Opera house timeline booklet

The Opera House // a Status Symbol Across Cultures // Page Numbers

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Théâtre Des Petits Cabinets // 1747-1751 // Versailles

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Berlin Opera House // 1745 // Berlin // Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff

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The Grand Theatre // 1773-80 // Bourdeaux // Victor Louis

The opera house as a status symbol is rooted in the development of exclusive private theatres in the 17th and 18th centuries and the strong tradition of attending operas. As Enlightenment designers began to focus on public buildings, the opera house was considered a vehicle for educating all the classes. These public theatres became symbols of culture for their cities, a fact capitalized on by emerging nations in the 19th century who mimicked and adapted European models to express their political power.

However, in the 20th and 21st centuries it became more important to be iconic than European, with the rise of Nationalism and the desire to move away from the past and into the future. The building type itself has persisted as a status symbol, but opera house design has adapted to specific histori cal and cultural contexts.

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Royal Opera House // 1858// Covent Garden // Edward Barry

Opéra de Paris // 1861 -75// Paris // Charles Garnier

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Khedivial Opera House // 1869 // Cairo // P. Avoscani and Rossi

Haymarket Theatre // 1796// Boston // unknown

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Teatro Colon // 1890-1908 // Buenos Aires // Francesco Tamburini, Victor Meano, and Julio Dormal

Hanoi Opera House // 1901-11 // Vietnam // Unknown (French)

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Theatro Municipal // 1909// Rio de Janiero // Albert Guilbert

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13 Lincoln Center // 1955-1969 // New York City

A Concert Hall // 1940 // G. Dimond Jr., D. Griswold, and Vikre

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Auditorium Building // 1889 // Chicago // Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan

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Radio City Music Hall // 1932 // NYC // Edward Durell Stone

Sydney Opera House // 1957-1973 // Sydney, Australia // Jørn Utzon

Federal Theatre Project // 1935-39 // USA // Works Progress Administration

22 Royal National Theatre // 1976 // London // Denys Lasdun

23 Guthrie Theater // 2006 // Minneapolis // Jean Nouvel

24 Oslo Opera House // 2007 // Oslo, Norway // Snøhetta

25 Guangzhou Opera House // 2010 // Guangzhou // Zaha Hadid

Lenna Johnsen

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Opera and theatre have long been considered elite forms of performance art. This is rooted firmly in the strong opera-going traditions of seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe. Whether the elite attended performances in large opera houses or exclusive private theatres such as Madame le Pompadour’s Théâtre Des Petits Cabinets (page 1), it was a form of social expression. Through specific architectural features such as private boxes and large stair halls, being seen at the opera became almost as important as the performances themselves.

Soon, opera houses and the social status associated with them became political tools for governments and cities.

In Berlin, King Frederick II moved palace grounds to make room for the Opernplatz, and a new royal library, cathedral, and the Berlin State Opera House (page 2). As the focal point of the square, performance art is given the same importance as religion and knowledge. The square acts as a monument to Prussian culture, a concept Voltaire (page 3) was eager to bring back to France. Influenced by this complex as well as Enlightenment ideas, free-standing public theatres and opera houses were built across Europe. In Bordeaux, the Grand Theatre (page 4) was built to give the status, an action that would become common in the nineteenth century. It has similar formal qualities to the Berlin State Opera House and was also a focal point in the city. It was part of the Enlightenment idea that through the monumentality and accessibility of public institutions such as libraries and theatres, the lives of everyday citizens could be improved. It was not only in Europe that theatre was given such weight; in America theatre was banned (page 5) for many years because of the political associations theatre had.

This reaction against European ideas would continue throughout American history, but one of its earliest examples was the Haymarket Theatre (page 6) which deliberately subverted architectural staples such as viewing boxes and distinct entrances for different classes.

Back in Europe, the development of free-standing monumental opera houses continued with buildings such as the Royal Opera House (page 7) in Covent Garden. In a dense urban context, this building isolates itself though its large portico and other classical detailing. The epitome of the opera house typology was the Opéra (page 8) in Paris. Massive and grand, it served as a dominant focal point for Haussmann’s redevelopment of Paris. It proclaimed Paris as the cultural capital of the world, and was henceforth copied and adapted to other contexts in order to express ties to Europe. Its classical elements and ornamentation, large dome, BeauxArts massing that included distinct entrances, and siting as a focal point before a plaza found their way around the world to locations such as Cairo (page 9), Buenos Aires (page 10), Vietnam (page 11), and Rio de Janiero (page 12). All of these cities were attempting to associate themselves with Europe’s elite for political and economic gain, and the construction of a staple European cultural institution was a vehicle for integrating themselves into that community.

On the other hand, Americans were not so eager to forge ties with Europe. The Auditorium Building (page 13) is an example of how architects and designers were trying to create a uniquely American architecture. It accomplishes this through visual ties to local buildings such as the Marshall Fields Wholesale Store and Louis Sullivan’s use of nature as an inspiration for the ornamentation. This deliberate attempt to break away from architectural tradition and instead look to local contexts and new technologies to inform designs can be seen as the beginnings of modernist thought. That is not to say that theatre itself was considered a relic of an older age. Rather, much like the thinkers of the Enlightenment had centuries before, it was believed that performance art could serve as a vehicle through which the public could be educated and their lives improved. There was a lull in construction in the early twentieth cen-

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tury because of the world wars and economic troubles, but government programs such as the Federal Theater Project (page 14) kept artists employed and performing to audiences across the United States.

However, the twentieth century did introduce new forms of entertainment such as radio and movies. Because of these innovations as well as economic factors, performance spaces had to be built to accommodate new media. This resulted in buildings such as Radio City Music Hall (page 15), which had a diverse range of functions. The building’s underlying purpose was stull to elevate its context through the introduction of a cultural institution, but it followed the example of the Auditorium Building in breaking away from European architecture. Under the influence of increasingly modernist architectural theory, it was a foray into geometric forms and Art Deco design. Radio City’s influence can be traced to drawings (page 16) from the University of Minnesota. Students there did not look to traditional European forms for the design of performance spaces but rather to Modernism and buildings like Radio City. Modernism would continue to have a strong influence on the design of opera houses and theatres, as seen in the Lincoln Center (page 20). Comprised of an opera house, dance school, and concert hall among other cultural institutions, the architects designed with glass, steel, and reinforced concrete.

However, it still relies on some of the same architectural characteristics as European Opera Houses to accomplish a similar goal; asserting greatness and power through the expression of culture. It has a large open plaza to invite the public in and denote it as a focal point through monumentality, and has abstractions of arcades and classical columns.

