Leo Patterson New Graphic Design Form follows function - an exploration of modernism and post modernism
Modernism
Modernism, dating roughly from the 1860s through to the 1970s, is the series of reforming cultural movements in art and architecture, music, literature and the applied arts, Modernism can be viewed as modern thought, character, or practice, and describes the style and ideology of art created during that era. Modernism is the feeling of modern thought process, personal character appeal, and the practices of upto-date lifestyle and technologies, the ideology was to constantly push forward
1900 – 1907: Fauvism
toward a perceived notion of progress. Modernism was fundamentally created as a rebellion against 19th century academic and historicist traditions and against cultural absolutism and Victorian nationalism, wherefore the “traditional” forms of art, literature, architecture, social organisation, religious faith and daily life (in the modern world) were becoming dated. Modernism originally rose from large scale changes in Western society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The main factors
1908 – 1914: Cubism
that formed Modernism included the rapid growth of cities and developing industrial societies, with the First World War following shortly after. WW1 affected the whole globe, which subsequently lead to people thinking differently, in need to be more modern in the way they think, governmental, social and industrially. As art itself has fundamentally changed during the modern period, so did the ideas about it, traditional expectations of one of the most important tasks of works of art – to depict real things in the
real world – and instead represent either distorted images of recognisable things, or completely abstract relations of shapes, colours and forms. Modernists are driven by logic, for the true modernist, believing in standardisation and ease of mass production, working with European ‘A’ paper sizes is extremely logical.
1915 – 1916: Suprematism
1916-1922: Dada
Characteristics of modernism - Explores subjective and psychological states, occasionally combined with a neglect of objective representation or realism. - Different ways of thinking about representation (for example, Cubism, of which attempts to view the same event or object from multiple perspectives at one time). - Radical experimentation in form, including a breakdown in generic distinction. - Form is fragmented.
- Great amounts of ambiguity and simultaneity in structure. - Use of irony and parody in artistic creation, in a complex manner of which the mass consumers find difficult to understand. - Modernist art encourages the use of specific materials and techniques, maintaining a pure look and feel.
1919 – 1934: Expressionism
Modernism and graphic design It was in 1922 that the term ‘graphic design’ was coined, and is said that graphic design itself is a product of modernism. Filled with cultural, social, political and economical changes, the 20th century was a revolutionary period of time in many senses, looking at visual communication pre 1900s and post one can see a definite change. All of these factors had a major influence on the development of art and graphic design. Technological advancements including
1917 – 1931: De stijl
telephone, radio, television and flight are all evident in modernism. Politically there was Communist Russia, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, again all evident in art movements during the modernist period. Because of these factors the world was changed, many for worse, as a result artists wanted to change their traditions, leading to the birth of modernism.
Philosophies of modernism Modern philosophy turned away from the past and toward the future, toward the advancement of knowledge, toward human understanding, and toward progress through method or through experience. Modernism required the re-examination of all aspects of life, from philosophy to commerce, in an attempt to find what was “holding back” progress, replacing it with new, progressive and greater ways of achieving the same outcome. The modernist mind believed
1919 – 1934: Constructivism
that by discarding tradition they were able to find new ways of creating art, and simultaneously it would force the audience to question their own understanding. Modernism was a call for freedom of expression and experimentation.
1919 – 1933: Bauhaus
Social One of the greatest visible changes during the modernist period was the adoption of objects of modern production into people’s daily lives. Electricity and commodity goods such as the car and telephone – working with them, the nee to repair them, and ultimately live with them – established the need for behavioural forms, and social life. The main social impact however was World War 1, causing a growth in tension and unease with the social order, all of
which established itself into art in all mediums. WW1 gave ‘Modernism’ new meaning, embracing disruption, moving on from the simple aspect of realism in art and literature. The First World War and the events that came with it were the catastrophic changes that built and shaped much of modernism.
1920 – 1940: Surrealism
Political After the Second World War, the ways of Modernism were being challenged, it was clear that the modernist enterprise was coming to an end. All of the beliefs and values of modernism – progression, equality, and freedom – could now be questioned as there was a cause, had all of its progress been for nothing? Was the end of the war a mark of the end of modernism and its ways? Most people didn’t view modernism in its most positive ways; they no longer believed that it had carved a better society. All of modernism’s faith in scientific and
1920 – 1930: Art deco
technological progression to form a better world had been misguided, evidently visible after the mechanised bloodshed after the World Wars. Modernism hadn’t completely died, however, progressive modernism would still continue onward with its aims, but often with the affiliation of other forces. Progressive artists would still actively support political revolution; an example of this is Pablo Picasso, as well as many other artists, joining the Communist party in 1944. It was here that the Russian revolution was looking to be the answer to the progressive modernist’s vision. Communism was the biggest attempt to date (during its reign) to form a better
society, offering a vision of universal freedom, this would lead to much communist art from many artists. Industrial Modernism very much reflected changes in technology during its period. The production process for various products were changing because of the Industrial Revolution, and with the advancement of technology, photographic process were becoming easier and more commercially available which meant artists had to stretch their abilities further to stay unique and avoid being ‘replaced’. The most important
1946 – 1960: Abstract expressionism
physical influences on modernism’s development was steam power during industrialisation, of which produced structures that combined engineering with art, these constructions were now being built from new industrial materials such as cast iron to produce bridges and skyscrapers. One piece of architecture that emerged from industrialisation and modernism was the Eiffel Tower (assembled in 1889), which denied all previous limitations on the height of man made objects, and set new limits, resulting in a fundamentally different urban landscape.
