctic-alaska.

XXIII

The new cold war. “The New Cold War.” Accessed July 4, 2020. http://sidharamp.blogspot.com/2015/06/the-new-cold-war.html.

XXIV

Environment. “A New Cold War Brews as Arctic Ice Melts,” May 8, 2019. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/10/ new-cold-war-brews-as-arctic-ice-melts/.

XXV

“Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed January 8, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/.

XXVI

“Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed January 8, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/.

ILLUSTRATIONS Fig 01

Fig 02

‘Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 8 January 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/.

Fig 03

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 04

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 05

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 06

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 07

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 08

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 09

Fig 10

‘Russian Ambition Tops World-Changing Arctic To-Do List’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 27 March 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/the-economic-arctic/.

Fig 11

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 12

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 13

“How a Melting Arctic Changes Everything.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed March 27, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/. 63

Fig 14

“How a Melting Arctic Changes Everything.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed March 27, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/.

Fig 15

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 16

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 17

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 18

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 19

‘Russian Ambition Tops World-Changing Arctic To-Do List’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 27 March 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/the-economic-arctic/.

Fig 20

‘Russian Ambition Tops World-Changing Arctic To-Do List’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 27 March 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/the-economic-arctic/.

Fig 21

“Radicalcartography.” Accessed July 4, 2020. http://www.radicalcartography.net/index.html?arctic-bathy.

Fig 22

‘Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 8 January 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/. ‘Russian Ambition Tops World-Changing Arctic To-Do List’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 27 March 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/the-economic-arctic/.

Fig 23 Fig 24

‘Russian Ambition Tops World-Changing Arctic To-Do List’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 27 March 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/the-economic-arctic/.

Fig 25

Gessen, Keith. “A Journey Through the Melting Arctic.” The New Yorker. Accessed July 5, 2020. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/12/24/polar-express.

Fig 26

‘Russian Ambition Tops World-Changing Arctic To-Do List’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 27 March 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-arctic/the-economic-arctic/.

Fig 27 Holder, Josh, Ekaterina Ochagavia, Lindsay Poulton, Monica Ulmanu, Emma Graham-Harrison, John Mullin, David Levene, and Terry Macalister. ‘The New Cold War: Drilling for Oil and Gas in the Arctic’. the Guardian. Accessed 5 April 2020. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/ ng-interactive/2015/jun/16/drilling-oil-gas-arctic-alaska.

Fig 28 Holder, Josh, Ekaterina Ochagavia, Lindsay Poulton, Monica Ulmanu, Emma Graham-Harrison, John Mullin, David Levene, and Terry Macalister. ‘The New Cold War: Drilling for Oil and Gas in the Arctic’. the Guardian. Accessed 5 April 2020. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/ ng-interactive/2015/jun/16/drilling-oil-gas-arctic-alaska. Fig 29

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 30

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 31

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 32

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 33

‘Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 8 January 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/.

Fig 34

‘Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 8 January 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/.

Fig 35

‘Putin Is Running Arctic Circles around the United States’. Bloomberg.Com. Accessed 8 January 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/ graphics/2017-arctic/the-political-arctic/.

Fig 36

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 37

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 38

Environment. “A New Cold War Brews as Arctic Ice Melts,” May 8, 2019. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/10/ new-cold-war-brews-as-arctic-ice-melts/.

Fig 39

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

Fig 40

Washington Post. ‘The New Arctic Frontier’. Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/world/arctic-climate-change-military-russia-china/.

LENA GEERTS DANAU

WITH THANKS TO MY CHS TUTOR JANE HALL

GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL DIMENSION OF THE ARCTIC

Articles inside

the ‘law of the sea’ - unclos

partnership

the arctic as a ‘void’

introduction

introduction

rethinking the concept of territories

nature used for capital

political bodies

introduction