While some of these characteristics persisted, it soon became more important to be unique than European. The construction of the Sydney Opera House (page 21) was one of the first such iconic designs. Although it used a European building type as a status symbol, it was completely unlike earlier opera house designs. The Sydney Opera House acts as a symbol for the city, a key function of contemporary performance space design. To accomplish this, iconic buildings such as England’s Royal National Theatre (page 22), the Guthrie (page 23), the Oslo Opera House (page 24), and the Guangzhou Opera House (page 25) rely on local conditions to inform their design, a continuation of Sullivan’s ideas. They also often employ starchitects in order to associate the city with a new brand of architecture, while creating a very old building type.

The opera house as a status symbol is began in the development of exclusive private theatres in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the strong tradition of attending operas.

As Enlightenment designers began to focus on public buildings, the opera house was considered a vehicle for educating all the classes. These public theatres became symbols of culture for their cities, a fact capitalized on by emerging nations in the nineteenth century who mimicked and adapted European models to express their political power. However, in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries it became more important to be iconic than European, with the rise of Nationalism and the desire to move away from the past and into the future. The building type itself has persisted as a status symbol, but opera house design has adapted to specific historical and cultural contexts.

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Théâtre Des Petits Cabinets // 1747-1751 // Versailles

This is an example of one of the exclusive court theatres that were common in Europe before 18001.

Madame de Pompadour, King Louis XV’s powerful mistress, was an enthusiast of the arts and an actress herself2. As such, she wanted to build a private theatre at the palace at Versailles. In its first incarnation, the theatre was in a gallery by the Cabinet de Medalles within the palace. At this time, it was common in France to have theatres held within palaces and manors; these were referred to as Court Theatres. The audiences at performances were very exclusive, as they had to be invited to attend by the King himself 3. However, this exclusivity was also present in the acting company themselves. Those acting, singing, dancing, and playing instruments were powerful members of the court 4.In addition, the elaborate scenery and costumes were designed by famous artists of the time with no concern for expense. This theatre was clearly a theatre of the elite for the elite. Court theatres like these established that theatre was exclusive and cultured, an idea that Enlightenment architects tried to bring to everyone, not just the social elite through public architecture.

1. Howarth, William D. French Theatre in the Neo-Classical Era 1550-1789. Melbourne: University of Cambridge Press, 1997. 495-96. Web. 20 Feb. 2013.

2. Mitford, Nancy. Madame de Pompadour. New York City: New York Review of Books, 1953. Web. 20 Feb 2013.

3. Carlson, Marvin. Places of Performance: the Semiotics of Theatre Architecture. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989. Print.

4. “Mme. De Pompadour’s Theatre.” The New York Times 24 Jan. 1886. Web.

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E U RO - C E N T R I C Berlin State Opera House // 1745 // Berlin // Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff

The Berlin State Opera House is an early example of a performance space being used as a status symbol. King Frederick II of Prussia commissioned a plaza (the Opernplatz, now the Bebelplatz) to be built just outside a palace complex which was re-arranged to make the space available1. This is significant because it shows how important the construction of public buildings was becoming. The Opernplatz contained the Berlin State Opera, the Royal Library, and St. Hedwig’s Cathedral. The Opera House has been cited as the first freestanding theatre in Europe2, and it was a clear focal point for the plaza. These structures’ influence “can be traced in eastern France during the following decade, when many of the larger towns erected public theatres as part of a general movement towards prestige civic architecture” (Tidworth 103), showing that the idea of using public buildings to cultivate knowledge and act as symbol of culture caught on in the rest of Europe. The Opera House has been destroyed multiple times due to fires and bombings, but its reconstruction has stayed true to its original design, conserving what some call a uniquely Prussian architecture: it was “definitely Prussian in character with rooms inspired by sober Prussian rococo-elements originating in the Potsdam palaces” (Rarburn and Koegler 23). The Berlin State Opera House is significant because of its influence on theatres’ roles in urban planning and how it contributed to the idea of architecture representing a nation.

1. Raeburn, Christopher, and Horst Koegler. “New Opera Houses.” Tempo 38 (1955-1956): 23-34. Web. 27

Feb. 2013. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/942930>.

2. Tidworth, Simon. Theatres: an Architectural and Cultural History. New York City: Praeger Publishers,

1973. Print.

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Voltaire// 1740s and 1750s // France and Germany

François-Marie Arouet, better known by his pen name Voltaire, was a French philosopher and writer.

In addition to his myriad of books, plays, pamphlets, his letters discuss subjects ranging from history to philosophy to urban theory1. He corresponded frequently with King Frederick II of Prussia, who Voltaire visited in the 1740s and lived with in the 1750s. During these trips to Berlin, Voltaire was exposed to the Berlin State Opera. This building would have a strong effect on his ideas about theatres in the urban fabric of cities. In his letters, Voltaire “complained of the vast inferiority of French theatres to those of classical times and called for theatre buildings which would be ‘magnificent and splendid’ public monuments, ‘facing only major public squares with peristyles and porticos suggesting temples and palaces.’” (Carlson 74-75). Voltaire was a major player in French culture, and his views can be seen as a part of the movement towards monumental theatres and opera houses acting as a symbol of culture and status.

1. Strachey, Lytton. Books and Characters: French and English. New York City: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1922. 165-201. Web. 27 Feb. 2013.

2. Carlson, Marvin. Places of Performance: the Semiotics of Theatre Architecture. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989. Print.

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E U RO - C E N T R I C The Grand Theatre // 1773-80 // Bourdeaux, France// Victor Louis

The Grand Theatre at Bourdeaux is an example of a detached theatre, a new style that started due to concerns about fire safety1, but can also be seen as part of the Enlightenment trend towards public architecture and monuments in an urban fabric. The Grand Theatre can be considered a â&#x20AC;&#x153;civic theatreâ&#x20AC;? style, which was characterized by physical isolation, multiple vistas, and formidable exterior decoration with a dominant portico1. This would also appear decades later in buildings such as the OpĂŠra in Paris. In addition to its monumental appearance, the Grand Theatre had an expansive interior; with four tiers of boxes and a dome over the auditorium. The building also contained a large foyer with a grand staircase, which enabled social interactions and promoted the social status of going to the theatre. The Grand Theatre also had a small concert hall. This is a departure from earlier theatres that usually only had a single purpose and main space. Another significant aspect of the Grand Theatre is how its structure became a model for acoustics in theatres2. George Saunders used it as the standard in his Treatise on Theatres, where he describes parameters such as the distance from the audience to the stage and the thickness of the walls. Ideas about how public theatres should be designed and built were beginning to circulate, and this theatre was an early model for others. However, what is most important about the Grand Theatre at Bordeaux is how it was used as a symbol of culture for the city, and how it furthered that typology by mimicking the formal qualities of buildings like the Berlin State Opera House; a large public plaza in front, the use of classical elements such as columns, and the positioning as a vista point. These characteristics will persist in the design of opera houses for more than a hundred years as other cities build performance spaces to gain prestige.