Post modernism
1950s onward: Pop Art
One viewpoint of Post-modernism, beginning in the 1960s and still present now, was a reaction to or even rejection of modernism, the second view was that postmodernism was the development and new generation of modernism and they are two aspects of the same thing. Postmodernism was first used to describe architectural designs that amplify and distort traditional ideologies. It embraced art, architecture, fashion, graphic design and furniture, post-modernism re-
Mid 1960s onward: Conceptual Art
established interest in ornamentation, symbolism and visual wit. The postmodern period was an expressive and playful period where designers looked for eccentric and unconventional ways to break rules. Factors that influenced and allowed for postmodernism to emerge included World War II and the revolution in science and technology since the 1950s. Modern geometry was a big influence on postmodernism (evident in architecture)
1960s onward: Installation Art
which moved away from modernism’s obsession with pure geometry. Postmodern designers often challenged the modernists’ obsession with progress and would intentionally violate the Bauhaus ideology that form must follow function.
1960s onwards: Minimalism
Characteristics of postmodernism - Parody and irony are frequent characteristics found in many postmodern works, pop art being the most obvious. - High and low cultural forms are broken down. Postmodern artists would combine and contrast popular and mass produced objects in coherent ways, even if their intentions are far more complex. - Disorientation of subjects, where by the subject intends to disorientate the viewer, making them question it. - The questioning of narratives (Lyotard).
1960s – 1970s: Photorealism
- Postmodern culture shows interest in retro styles and fashions, involving these out of their original context, the recycling of subjects is prevalent in modernism, with intertextuality being very apparent. - Focuses on personal and individual interpretation, allowing for viewers to have their own contributions, therefore each individual viewer has their own meaning to an art piece. - Promotes the use of numerous mediums and techniques, combining them to create new interesting works.
1971 onward: Post-Minimalism
Postmodernism and graphic design It wasn’t until the 1980s that postmodernism had an effect on graphic design. Concerned artists stayed anonymous as they felt the work they were producing was too offensive and “risky” for the rest of society to view. The main feature of Graphic design during the postmodern period was when artists would create their responses to modernist design work. A second feature was the removal of boundaries between high culture and
Early 1970s onward: Graffiti Art
pop culture. Designers would look for new things and would be fascinated by them, they realised it wasn’t just a form of self expression but a new technique which can be revolutionised into a new form of truthful visual communication.
1979 onward: Neo-Expressionism
Late 1980s onwards: Neo-Pop Art
Philosophies of postmodernism Postmodernism often implies diversity, contradiction, uncertainty, extreme complexity and inter-connectedness, with an unclear hierarchy. Postmodernism can be viewed as a progression from modernism, but can also be seen as a whole replacement for modernism. Postmodernism approaches problems from many different theoretical perspectives, considered a “pick-and-mix” approach. Postmodern works and views can be
complicated, academic jargon is heavily used and necessary to express and communicate their thoughts and ideas, this could be viewed as a way to give complex meaning to their work in their own defence from criticisms of philosophical inadequacy. French philosopher, Jean-François Lyotard, described the postmodern movement as an action of the present state of culture, social culture and self. Lyotard was largely concerned with narrative in human culture,
Late 1980s-1990s: Brit Art
concentrating on how that role changed over the progression of modernism and the cross-fade into post modernity. Instead of focusing on counter strategies and meandering gaps, postmodernism emphasises on continuity and narrative. Postmodernism isn’t an advance on modernism, but instead a continuation of modern thinking in a new and different manner.
1980s-2000: Deconstructivism
Modern
ism
Cubism
Key features : - geometric, a simplification of figures and objects into geometrical components and planes - Approximation of the fourth dimension - Conceptual, instead of perceptual, reality - Distortion and deformation of known figures and forms in the natural world - Overlapping and interpenetration of planes - Different points of view made visible on one plane
The cubist movement(1915-late 1930s) is considered one of the first truly modern to emerge in art, evolving from the rapid innovation between Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. Cubism has been described as having two stages: ‘Analytic’ cubism, where forms appear to be ‘analysed’ and fragmented; and ‘Synthetic’ cubism, where foreign materials such as newspaper and wood are used to collage. Cubism later influenced the abstract expressionists.
Pablo Picasso
Georges Braque
Fernard LĂŠger
Sonia Delaunay
De Stijl
Key features : - Consists of the three primary colours (red, blue, yellow), the three primary values (black, grey, white) - Horizontal and vertical lines - Space - Simplicity - Geometric forms
De Stijl (1916-1931), literally translating to “the style�, was founded by the Dutch architect and painter Theo van Doesburg. The movement embraced an abstract, pareddown aesthetic centred in basic visual elements such as primary colours and geometric forms. The movement intended ultimate simplicity and abstraction through which they could express a Utopian idea of harmony and order. This idea was established through a reduction of elements to clear geometric forms and primary colours, these ideas are major influences on the development of the Bauhaus movement, and graphic design as well.
Theo van Doesburg
Piet Mondrian Piet Mondrian on grids: 'True reality, is attained through dynamic movement in equilibrium. Plastic art affirms that equilibrium can only be established through the balance of unequal but equivalent oppositions.' Mondrian described this balance as being 'of great importance to humanity', and set about presenting it using paintings in which a heavy grid of black lines on white created squares that he filled in using primary colours. The effect, something like an ultra-refined stained glass window, it is saved from repetitiveness by Mondrian's highly flexible sense of pictorial balance.