1. Carlson, Marvin. Places of Performance: the Semiotics of Theatre Architecture. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989. 78-79. Print.

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2. Leacroft, Richard. Theatre and Playhouse. London: Methuen, 1984. 86-91. Print.

E U RO - C E N T R I C Revolutionary America and Theatre // 18th century // United States

In the years leading up to and shortly after the revolution, there was a ban on theatre in America1.

As early as the 1750s, places like Massachusetts and Pennsylvania placed bans on performances, and there was a comprehensive law passed in 1774. These bans were a result of the Great Awakening and the religious fervor that cultivated the idea that performance was immoral2. After the revolution, the bans were kept in place in order “to sever all cultural connections with Great Britain, the traditional source of America’s theatrical amusements” (Nathans 37). It was seen as a patriotic duty, especially as British troops had put on plays during the war to undermine the rebels using satire1. As such, theatre in America was slow to catch on before the lifting of the bans. While the American colonies wanted to distance themselves from European influence, other countries later used the construction of opera houses to link themselves more closely with Europe.

1. Nathans, Heather. Early American Theatre from the Revolution to Thomas Jefferson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Web. 6 Mar. 2013.

2. Strand, Ginger. “The Theater and the Republic: Defining Party on Early Boston’s Rival Stages.” Performing America: Cultural Nationalism in American Theater. Ed. Jeffery D. Mason and J. Ellen Gainor. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999. 19-36. Print.

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Haymarket Theatre // 1796 // Boston, MA // unknown

The Haymarket Theatre in Boston is an example of a subversive response to European performance spaces. It was built to be the “radically democratic” (Strand 24) counterpoint to the local Federal Street Theatre designed by Charles Bulfinch in 1794. These two theatres had a fierce, albeit short- lived, rivalry because of the political forces influencing both. The Haymarket was built as a reaction against the Pro-English Federalists who controlled the Federal Street Theatre and slighted the Pro-French Jacobins in their choice of plays and insertion of jokes at their expense1. Led by Charles Powell, the fired director of the Federal, the Haymarket Theatre was financed by a group of Jacobins that included glaziers and house wrights. The building itself demanded attention through its massive wooden structure, which was designed to be “most spacious and convenient in America” (Stoddard 65), and was the largest of its kind in 17962. In one way, this can be seen as distancing itself from European stone buildings, but it is more likely due to the materials that were available. Inside, the Haymarket’s large number of cheap seats and central entrance was a response to the Federal State Theatre’s distinct differentiation between boxes and galleries, even in entrances, that perpetuated social hierarchies. In this, the Federal was more like European opera houses and theatres. The Haymarket sought to distance itself from European traditions, and therefore chose not to follow earlier models of theatres and opera houses.

1. Strand, Ginger. “The Theater and the Republic: Defining Party on Early Boston’s Rival Stages.” Performing America: Cultural Nationalism in American Theater. Ed. Jeffery D. Mason and J. Ellen Gainor. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999. 19-36. Print.

2. Stoddard, Richard. “The Haymarket Theatre, Boston.” Educational Theatre Journal 27.1 (1975): 63-69.

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J-STOR. Web. 6 Mar. 2013. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3206341>.

E U RO - C E N T R I C Royal Opera House // 1858 // Covent Garden, London // Edward Barry

First constructed in 1732, the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden in London was commissioned by John Rich, a leading producer in English theatre. Known for his elaborate staging of plays and pantomimes, his new theatre had traps, a flying system, and other mechanical equipment1. Edward Shepherd, the architect, designed the Royal Opera House with earlier models in mind. The fan shaped auditorium and stage were based on a precedent set by Christopher Wren at the Drury Lane Theatre. The Royal Opera House was rebuilt twice more after this original design, with Edward Barry’s being the most recent. It has a complex system of boxes and balconies that served to organize the different classes who attended performances here.

The façade of the building has a large portico that resembles a Greek or Roman temple, which adds gravitas to the opera house. These references would have been understood by the upper classes whose parents had cultivated English Landscape Gardens with follies. The Royal Opera House, together with the Paris Opéra, formed the basis for the opera house typology.

1. Hume, Robert D. “The Royal Opera House, Covent Garden. A Series of Articles to Mark the 250th Anniversary. Covent Garden Theatre in 1732.” The Musical Times 123.1678 (1982): 823-26. J-Stor.

Web. 6 Feb. 2013. < http://www.jstor.org/stable/964219>.

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Opera de Paris// 1861-75 // Paris // Charles Garnier

The Opéra played a key role in Haussman and Napoleon III’s redevelopment of Paris. It was an integral part of the new frameworks that were intended to improve the lives of Parisians culturally and physically. Because of this, it became a model for later opera houses and other performance spaces. 1

Formally, the Opéra is very similar to earlier examples such as the Berlin State Opera House. The Paris Opéra had a long boulevard opening out from it, making the building a strong focal point. Because there was a large open area in front, the Opéra felt public. Later architects in locations as varied as Cairo and Buenos Aires would make use of this technique to draw attention to their opera houses. The building also felt open because of the arcade in front.

Programmatically, it was meant to filter the large numbers of people coming to performances, but it also gave the impression that anyone could walk in off the street. While this was not actually the case and the Opéra had distinct and differentiated entrances for the social classes, the appearance of democratic access to culture remained. This was an idea reminiscent of the Enlightenment’s emphasis on public knowledge to improve lives, the main focus of Paris’s new urban design and used in other urban plans around the world. The Opéra used Beaux Arts principles in how its massing communicates the purposes within. Its pilasters divide the building into vertical segments that are topped by an ornamented cornice-like piece, reminiscent of the classical temple form. Its sculptural details also suggest a temple through their resemblance to Roman sculptures of gods and goddesses. These references give an almost religious meaning to opera and aggrandize the building and its function. The crowning dome called attention to the Opéra, even from far away down the new view corridors.2 The building had ties to the new façade of the Louvre, an art museum nearby.

This shows the importance of knowledge and culture being available to the public. Or at the very least, those who could pay. Paris set the example for the new city; a cultured and healthy urban community for whom institutions such as an opera house or art museum were just as important as churches and cathedrals.

1. Chapman, Brian. “Baron Haussmann and the Planning of Paris”. The Town Planning Review. Vol. 24, no. 3. Oct, 1953. Pg. 177-192. J-STOR. Web.

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E U RO - C E N T R I C Khedivial Opera House // 1869 // Cairo, Egypt // P. Avoscani and Rossi

The Khedivial Opera House in Cairo is one of the first examples of a government appropriating European opera houses in order to gain prestige. The Egyptian government commissioned an opera house as part of a larger scheme to modernize Egypt as a whole1. The Khedive Isma’il Pasha had aspirations to make Egypt a major political power and modern nation. He said “My country is no longer in Africa; we are now part of Europe. It is therefore natural for us to abandon our former ways and to adopt a new system adapted to our social conditions” (Haag 397). Because of his past studies in Paris, he based his designs for the modernization of the capital city of Cairo to European designs and precedents. This was manifested in Ali Pasha Mubarak’s urban planning and buildings like the Khedivial Opera House, whose purpose was “to entertain the European population of Cairo, a population whose real purpose was to administer Egypt as a piece of Europe’s overseas empire” (Robinson 134). The presence of a European population in Cairo was due to the Suez Canal, a major infrastructure project whose dedication coincided with the opening of the Opera House.

For the opening, the Khedive also commissioned Aida, an opera that reflected Egypt’s history from a famous Italian composer2. The architecture of the Khedivial Opera House was “modelled on the neo-classical opera houses that sprang up throughout Europe in the nineteenth century” (Robinson 134). Through visual cues and ties to European culture, both the theatre building and the performances inside were used as expressions of Egypt’s ambitions and desire to influence European politics.

1. Haag, Michael. Egypt. London: Cadogen Guides, 1993. Google Books. Web. 2. Robinson, Paul. “Is ‘Aida’ an Orientalist Opera?” Cambridge Opera Journal 5.2 (1993): 133-40. JSTOR. Web. 27 Mar. 2013. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/823799>.

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E U RO - C E N T R I C Teatro Colon // 1890-1908 // Buenos Aires, Argentina // F. Tamburini, V. Meano, and J. Dormal

In the mid to late 19th century, Argentina was booming. Massive numbers of European immigrants were populating its cities and influencing Argentinian culture. Much like Cairo, Buenos Aires sought to become a world power on par with European cities such as Paris or Vienna. This desire was manifested in the efforts of politicians like Torcuato de Alvear or “the Argentine Haussman”1 to modernize the city through new buildings and urban infrastructure. A key component of this plan was a grand opera house, and the government was swayed by “the civilizing cultural mission of a great theater, or its function as a symbol to show Europeans that Argentina had arrived” (Hodge 238) to begin construction in 1890. They held a competition for the design of the building, which was won by the Italian architect Francesco Tamburini (whose earlier work included Casa Rosada, and the Central Police Station). Tamburini was responsible for the original designs, which were mostly followed after his death. El Teatro Colón’s architecture recalls the great European opera houses through its massive scale, horizontally organized facade, beaux arts massing, and its site as an entire urban block. Inside the theatre, the main auditorium is horseshoe-shaped like the most popular European examples, the opulent interiors were designed by a French company and decorated with and Italian sculptor’s work. World-renowned for its acoustics, “the Colón takes its place proudly with such theaters as the Metropolitan, La Scala, the Vienna Staatsoper and Covent Garden” (Hodge 255).

1. Hodge, John E. “The Construction of the Teatro Colon.” The Americas 36.2 (1979): 235-55. J-STOR. Web. 10 Apr. 2013. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/980748>.

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E U RO - C E N T R I C Hanoi Opera House// 1901-11 // Hanoi, Vietnam // Unkown

The Hanoi Opera House was built in Vietnam during a period of French control. Its design was overseen by the local French officials, who based it on the Opéra in Paris1. This can be seen distinctly in its formal qualities; the crowning dome, the columns in front, the arcade to bring the building down to human scale, the open court in front; and so forth. Originally, the building was only allowed to be used for performances of European work, and the audiences were mostly French and the Vietnamese upper class. The Hanoi Opera House has the same dichotomy as the Opéra in that it seems open, but actually has distinct social hierarchies written into it. It is also significant to note that after the expulsion of the French in the 1940s, the building took on new life. It holds public performances for charity, as well as government meetings (including the first meeting of the National Assembly of Vietnam Democratic Republic in 1946), and national and international exhibits and performances. The restoration of the Hanoi Opera House in 1998 was “used by the Vietnamese government to better position Hanoi in the global hierarchy of cities- not yet as a city in the world league, but certainly as a major regional city within Asia” (Logan 565), showing the continuing importance of this cultural institution. The Hanoi Opera House website claims that its restoration made it “into a cultural center of the country and a cultural landmark in Southeast Asia.”

1. Logan, William S. “The Cultural Role of Capital Cities: Hanoi and Hue, Vietnam.” Pacific Affairs 78 (2006): 559-75. J-STOR. Web. 27 Apr. 2013.

2. “About Us.” Hanoi Opera House. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2013. <http://www.hanoioperahouse.org.vn/E_ FontEnd/E_Lichsu.aspx>.

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E U RO - C E N T R I C Theatro Municipal // 1909 // Rio de Janiero, Brazil // Albert Guilbert

The Theatro Municipal in Rio also has a strong resemblance to the Paris Opéra. It has a large open plaza in front, classical elements such as columns and pediments, and Beaux Arts massing. The Theatro also adds in references to the Bon Marché with its rounded corners and roofline. This was no accident; Rio de Janeiro’s urban fabric was undergoing massive changes that mimicked Haussman’s Paris. Boulevards were opened up to provide vista points, and new cultural institutions like the Theatro and the nearby National Library were constructed2. These changes orchestrated by Mayor Pereira Passos were meant to catch the attention of Europeans: “Imitation of Parisian buildings and spaces was conceived as the best means to attract foreign capital…By providing a familiar image to international elites, Rio’s reformers hoped to convince them that Brazil was a serious and deserving participant in the European economic order” (Underwood 55).

Like the Hanoi Opera House, it used to only host European performers, but has since been reclaimed to hold the Brazilian Symphonic Orchestra. Once again, the construction of a performance space such as an opera house based on European designs was used as a power move and a status symbol.

1. Theatro Municipal. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2013. <http://www.theatromunicipal.rj.gov.br/tmrj_en/visita_virtual_en.html>.

2. Underwood, David. “”Civilizing” Rio de Janeiro: Four Centuries of Conquest through Architecture.” Art Journal 51.4 (1992): 48-56. JSTOR. Web. 28 Apr. 2013.