Vilmos Huszar
Gerrit Rietveld
Suprematism
Key features : - Absract - elementary geometric forms - Utilises a limited variety of colours - Employs limited degradation - Dominance of shapes (size contrast)
Suprematism (1913 - late 1920s) was founded by Russian Kasimir Malevich, like Mondrian, he was also using the grid as the basis for his work. His movement was founded on the idea of a ‘non-objective reality’ organised around pure colour and form, which would free up the mind of the viewer. Malevitch’s works employed the cruciform shape - a threeby-three grid in which a central ‘cross’ was filled in using a different colour. Malevitch wrote in 1919 ‘Suprematism is the semaphore of light in it’s infinite abyss.’
El Lissitzky
Kazimir Malevich
Constructivism
Key features : - Commitment to and acceptance of modernity - Very abstract - Emphasis on geometric shapes - Optimistic, but not emotional in any way - Reductive in nature, simplifying to the most fundamental level
Constructivism (1915-late 1930s), originating in Russia rejected the idea of art for arts’ sake and the traditional bourgeois class of society to which previous art had been catered. Instead, art was favoured as a practice directed towards social change, or serving a social purpose. Graphic design during this movement ranged from the production of product packaging, logos, book covers, posters and advertisements. The graphic design, specifically Alexander Rodchenko’s, became an inspiration to many people in the wester world, with the constructivist design motif still being borrowed today.
El Lissitzky
Laszlo Moholy-Nagy
Alexander Rodchenko
Bauhaus
Key features:
column width
- Geometric, functonial and modern
- Typography without capitals -
- Order, asymmetry
San Serif
-Rectangular grid structure
- Copy rotated 90 degrees
- Horizontals and verticals were dom-
- Elementary forms and the use of
inant
black plus one bright hue
- Virtually no external decoration
Colour tints emphasize key words
- Extreme contrast in type size and
- Open composition on an im-
weight to achieve various degrees of
plied grid system of sizes for
emphasis
type, rules, and pictorial images
- Type and pictures sized to the same
brought unity to the designs
The Bauhaus (1919-1933), founded by Walter Gropius, was the most influential art school of the 20th century, their approach to teaching and understanding art’s relationship to society and technology, had a big impact in both Europe and the America long after it closed. The Bauhaus had a major influence on the development of graphic design as well as much of 20th century modern art. Simplified forms, functionality, rationality and the idea that industry and mass production could still unify with the artistic spirit of individuality.
Laszlo Moholy-Nagy
Paul Klee
Wassily Kandinsky
Marcel Breuer
Anni Albers
Herbert Bayer
Art deco
Key features : - Bold geometric shapes - Zigzags, trapezoid, A and geometric themes - Rich colours - Extravagant ornamentation - Embrace of technology - Symmetry -Clean lines
Art deco (1920-1930) first appearing in France, bloomed internationally during the 30s and 40s. The movement combines traditional craft motifs with machine Age imagery and materials. Art Deco was the movement which was the most “modern” style for the time, mainly associated with architecture, chrome and industrialised metals, created a new look that joined “The Golden Age” and the roaring twenties. The movement emerged from rapid industrialisation which was transforming culture. Organic motifs were no longer a focus point, but rather technology.
Cassandre
Jean Dupas
Post mod
dernism
Barbara Kruger
David Carson
Pop art (mid 1950s onward) challenged tradition, and assumed
Key features:
Pop art
- Bright, quirky colours that
- (Lots of) intertextuality
that the visual elements of the mass-media from the popular
stand out, yellow, red and blue
- Emphasis of banal elements
culture can be considered fine art. Pop’s reintroduction of
were predominant
of any culture, usually through
identifiable imagery (drawn from mass media and popular
- Employs images of popular
the use of irony
culture) was a major shift for the direction of modernism. Pop’s
culture ( advertising, food,
- Black outlines
subject matter was far from conventional “high art” themes of
fashion, sex, movies, mundane
- Clear lines
mythology, morality and classic history; instead, Pop artists
objects, symbols, people etc.)
- satirisation of objects by
glorified common objects and people of everyday life, elevating
- Reflected a return to material
enlarging those objects to
popular culture to the same level as fine art. Pop art embraced
realities of peoples’ everyday
massive proportions
the post-Pop art is one of the most instantly recognisable styles
life, the return of popular culture
of art, the incorporation of commercial images may have aided this.
Andy Warhol
Jasper Johns
Roy Lichtenstein
Robert Rouschenberg
Claes Oldenburg
Eduardo Paolozzi
Peter Blake
Minimalism
Key features : - Clarity and simplicity of form and content - No narrative - Personal expression is removed - Distractions of theme have been removed - Impersonal - Simple geometric - uniform and symmetric, hard edged, often cubic, stripped from their complex surroundings, often arranged in a grid format
Minimalism (early 1960s onward) depicted an extreme form of simplicity, often coming with a bare-all-withoutbaring-much attitude. Minimalist aesthetics were largely shaped by a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, with no presence of form of cultural gestures, no representation, no point of self-explanation of the artist, and no representation of strong public opinion. Minimalists aimed to remove distinctions between sculptures and paintings, and instead wanted to make “specific objects� as Donald Judd said.