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M O D E R N I ST Auditorium Building // 1889 // Chicago, IL // Sullivan and Adler

The Auditorium Building is an example of how new ideas affecting architecture such as new technology were implemented in the design of performance spaces. In this building, Adler and Sullivan adapted the typology of an opera house to Chicago’s specific context. Like other opera houses, theatres, and concert halls, the Auditorium Building is a result of political goals and ambitions. Chicago at this time was becoming a major American city and Ferdinand Peck, a wealthy local, decided Chicago needed its own cultural center to put it on par with European capitals and to compete with New York City’s recently completed Metropolitan Opera1. As such, he commissioned Adler and Sullivan to build one of the tallest buildings at the time using backing from citizens, not the government. However, unlike the Metropolitan Opera, Peck did not want the chief audience of the Auditorium Building to be the elite of the city but instead he wanted to recast “the opera house, a building type long associated with urban elites, into a novel kind of structure aimed at the cultural inclusion of workers” (Siry 138). This was partly a result of recent political events in Chicago, such as the Haymarket strike. Peck believed that cultural education could improve class relations, and thought this building and its programming could help local conditions. With the working class dissatisfied and angry with the upper class, the architects tried to distance the Auditorium Building from European Opera Houses and other “elite” buildings of the kind. This was accomplished by having very few boxes, a lack of Classical ornamentation like columns and pilasters, no central dome, a neutrally colored interior instead of the opulent red, heavy rustication on the exterior, and the use of the word Auditorium instead of Opera or Theatre. It had ties to local and American architecture, such as H. H. Richardson’s Marshall Field Wholesae Store and Sullivan used local nature as a model for the ornamentation, a trademark of his. Although the Auditorium Building has similar political goals to buildings such as the Khedivial Theatre in Cairo or the Grand Theatre at Bordeaux, it subverts the usual typology to fit its local cultural context.

1. Siry, Joseph M. “Chicago’s Auditorium Building: Opera or Anarchism.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 57.2 (1998): 128-59. J-STOR. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/991376>.

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Federal Theatre Project // 1953-39 // United States // WPA

The Federal Theatre Project was part of Roosevelt’s New Deal programming during the Great Depression. Its primary purpose was to provide employment to actors, technicians, and designers who were out of work, but the program also sought to provide entertainment and culture to the suffering American public.1 It sponsored touring companies who performed both established and new work. This included ‘Living Newspapers’ plays written around newspaper clippings. Major actors, directors, and writers participated in the program including Susan Glaspell, Arthur Miller, and Orson Welles. The development of this project in a difficult economic time shows the importance of performing arts to the nation and also how Enlightenment ideas of public knowledge through culture were still prevalent.

1. “The New Deal Stage: Collections from the Federal Theatre Project”. Library of Congress. <http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/fedtp/>.

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M O D E R N I ST Radio City Music Hall // 1932 // New York City, NY // Edward Stone

Radio City Music Hall presents a departure from the trend of European-style opera houses in both its design and the fact that it literally replaced plans for a traditional opera house. The site was actually intended for a new Metropolitan Opera House, but because of the economy, the planners decided against it and built the Rockefeller Center instead1. The center held commercial buildings, news agencies, and an extensive public art installation. At the time, this area of New York was considered down-trodden, and the new complex was meant to reinvigorate it much like how earlier opera houses were used in cities like Rio and Cairo. Radio City Music Hall was intended as “a place of beauty offering high-quality entertainment at prices ordinary people could afford… to entertain and amuse, but also to elevate and inspire”1. Architecturally, Radio City Music Hall was inspired by Art Deco but can be also classified as “an American modernism”2. The façade is pared down, the only ornament being the bright marquee lights, the signs on the corner of the building, and medallions portraying classically inspired scenes. It blends in with the rest of the complex, unlike the freestanding opera houses. The auditorium is a stark departure from earlier models with its strong geometric ornamentation. And without columns and shallow mezzanines, the auditorium lacks the strict hierarchy of seating that was prevalent in traditional opera houses. This building is significant as it served as a model for designs of performance spaces for architects and students like those at the University of Minnesota.

1. “History” Radio City N.p., n.d. Web. 1 May. 2013.

< http://www.radiocity.com/about/history.html >.

2. Stern, Ellen. “Razzle And Redazzle [Radio City Music Hall].” House Beautiful 141.11 (1999): 164. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals. Web. 21 Apr. 2013.

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M O D E R N I ST A Concert Hall // 1940 // G. Dimond Jr., D. Griswold, and Vikre

This pencil drawing from 1940 by students Grover M. Dimond Jr., David J. Griswold, and Vikre depicts a design for a concert hall. Through its choice of perspective and focus on the experiential qualities of space, this drawing has a clear relationship to the Beaux Arts tradition already present at the University of Minnesota. However, its architectural qualities are much more modern than Beaux Arts architecture like Garnierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Opera in Paris or earlier examples of student work. Through both its pictorial and architectural qualities, this drawing shows a significant shift in design education towards Modernism and the International Style, a trend which would manifest itself in local architecture as students graduated.

The drawing suggests that the viewers are actually part of the scene rather than just looking at an image of it. Instead of having a distinct border, the image fades out around the edges and envelops observers into the space. They are seated behind rows packed with other audience members all focused on the stage and the pianist performing there and not the architecture around them. The focal point is reinforced by the striations of the ceiling and the spotlights directed at the stage. By using pencil, the artists were able to depict the quality of light in the space and create a highly evocative scene. They did not choose to show an empty concert hall and focus on its architectural qualities alone, but rather chose to show the space as it was intended to be used in order to display its experiential and emotional qualities.

This is directly related to the Beaux Artâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s emphasis on the emotional qualities of architecture and the importance of depicting those qualities through drawings. This can be seen in the other images in this set such as the Lounge view (image 2), which is drawn from the perspective of an occupant. Once again, the use of this view reinforces that the purpose of these drawings is to depict the spatial and experiential qualities of the building at the human scale.

However, unlike earlier Beaux Arts drawings, this set does not contain plans or sections. The Beaux Arts School had a strong focus on showing the relationships within works of architecture, and this often

16 // FOCUS ENTRY

M O D E R N I ST

manifested in drawings that organized perspectives and analytical diagrams in a clear and rational way. This can be seen in earlier work at the University of Minnesota, such as the Foyer de L’Opera by D.C. Bayliss in 1928 (image 3).

Here, the plan is drawn directly underneath a perspective view to show how the space is both organized and experienced. The archived concert hall drawing set does not have similarly analytical diagrams, but instead what was preserved focuses solely on experiential drawings.