Carl Andre
Dan Flavin
Donald Judd
Frank Stella
Sol LeWitt
Ellsworth Kelly
Swiss
Style
Swiss Style
Swiss Style originated in Switzerland during the 1940s and 50s, and was the basis of much of the development of graphic design in the mid 20th century. It is well known for its attention to detail in design. Grids were used to form these elements, enhancing the readability, clarity and precision of image and type. Due to its sense of uniformity the Swiss design style format of the grid became an iconic formation in graphic language. Leading practitioner of The International Typographic Style was Josef MĂźller-
Brockmann, he introduced the style to America in the 1950s then spreading globally, thus the name. The framework of Swiss Style was massive influence on many postmodern texts during its development; it provided a neat structure which visual communication could be presented. The principle “form follows function� was used by many modernist artists, designers and architects after the 1930s; consequently, most of the Swiss Style craft is committed to minimal elements of style including
typography and content layout instead of textures and illustrations. The use and development of grid structures was one of the important aspects of graphic and typographic design that occupied theorists and practitioners. This seems to have been done in a very thorough way, going beyond the simple desire to make the arranging of type, charts, tables and illustrations into a logical procedure. As a result, once peace was attained after the war, the whole appearance of Swiss design came
as something of a revelation to students and designers worldwide. The Swiss content was always impressive in its combination of great presentation with functional efficiency.
Features of Swiss Style •Emphasises Cleanliness, readability and objectivity •Style consisted of a blend of influences from German, Italian, and French members of the population •Presenting visual and textual information in a clear way, ensuring that it filters any propaganda and the exaggerated claims of commercial advertising •Asymmetrically organising the design elements on a mathematically-constructed grid to create
Visual unity in a composition •Use of a grid •Minimal, less is more •Sans-serif typefaces - the movement believed sans-serif typography expressed the spirit of a progressive age and that mathematical grids were the most legible and harmonious means for structuring information. •Flush left, ragged right text •The style has a preference for photography •Many of the early International Typographic Style works featured typography as a primary design
element and it is for this that the style is named. •The use of whitespace (negative space) counting for both, visual compact and legibility. The styles main aim is to be able to communicate effective and efficiently by only using text that needs to be there, in this case, less is more.
Philosophies •Design is a socially worthwhile and serious vocation •In design there is no room for eccentricity. Design should be grounded on universal artistic principles, and using a scientific approach should provide a well-defined solution to a problem •The designer is not an artist, but a visual communicator. The designer acts as an objective and reliable transmitter of important information between members of society •The ideal of design is to achieve clarity and order
Many designers contributed to the widespread application of grid structures, but Josef Muller Brockmann gave a new direction to the teaching graphic design. He demonstrated that intellectual analysis was very important, even when
Josef M端llerBrockmann
a solution required intuitive input. He also explored the application of grids to a wide range of problems, simple and complex, in two and three dimensions. He was influenced by numerous designs and art movements which included De Stijl, Suprematism, Constructivism and Bauhaus. He is recognised for his clean use of typography and his simple designs.
Swiss born graphic designer and typographer, Emil Ruder helped Armin Hofmann establish Swiss Design. His teachings explained that above all, typography’s purpose was to communicate ideas through writing. His work is both concise and clear, his typography especially, with sans-serif typefaces having a grear importance.
Emil Ruder
Ruder favoured asymmetrical compositions, as did most Swiss Design designers, Negative space and the counters of characters were of a high importance in his compositions. Emil Ruder played an essential role in the development of graphic design in the 1940s and 1950s. Ruder’s useage of grids in design has influenced the development of web design on many levels.
At the age of 26, Armin Hofmann began teaching at the Allgemeine Gewerbeschule in Basel. Emil Ruder and Hofmann created an advanced class for graphic design at the school which recieved much attention from all over the globe. Hofmann practiced new
Armin Hofmann
techniques of photo-typesetting, photo-montage and experimental composition and heavily favored sans-serif typography. Armin Hofmann, as well as the rest of the Swiss International Style, thought that the use of the poster was one of the most effective and efficient forms of communication, most of his career was dedicated to designing posters, with frequent designs for the Basel Stadt Theater.
Richard Paul Lohse
Zurich born, Richard Paul Lohse’s ambitions were to become a painter, wishing to study in Paris, this however was not economically possible for him. Lohse instead joined Max Dalang, an advertising agency, where he was trained to become an advertsing artist. his book design and graphic work became well known, pioneering in modern Swiss style graphic design. Lohse.s work stands out due to his combinations of colour, forming bright colourful designs. His designs are logical, using mathematical formula to perform his artworks.
Max Bill
Max Bill has worked in a variety of design fields including: architecture, painting, typeface design, graphic design, and industrial design. Bill originally did an apprenticeship as a silversmith, but later began studying at the Bauhaus, being taught by many teachers, two being Kandinsky and Klee. From 1937, Max Bil was viewed as an elite mover in the group of Swiss artist, Allianz. He is seen as one of the biggest influences on Swiss graphic design from the 1950s onwards, his work constantly progressing.
Hans Neuburg
Hans Neuburg is considered to be one of the leading practitioners of the Swiss Design School. The magazine ‘Neue Grafik was founded (in 1958) together by Hans Neuburg, Josef Muller-Brockmann, Richard Paul Lohse and Carlo Vivarelli, which ran for seven years. The magazine set to view and comment on influential design and discuss new Swiss graphic design.
Carlo Vivarelli
After attending the School of Arts and Crafts in Zurich, he moved to France, studying with Paul Colin. He moved to Milan where he became the artistic director for Studio Boggeri, Vivarelli later moved back to Zurich where he establihed his own studio in 1946. Vivarelli was one of the members creating the magazine publication ‘Neue Grafik’. It was this magazine that unified the international movement, presenting it to an international audience.
Massimo Vignelli
Massimo Vignelli has worked in a range of areas in the desig world, including house ware design, package design, furniture design, showroom design and public signage. Vignelli said “If you can design one thing, you can design everything” which is apparent in his vast array of work. Working strongly within the modernist ways, he focuses on simplicity using basic geometric shapes in his work. Massimo Vignelli is known for bringing discipline to design, where “We are systematic, logical and objective not trendy. Trends kill the soul of design. Modernism took out all the junk, and postmodernism put it all back in.”
Alberto Longhi
Other G D e s i g ne
raphic rs
Wim Crouwel
Wim Crouwel is a dutch designer and typographer. Armin Hoffman and Josef Müller-Brock mann are described as his heroes, while his biggest influence was that of his colleague Karl Gerstner. Crouwel places the grid clearly in a political context. His formative years were spent during the optimistic post-war period, when the grid first made it’s formal appearance. Grids were then a symptomatic of a thoroughness in design methods and a belief in increased access, rather than a method of controll and limitation. ‘The big difference, in this postmodernist period, is that in our period we
thought design could help society. We wanted to make things more usable. We all did our job to better society but we didn’t succeed.’ Wim Crouwel: ‘[A design] should have some tension and some expression in its self. I like to compare it with the lines on a football field. It is a strict grid. In this grid you play a game and these can be nice games or very boring games.’
Paul Rand
American born graphic designer, industrial designer, advertising artist, lecturer and painter, Paul Rand is most well known for his corporate logo designs. Rand was one of the originators of Swiss Style graphic design, thinking in terms of need and function, he is an idealist and realist. Rand worked for Apparel Arts magazine as a page layout designer, they said “His remarkable talent for transforming mundane photographs into dynamic compositions, which [. . .] gave editorial weight to the page�
Neville Brody
Known for his works asa designer, typographer, brand strategist and art director, Nevill Brody is considered one of the best known graphic desginers of his generation. his later work as an art director shows a mixture of visual and architectural elements into his designs. This work later brought him to the designing The Face magazine, approaching a new way of tackling magazine design, it’s this work with magazines that has given him his reputation. His combination and incorporation of typefaces into design is what makes Brody’s work stand out from the rest.
Paula Scher is an American illustrator, painter and graphic designer, and is the principal at Pentagram design studio, being the first ever female to own that position. Her new approach to typography in the early ‘80s became highly influential. Her typographic style developed based on
Paula Scher
Russian constructivism and art deco styles. She delved into pop culture, designing album covers, posters and adverts, she says “I’ve always been what you would call a ‘pop’ designer. I wanted to make things that the public could relate to and understand, while raising expectations about what the ‘mainstream’ can be.”
Form follows function Swiss style
The Swiss style is characterised by its attention to
pattern. Ornamentation and decorations were removed, with
detail, craft skills and it’s precision in design, and as
structures reduced and simplified in order for them to be
a whole, Swiss style pursues simplicity. For modernist
made quickly. Features that make Swiss style architecture
architects, the term “form follows function” became
notable includes flat and bare white walls, flat roofs, lots of
their guide for achieving clean design. Because of
windows, and sharp corners, with steel, glass and concrete
this principle, the majority of Swiss design is true to
being the main building materials. The interior would bare
the basic elements of style, with focus on typographic
all mechanical equipment with things such as pipes and
design and content layout instead of illustrations
elevator shafts being exposed. The use of steel meant that
and texture. Buildings were designed and built to
architecture was no longer restricted by height and shape,
be functional, not to look admirable. Asymmetrical
as steel frames would support. The Bauhaus was majorly
building layouts were common, and followed the street
influenced by the International style and its notions.
Mechanisation and industrialisation was seen by many during a clean and efficient living space in the technological age. Angular,
Form follows function Bauhaus
it’s advancement in negative way by many, due to the poorer
Abstract geometric forms were consistently used to create a
quality of goods being produced. The Bauhaus was active
simple, clear appearance. These forms were inspired by the modern
in producing a new style which would echo the processes
industrial machinery including pistons, wheels and tubes, amongst
and values of mechanised production; the “industrial” or
other mechanical components.
“machine” aesthetic is what it would often be named.
Like the Swiss, the Bauhaus favoured glass, steel and concrete,
The Bauhaus followed in the same footsteps as Cubist artists,
and plywood. The finished designs of buildings construction
who would reduce objects down to their most fundamental
and structure allowed the designer to control their external look,
state of geometric shapes. Reducing objects to their most
regarding the outcome as “styless”, this developed from the phrase
basic state was used as a strategy for quickly mass producing
“form follows function”. The Bauhaus has impacted design on an
retail goods. This became the Bauhaus’ answer for designing
international level, where form follows function in the design world.
Grid Sys
tems
The basic principle of the grid is very simple. A grid
The grid system was made popular by the International and type.
is the graphic design equivalent of a building’s
Typographic Style movement and pushed forward by
The grid divides a two-dimensional plane into smaller
foundations. As we read from left to right and top to
pioneering designers including Wim Crouwel and Josef
fields or a three-dimensional space into smaller
bottom, the grid is generally a series of vertical and
MĂźller-Brockmann, the grid is used as the foundation
compartments. These fields or compartments may
horizontal lines. The vertical lines will relate to the
of any solid design, helping to organise content,
be the same or different in size. The fields correspond
column widths, while the horizontal will be determined
providing consistency on overall design. Grids are a
in depth to a specific number of lines of text and the
by the space that a line of type occupies. Occasionally
way to divide many possibilities of choices into smaller
width of the fields is identical with the width of the
designers will rotate a grid so that these lines are at
chunks, or units, which form the basic building blocks
columns. The depths and the widths are indicated in
an angle, but the basic determining factors will still be
of a grid. We get columns when combining units into
typographic measures, in points and ciceros. The fields
the same. The size of these fields is determined by the
groups, and the width of the columns can vary.
are separated by an average space so that on the one
content, together with the pieces that will make up the
In graphic design, the grid is used as a tool to give
hand images do not touch each other and legibility
whole; for example, the type and images.
order and structure for the graphic elements, images
is kept and on the other that captions can be placed
below the illustrations.