Architecturally, Dimond, Griswold, and Vikre’s design shows a movement away from older styles that used to dominate architectural IMAGE 2 // Lounge, 1940 education and practice. This concert hall design by Grover Dimond Jr, David Griswold,and Vikre is similar to that of New York City’s Radio City Music Hall, which was an innovative structure completed in 19322. In a 1999 article about preservation efforts at Radio City, architect Hugh Hardy commented that “it was influenced by Art Deco…but it’s an American modernism, invented on these shores” 3. The choice (rather conscious or not) of an American model, is important because it shows a shift away from using older European models and towards a development of a new architecture; the very core of modernism. Architecturally, both the student work and Radio City differ significantly from earlier designs. Dimond, Griswold, and Vikre’s drawing does not show balcony levels with boxes, or a typical proscenium arch. Instead, both spaces have circular panels radiating out from the stage to form a powerful focal point. The spaces are sparsely ornamented with geometric shapes rather than the opulent curves of baroque and rococo decorations that were common in more traditional performance spaces. Aesthetically, the concert hall design is a very modern space unlike the earlier student design for an opera that was clearly based on older European Opera Houses.

This move toward modernism was a result of the school’s changing culture at that time. Architect Robert Cerny was hired in 1936 to teach at Minnesota’s School of Architecture, and helped to steer the department towards Modernist architecture.3 His students produced designs that were an “abrupt departure from the Moderne designs that had dominated student work during the late 1930s”3. Under his tutelage, many students developed a Modernist design aesthetic and method including David Griswold and Grover M. Dimond Jr. (see images 4 and 5). Grover M. Dimond Jr. would go on to inherit his father’s architecture firm (Grover Dimond Associates) and IMAGE 3 // Foyer de L’Opera, 1928 design prominent buildings in St. Paul. His schooling in

by D.C. Bayliss Modernism and the International Style informed his later work, including his involvement in the redevelopment of

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M O D E R N I ST

downtown St. Paul through the Architects Committee. His opinions were very much guided by the Modernist’s desire for the new; “‘Superficial face lifting is not enough,” explained Dimond. Old buildings may have been well designed by the standards of their own age, but the “progress of our civilization has made them out of date.” The solution was not cosmetic remodeling but new construction”3. These were Modernist ideas cultivated during his education at the University of Minnesota.

These drawings show how new ideas and theories about architecture were influencing students and their work. While students maintained a strong Beaux Arts emphasis on showcasing the experiential and emotional qualities of design, the forms were distinctly modern. Instead of merely adapting older European models, they looked to the future of design. And under the tutelage of Modernist professors, students would go on to shape Minnesota’s landscapes.

IMAGE 4 // Satterlee Company Building, 1954

by David Griswold in Minneapolis, Minnesota

IMAGE 5 // Paul & Sheila Wellstone Elem‎entary, 1961

by Grover Dimond Associates in Minneapolis, Minnesota

18

Works Referenced

164. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals. Web. 21 Apr. 2013.

2. “History.” Radio City. Web. 21 Apr. 2013. <http://www.radiocity.com/about/history.html>.

This is the official website of Radio City, so it presents biases in terms of the buildings global importance, but it also has a wealth of factual information about the building and its design.

M O D E R N I ST

1. Stern, Ellen. “Razzle And Redazzle [Radio City Music Hall].” House Beautiful 141.11 (1999):

3. Hess, Jeffrey A., and Paul C. Larson. St. Paul’s Architecture: A History. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006. Google Books. Web. 21 Apr. 2013.

Dimond Jr, Grover M., Vikre, and David J. Griswold. A Concert Hall. 1940. University of Minnesota College of Design, Minneapolis. College of Design Drawing Archives. Web. 21 Apr. 2013. image 1

Dimond Jr, Grover M., Vikre, and David J. Griswold. Lounge. 1940. University of Minnesota College of Design, Minneapolis. College of Design Drawing Archives. Web. 21 Apr. 2013. image 2

Bayliss, D C. Foyer de L’Opera. 1928. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. College of Design Drawing Archives. Web. 21 Apr. 2013. image 3

Griswold, David J. Satterlee Company Building. 1954. University of Minnesota College of Design, Minneapolis. College of Design Drawing Archives. Web. 21 Apr. 2013. image 4

65 Kellog Blvd East. 2009. Google Maps. Web. 21 Apr. 2013. image 5

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M O D E R N I ST

Lincoln Center // 1955-1969 // New York City, NY // various

The Lincoln Center was part of the Lincoln Square Urban Redevelopment Project in New York City, designed to reinvigorate and redevelop an area of slums1. The construction of a new opera house and philharmonic hall was to be a major catalyst in this effort. This is very similar to how Haussmann used the Opéra in Paris’s redevelopment. And like the Opéra, the Lincoln Center was intended for everyone’s use and cultural education, but in actually was much more exclusive. In order to be constructed, several blocks of low income housing were razed and their tenants moved elsewhere in pursuit of a new cultural icon. President Eisenhower broke ground for the center in front of a TV audience, asserting “the nation’s cultural superiority to the corners of the earth” (Janz 232). Lincoln Center is part of the movement away from European-style opera houses and towards cultural centers that included not just opera houses but also concert halls and museums. Like earlier examples, the underlying reason was the same: “Lincoln Center was to communicate clearly the message that postwar America deserved placement in the pantheon of great civilizations” (Janz 232). And architecturally, this set of buildings is very modernist with their pared down facades and ornamentation, as well as use of glass and steel. However, the thin pilasters of the buildings evoke the columns and arcades of opera houses. This may be a departure from the traditional forms, but it still relies on the language of the past to communicate a similar idea; an opera house acting as a marker of high culture.

1. Janz, Wesley. “Theaters of Power: Architectural and Cultural Productions.” Journal of Architectural Education 50.4 (1997): 230-43. JSTOR. Web. 27 Apr. 2013.

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ICONIC Sydney Opera House // 1957-1973 // Sydney, Australia // Jørn Utzon The citation for Jørn Utzon’s Pritzker Prize reads: “There is no doubt that the Sydney Opera House is his masterpiece. It is one of the real iconic buildings of the twentieth century, an image of great beauty which has become known throughout the world- a symbol for not only a city, but a whole country and continent” 1 . Much like earlier opera houses, the construction of the Sydney Opera House was motivated by political interests in putting Australia and Sydney on the world stage. They held an international design competition presided over by such architects as Eero Saarinen, which called attention to their plans for this cultural institution. Jørn Utzon was chosen for his innovative and iconic design. However, because of its novelty there were many structural issues during construction, which was also partly due to political pressures being put on the architects and engineers to get the building done quickly1. In its design, the Sydney Opera House maintained some of the key characteristics of earlier opera houses; monumentality and siting before a large plaza or view corridor. However, it takes that idea even further by placing the building on a piece of land that juts out into the harbor. It was the same idea as the Opéra’s long boulevard, but the vista point Utzon created was unique to Sydney’s geography. This specificity and use of water to draw attention to the building is also used in later examples such as the Oslo Opera House and the Guangzhou Opera House. Drawing inspiration from site and context is an idea that can be traced back to Louis Sullivan’s early modernist ideas in the Auditorium Building. Instead of creating a massive replica of a European Opera House, Utzon designed something novel and iconic. The idea of creating a landmark building would persevere throughout the twentieth century and on into the twenty-first, both in performance spaces as well as other cultural institutions such as the Guggenheim Bilbao. These iconic structures would serve the same purpose as the European Opera Houses translated to other contexts, but they would seek to create a totally unique vocabulary.

1. Murray, Peter. The Saga of Sydney Opera House: The Dramatic Story of the Design and Construction of

the Icon of Modern Australia. Routledge: London, 2003. Google Books. Web.

FOCUS ENTRY //

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ICONIC

Royal National Theatre // 1976 // London // Denys Lasdun

Unlike earlier theatres in Europe and across the world, the Royal National Theatre did not draw on specific theatres or opera houses as precedents. The purpose of this building was not to emulate earlier work, but rather to be iconic in its own right. As such, its design was derived from the site; the layering of the banks of the Thames1. While Lasdun’s work could be classified as Brutalist, he was very much interested in designing for the specific context of each building and drawing on nature for inspiration2. However different the design process was, the Royal National Theatre serves much the same purpose as earlier theatres and opera houses; to be a source of pride and a status symbol. The National is located on the South Bank of London, a traditionally troubled area. Its construction was part of a wider effort to revitalize the area through the addition of cultural institutions like exhibition halls and art galleries. This is much like the efforts in the 1800s by cities like Rio de Janeiro who constructed museums, libraries, and opera houses to appeal to European audiences. The Royal National Theatre may have served as an anchor for the regenerated South Bank, but it was first and foremost supposed to be the theatre of England. As such, Lasdun designed it to be monumental, revolutionary, and all-encompassing when it came to performance space. It contains three different theatres in addition to the public plazas that are used during the summer for performances and as a gathering space year round3. Unlike theatres like the Opéra that only gave the appearance of being open to the public, the National is actually open to everyone both in the sense that the building itself is open during the day and performances, and also that tickets are extremely cheap. It is a cultural institution meant to serve and educate the public, but instead of relying on established precedents to achieve this goal, it sought to be iconic and site-specific; a source of pride for the nation.

1. Amery, Colin. The National Theatre: “The Architectural Review” Guide. London: Architectural Press, 1977. Print.

2. Dannatt, Trevor. “Obituary: Denys Lasdun 1914-2001.” Architectural Review 209.1248 (2001): 27. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals. Web. 29 April 2013.

3.”Building FAQs” National Theatre. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2013. < http://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/ >.

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ICONIC

Guthrie Theater // 2006 // Minneapolis, MN // Jean Nouvel

The GuthrieTheater is another example of an iconic theatre that seeks to be a source of pride and status for its city. Its architecture responds directly to its site on the Mississippi by old mill architecture. Because it is open to the public and contains features like the Endless Bridge, restaurant, and gift shop, the Guthrie is a tourist attraction as well as a working theatre. Its image is used on souvenirs and promotional material for Minneapolis. The choice of architect Jean Nouvel, who won the Pritzker Prize in 2008, shows the institution’s dedication to commissioning an iconic building for the city of Minneapolis and the Guthrie Theatre company.: “The Guthrie directors wanted a new building that would provide the theater with an unmistakable identity” (Millet 66). In this way, the Guthrie is directly related to the political goals of the company and the city. The Guthrie’s presence in Minneapolis distinguishes it from other midsized American cities, which attracts new residents, companies, and investors.

1. Larry Millett, AIA Guide to the Twin Cities. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical

Society Press, 2007. Google Books. Web.

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ICONIC

Oslo Opera House // 2007 // Oslo, Norway // Snøhetta

The Oslo Opera House (Operahuset) is part of the trend towards iconic architecture that maintains some of the same goals of earlier examples; prestige through access to culture. But instead of relying on architectural precedents, it, much like the Royal National Theatre, is site specific. Operahuset’s iceberg-like form was designed with the natural Oslo fjord in mind1, much like how Denys Lasdun looked to the Thames for his design. Some of the patterns in the aluminum cladding are meant to evoke old weaving patterns, a local tradition. The art installed in the building is site specific and interacts with the space, and is the work of a combination of native and international artists. And much like the National, Operahuset is mean t to be an icon for Oslo and Norway. It is the largest cultural building built in Norway since a 14th century cathedral2.

Like the earlier freestanding buildings like the Opéra, Operahuset is meant to bring culture to the public, and through doing so, gain social status on a global scale. It is a popular tourist attraction, and seeks to integrate with Oslo by offering public space to its residents.2

1. http://www.operaen.no/en/Learn-more/About-the-Opera-House/#section29071404 2. http://www.visitnorway.com/us/Where-to-go-us/East/Oslo/To-do--see/Attractions-in-Oslo/Norways-newOpera-House/

24

ICONIC Guangzhou Opera House // 2010 // Guangzhou, China // Zaha Hadid

The Guangzhou Opera House is one of the most recent iconic opera houses to be built. It shows, like its predecessors, the continuing desire to construct buildings that will become architectural and cultural icons for their cities. It also continues the idea of offering up culture to its locale, regardless of class: “The sequence of spaces ties the opera house into the park around it, redeeming what until now was little-used space. As important, it establishes the opera house and its grounds as part of the public realm — something that belongs to everyone, not just elite opera fans”1. The Opera House is meant to draw attention to the city and confirm “Guangzhou as one of Asia’s cultural centres”2 much like the Sydney Opera House and the Guthrie before it.