An exerpt from Josef Müller-Brockmann’s book
Restrictions of design elements were implemented in
‘Grid systems’ explaining what a grid system does: surface and space
the confine of a typographic grid, shifting the focus of
“The use of the grids system implies:
•The will to adopt a positive, forward-looking
image on the main message presented by a clean and
•The will to systemize, to clarify
attitude the recognition of the importance of
sharp geometrical aesthetic. The roots of grids come
•The will to penetrate to the essentials, to
education and the effect of work devised in a
from the golden ratio, dating back thousands of years,
concentrate
constructive and creative spirit.
but it was during the constructivist movement that
•The will to cultivate objectivity instead of
Every visual creative work is a manifestation of
grids were applied to themes in art and design. After
subjectivity
the character of the designer. It is a reflection of
World War II, during the 1950s, Swiss designers created •The will to rationalize the creative and technical a total design methodology around typographic grid,
production processes
this is known as The International Typographic Style,
•The will to integrate elements of colour, form and
International Style, or simply Swiss Style.
material
•The will to achieve architectural dominion over
his knowledge, his ability, and his mentality.”
Why use a grid? Grids are practical, particularly for producing multipage documents. They make the production process quicker and build a visual consistency into the line that should help the end user to find their way around the page. Once the margins, column widths and type sizes are determined, a designer can concentrate on the detail of the layout. In using a grid, designers have to engage with the small details of the process. The smallest unit of the grid is often half or a quarter of the space occupied by a line of type, and so could be as small as three points.
Grids unite the practical with the aesthetic. They're about the organisation of objects in space and this involves making aesthetic decisions about proportion and scale. Grids are a way of thinking. They are used to help bring order to a page and to impose structured thinking into the design process. In making these decisions, a designer is generally helping to make content accessible. The engagement with the wider world is a political act. The term 'the grid' came into common use just after the Second World War. At that time, many designers saw their role in socio-political terms and wanted to be instrumental in building a new and better world.
The baseline grid The baseline grid is a series of horizontal lines running across the page. Each line represents a possible baseline of a line of type. The baseline of type is the line on which the bottom of capital letters sit. The space between baselines is determined by the size of type plus the extra space between each linotype, called the 'leading'. To create a system that gives maximum flexibility, the unit of the baseline grid is usually smaller than the measurement from baseline to baseline of the text type size. The starting point can be the caption type.
Asymmetry and symmetry Given that the notion of 'the grid' was a modernist one, it is important to understand that one of the central principles of modernism is the use of asymmetry. This was partly response to an increased demand for a broad range of printed items - posters, leaflets, timetables - none of which suited a classical page layout synonymous with symmetrical double page spreads of books. It also grew out of a logical approach to legibility. Since
we read from left to right, each word should be separated by an equal word space, and this automatically produces ranged-left typesetting. This is in contrast to 'justified' typesetting, where word spaces are altered in size per line to make the left and right column edges align. The latter was criticised as preoccupied with form function. However, no one should be under the impression that modernism was not concerned with ascetics. Asymmetry lends itself to
greater exploration of layout and its visual potential. The freedom to dramatically exploit space and scale has produced pages of great beauty. The asymmetry can be in the number of columns - three or five, for example - and in their positioning on the page with larger left or right hand margins.
The column based grid system displays information that is discontinuous, this benefits by being organised into an arrangement of vertical columns. The columns can be dependant on each other for running text, independant for small blocks of text, or crossed over
Column grid
to make wider columns, the column grid is very flexible and can be used to seperate different kinds of information e.g. some columns are used for running text and large images, while captions may be placed in an adjacent column, clearly seperating the caption from the primary material, while allowing the designer to create a straight forward relationship between the captions and the primary material.
Modular grid
A modular grid is essentially a column grid with a large number of horizontal flowlines that subdivide the columns into rows, creating modules, or a matrix of cells. Each module defines a small chunk of informational space. Grouped together, these modules define areas called spatial zones where specific roles can be designated. The level of control within this grid structure depends on the size of the modules. Smaller modules allow for more flexibility and grerater precision, however, too many subdivisions can easily become confusing.
Karl Gerstner’s 58 unit grid
The grid, or ‘matrix’ as he called it, was designed in 1962 for the periodical Capital. Gerstner’s grid best demonstrates the use of fields and multicolumn structure that allows for infinite posibilities. The smallest unit is ten points, which is the baseline to baseline measurement of the text type. The main area for text and images on a page is a square, with an area above for titles, running heads etc. This square area is then subdivided into 58 equal units in both directions. If all intercolumn spaces are two units, a two, three, four,
five or six column structure is possible without there being any leftover units. In its diagram form, this may at first seem complicated. However, the mathematics are very simple and clever. 58 units divide as follows: one intercolumn space of two units, two columns of 28 units two intercolumn spaces of two units, three columns of 18 units three intercolumn spaces of two units, four columns of 13 units
What grid will I use?