1. Ouroussoff, Nicolai. “Chinese Gem that Elevates Its Setting.” New York Times 5 July 2011. Web. 29 Apr. 2013.

2. http://www.zaha-hadid.com/architecture/guangzhou-opera-house/

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I M AG E C I TAT I O N S

Lalauze, Adolphe. Madame de Pompadour performs in Acis et Galathée (1686) in front of Louis XV and his court (1749). Musée national du Château et des Trianons, Versailles. Web. Berlin: Opera House. University of California, San Diego, San Diego. ARTstor. Web. Baquoy, Pierre. Voltaire and Frederick the Great. 1795. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. ARTstor. Web. Andrews, Wayne. Grand Theater of Bordeaux. 1945-1972. Estate of Wayne Andrews. Web. Franklin, Benjamin. Join or Die. 1754. New York Public Library. ARTstorWeb. Stoddard, Richard. “The Haymarket Theatre, Boston.” Educational Theatre Journal 27.1 (1975): 63-69. J-STOR. Web. 6 Mar. 2013. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3206341>.

Royal Opera House. BBC, London. Web. Paris: Opera House: Exterior. University of California, San Diego, San Diego. ARTstorWeb. Opera House and Ibrahim Pasha Monument. Raphael Tuck and Sons Postcards. Web Teatro Colon. Teatro Colon Facebook Page, Buenos Aires. Web Lee, Tunney F. Hanoi Opera House. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. ARTstor.

Web. Macierira, Alexandre. Theatro Municipal do Rio de Janeiro. 2012. RioTur. Web. Auditorium Building. Digital Library Federation Academic Image Cooperative. ARTstor. Web. Stoller, Ezra. Radio City Music Hall, Rockefeller Center. 1932. Ezra Stoller Archive. ARTstor. Web. Dimond Jr, Grover M., Vikre, and David J. Griswold. A Concert Hall. 1940. University of Minnesota College of Design, Minneapolis. College of Design Drawing Archives. Web. Dimond Jr, Grover M., Vikre, and David J. Griswold. Lounge. 1940. University of Minnesota College of Design, Minneapolis. College of Design Drawing Archives. Web. Bayliss, D C. Foyer de L’Opera. 1928. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. College of Design Drawing Archives. Web. Griswold, David J. Satterlee Company Building. 1954. University of Minnesota College of Design, Minneapolis. College of Design Drawing Archives. Web. 65 Kellog Blvd East. 2009. Google Maps. Web. New York: Lincoln Center Gen. view. University of California, San Diego, San Diego. ARTstor. Web. The Sydney Opera House; aerial overview showing harbor area. 1973. ART on FILE, Seattle.

ARTstor. Web.

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Vancleave, Mark. View of the Guthrie from Gold Medal Park. Guthrie Theater, Minneapolis. Web. “Learn More” Opera House. Web. http://www.operaen.no/en/Learn-more/About-the-OperaHouse/#section29071404.

“Guangzhou Opera House”. Zaha Hadid Architects. Web. http://www.zaha-hadid.com/architecture/guangzhou-opera-house/

Janz, Wesley. “Theaters of Power: Architectural and Cultural Productions.”

Siry, Joseph M. “Chicago’s Auditorium Building: Opera or Anarchism.”

Underwood, David. “”Civilizing” Rio de Janeiro: Four Centuries of Conquest through Architecture.”

Logan, William S. “The Cultural Role of Capital Cities: Hanoi and Hue, Vietnam.”

Hodge, John E. “The Construction of the Teatro Colon.”

Robinson, Paul. “Is ‘Aida’ an Orientalist Opera?”

Stoddard, Richard. “The Haymarket Theatre, Boston.”

University of Minnesota Libraries // Amery, Colin. The National Theatre: “The Architectural Review” Guide.

Strand, Ginger. “The Theater and the Republic: Defining Party on Early Boston’s Rival Stages.”

Carlson, Marvin. Places of Performance: the Semiotics of Theatre Architecture Leacroft, Richard. Theatre and Playhouse Tidworth, Simon. Theatres: an Architectural and Cultural History.

Google Books //

R E Q U I R E D S O U RC E S

JSTOR //

Larry Millett, AIA Guide to the Twin Cities.

Haag, Michael. Egypt.

Nathans, Heather. Early American Theatre from the Revolution to Thomas Jefferson.

Strachey, Lytton. Books and Characters: French and English Raeburn, Christopher, and Horst Koegler. “New Opera Houses.”

Howarth, William D. French Theatre in the Neo-Classical Era 1550-1789.

Mitford, Nancy. Madame de Pompadour.

Drawing Archives // Dimond Jr, Grover M., Vikre, and David J. Griswold. A Concert Hall.

Dimond Jr, Grover M., Vikre, and David J. Griswold. Lounge.

Bayliss, D C. Foyer de L’Opera.

Griswold, David J. Satterlee Company Building.

Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals // Dannatt, Trevor. “Obituary: Denys Lasdun 1914-2001.”

Stern, Ellen. “Razzle And Redazzle [Radio City Music Hall].”

Nearby Building // Guthrie Theatre

27

W E B C I TAT I O N S

Theatro Municipal. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2013. <http://www.theatromunicipal.rj.gov. br/tmrj_en/visita_virtual_en.html>.

This virtual tour is from the official website of the Theatro, and it allowed me to understand the building more three-dimensionally.

“About Us.” Hanoi Opera House. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2013. <http://www.hanoioperahouse.org.vn/E_FontEnd/E_Lichsu.aspx>.

Because what I wanted from the site was the Opera House’s views on its context

in the world, the bias here is helpful. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/fedtp/

This is an official government website that has archived information from the New Deal programs. Because it’s from the government, it may be giving more positive information than negative, but it still has plenty of factual information and photographs.

“History” Radio City N.p., n.d. Web. 1 May. 2013. < http://www.radiocity.com/about/history.html >.

This is the official website of Radio City, so it presents biases in terms of the buildings global importance, but it also has a wealth of factual information about the building and its design. ”Building FAQs” National Theatre. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2013. < http://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/ >.

The National seems especially dedicated to public education, and so their web-

site is full of information about the buildings history and old photographs.

“Learn More” Opera House. Web. http://www.operaen.no/en/Learn-more/About-theOpera-House/#section29071404.

This is the official website of Operahuset, which not only gives a history of the building project, but also how it fits in with opera history. It helps to provide context on how they see themselves fitting in a global context.

“New Opera House” Visit Norway. Web. http://www.visitnorway.com/us/Where-to-go-us/ East/Oslo/To-do--see/Attractions-in-Oslo/Norways-new-Opera-House/

This is a tourist website, but it helped to provide context regarding Operahuset as a modern tourist attraction and give figures about how many people do visit the space.

“Guangzhou Opera House”. Zaha Hadid Architects. Web. http://www.zaha-hadid.com/ architecture/guangzhou-opera-house/

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This is the official website of Zaha Hadid’s firm, which provided interesting infor-

mation on how the architects see the building fitting in historically and architecturally.