I have decided to use the column based grid system. As far as typographic flexibility goes, I feel this one supercedes the other grid systems. I also wish to follow in the footsteps of Swiss Style design, which favours the column grid over others due to it’s typographic flexibilty also. In terms of creating grids, this is by far the easiest to form with consistent results. The modular grid best suites image based design layout, which I will also be concentrating on, however, this grid doesn’t do type justice like the column grid does.
Karl Gerstner’s 58 unit grid best shows the use of grids and their structure, but the largely square format of it doesn’t suit the work space I will be using for a magazine, which is more rectangular, this constrains me to using only rectangular style grid structures. I will apply 12 columns and 9 rows to the magazine grid, I’ve found this combination works best for layout purposes; it allows me to experiment further with design layout, any less and I would be limited, and more and the grid would be nearing too complex.
Masthe Cover
ad &
Here I’ve gathered a selection of magazine masthead designs, I’ve chosen these particular ones as I personally like them, and the design factors differ from cover to cover. The majority of the magazine mastheads are in plain black and white, or use one single colour, I feel that the plain use of black and white works well with magazines in general as it is neutral. The masthead’s page orientation is always either flush to the left of the page, or it is displayed central to the top of the page, no magazine I have
come across displays the title anywhere other than the left of the page or central. The masthead size differs from magazine to magazine, with the largest taking up approximately a quarter of the page. Typography used with the masthead designs tend to be sans serif fonts as they are clear and easy to read, aswell as giving a clean look to the magazine, representing what the magazine has to offer, bold fonts seem to be popular. The exception however is the useage of logos, some magazines instead use a logo as the
masthead, I like this method as it gives the magazine a unique look, where as many of the magazines use similar fonts and styles which make them look generic and bland to some extent. Most titles use capital lettering throughout, whereas some use only lower case, the way the type is assembled gives a strong reflection of what the magazine includes. Factors that I will consider when creating my own masthead designs will include: type, colour, orientation, size, styling, space, layout, and character formatting.
Magazi n Layout
ne
Typogr
aphy
The International Typographic Style, or Swiss Style, shows typographic form would have been impossible without sans serif. Swiss style gradually left constructed typefaces including Erbar and Futura and instead reclaimed old late 19th century sans serifs. The third phase of san serif style development had taken place from this; fonts that arose were Helvetica, Folio and Univers, all of which were created in 1957. The ethos of font design for Swiss designers was to emphasize cleanliness, readability and
Helvetica
objectivity. The style is recognised for assyemtric layouts, grid use, and sans serif typefaces. The following typefaces are the most well known developed by Swiss designers.
Helvetica Akzidenz-Grotesk, or more popularly known as Helvetica, is considered a universal font, and has been an influential typeface since it’s creation in 1957. Designed by the Swiss typeface designer Max Miedinger with Eduard Hoffmann Helvetica is the most internationally recognised used sansserif typeface. The typeface was created shortly after the the second World War, and held responsibility amongst designers to communicate with the world in a universal manner. As a result, Helvetica
Univers
was to be found everywhere, from street corners, posters and signs. German typographer Erik Spiekermann speaks of the notorious typeface “It’s air, you know. It’s just there. There’s no choice. You have to breathe, so you have to use Helvetica.” Helvetica reflects modernist design in simplistic, classical approach to type, it is commonly used by designers due to it’s very clean aesthetics, from Swiss design. Helvetica is a very versatile font, with many variations of it, and still being produced.
Optima
Univers Designed by Swiss designer Adrian Frutiger, Univers was developed between 1949 and 1951 at the School of Applied Arts in Zurich, and released om 1957 by Deberny & Peignot. Univers was originally designed with 21 variants, and was drawn with optically even stroke weights and a large x-height for optimal legibility. Upon it’s release, it became a major success, and as a result Frutiger was inspired and based future designs on its forms: Serifa (1967) and Glypha (1977). In 1977, Frutiger and design team Linotype
redesiged and updated the successful font, resulting in a superfamily of more than 60 fonts. The font itself is known for it’s clean lines and legibility from distance, as a result of this, it is commonly used in signs and maps. The font is consistently used by graphic designers such as Wim Crouwel, and is found in many logo designs. I particularly like the univrs font, and intend on using it as the typeface for my magazine, it reflects modern design and clean Swiss Style design.
Futura
Frutiger
Avant Garde
Myriad
Gill Sans
Desig
n
Masthead design
These are the original thumbnail that formed my starting point for the masthead design, I experimented with negative space, shapes and balance to begin.
New Graphic Design NEW GRAPHIC DESIGN new graphic design
These are the different combinations I can use for the masthead. - Character case - whether they all be upper, lower, or a combination of the two. - The alignment of the masthead - whether it be aligned left with ragged right text, aligned left with ragged left text, or align to the center to make it symmetrical. - The orientation of the masthead - whether the text is vertical, horizontal, or a combination of the two.
D e s i g n
New Graphic Design
Design Graphic New
NG e r wa p h i c
NewGraphicDesign newgraphicdesign new.graphic.design New Graphic Design new graphic design
New Graphic Design new graphic design
New Graphic Design new graphic design
new new new graphic graphic graphic design design design
New Graphic Design
New Graphic Design
New Graphic Design
N G D
ew raphic esign
NGD New Graphic Design
N G D
N G D
ew
ew
raphic esign
raphic
esign
After looking at a lot of Bauhaus design, I decided to use their simplistic ways of reducing down to the fundamental shapes as a starting point. I first thought of splitting the shapes up into thirds, then adding the lettering in each section, after doing this I decided to combine all three shapes together, then proceeding to divide it into thirds once again. Next, I added the primary colours, inspired from De Stijl art, I tryed every combination of layered colour, each giving different results. I carried on experimenting with the shapes, overlaying them to create patterns and new shapes.
new
new
new
new
graphic
graphic
graphic
graphic
design
design
design
design
new
graphic
design
Next I decided to create a logo for the masthead instead, creating the characters myself, but as an abreviated version of ‘New Graphic Design’. I decided to do this as it gives me more flexibility with the creation of the masthead. I first tryed creating the characters using only the circle, square and triangle, but I did not like the outcome, it looked mesy and difficult to read. However, I did still want to incorporate some form of shape into the masthead, so I transformed the ‘D’ into a triangle, making it still read as the letter ‘D’. I realised that the letters ‘N’ ‘G’ and ‘D’ could all be shaped into the three geometric shapes themselves, from here I experimented with different characteristics including stroke thickness, opacity, colour, overlapping, and several other style variations.
Colour
Stroke
Opacity
Overlap
I began to stylize the letterng, the lines are inspired from minimalist art, specifically Sol LeWitt and Frank Stella. Another attempt at stylizing the letters was by duplicating it, trying different spacing between 0.5mm and 2mm, and the frequency of the duplicates.
The far right designs were created using a circle as the starting point, I used the circle as a constraint, limiting myself from designing outside of the shape, the result is spherical letters.
new graphic design
NEW GRAPHIC DESIGN
These are the masthead designs that I chose to apply to the cover design. I feel these particular designs reflect the modernist ideologies well, influences being from Bauhaus, De Stijl and postmodern minimalism.
NEW GRAPHIC DESIGN
new graphic design
I personally feel that the first (above right) design has the most potential to be the magazine masthead; it reflects Bauhaus and Swiss Style modernist ideologies, being clean, easy to read, is simple, and is a sansserif type. Furthermore, the letters were formed from the three primary geometric shapes (circle, square, triangle), based on Bauhaus style design.
NEW GRAPHIC DESIGN new graphic design
These are the options for positioning the masthead on the front cover. I avoided the bottom and the right of the page as the eye naturally reads from the top left downward, it makes it look out of place and wrong. For my magazine cover I will be placing the masthead in the top left, as this is where the reader will naturally read the magazine from, it also avoids being too intrusive on the rest of the magazine design.
Cover design
De Stijl inspired
These are the initial thumbnail designs i created for the ftont cover of the magazine. Inspiration for the first batch of designs came from the movements De Stijl, Bauhuas, Cubism and Constructivism. I first experimented with modernist designs, however I soon moved onto working in a more postmodern fashion, looking more at pop art and minimalism as my main source of idea generation. As I’ve already created a masthead formed from the ideas of modernism, I felt that I needed to express a postmodern aspect in the cover design.
I intend to apply my own photographs to the designs displayed, using these designs as a mask for the photos. I will be mainly focusing on photographing architecture, preferably modern architecture as this will relate to the modernist and swiss architecture I have looked in to. I will photograph other subjects too, selecting the most apropriate and visually pleasing photographs to apply to the cover designs.
Bauhaus inspired
Cubism inspired
Constructivism inspired
Bauhaus inspired
I developed some of the thumbnail designs into
shapes at their most fundamental level, allowing for
changing their hue saturation to Cyan, Magenta and
digital ones, then applying my own photgraphy to
simple yet effective design outcomes. Colour was
Yellow (three separate layers) then moving them
them, using the designs as an additional layer. I
primarily inspired by De Stijl (three primary colours),
around, this gave a similar effect of that from 3D
converted the photographs to greyscale as it made
however I later began using different colours as
glasses, I like this effect and would further develop it
the overlayed design more vibrant, giving it more
I thought I was being limited by them, this led
in my final design. The ben-day dots were used as a
of an impact as a whole, the colour photographs
me to look at pop art, this being one of the most
mask for other designs, where i would rotate the dots
distracts the eyes from the focus point.
colourful of movements. Inspiration for the above
to give new patterns, some looking geometric.
I experimented with a range of factors that would
right designs came from Roy Lichtenstein’s use of
I wanted to possibly include some form of
decide what the final design would be, changing
the ben-day dots, using the CMYK colours to form
symbolism, inspired from the Pop art movement,
the opacity of layers, shapes and colours to yield an
my own dots, of which I formed in Illustrator, then
with high and low cultures present, I opted for simple
array of results. The idea to experiment with shape is
altering them in Photoshop. I further played with
symbols such as the ‘+’ sign, and ‘x’, I would later add
mainly inspired from the Bauhaus, using geometric
colour in my designs by duplicating photos, then
this to the layout of the magazine.
For my final design I decided not to use any of the
done previously, inspired by Roy Lichtenstein, Andy
looked at adding a circular mask over the photo. This
previously made coves as I felt they wouldn’t work.
Warhol, and the colours in general that were popularly
shape looked crude and bland however, instead flipping
When choosing which photograph to use for the final
used in the movment. I then slightly nudged the layers
the lower half horizontally to gain more of a teardrop
cover, I instantly knew that the grid like structure
away from one another to achieve the effect I had
shape, inspired from Swiss design styles. I altered the
of the windows was perfect, as it portrays modern
previously gained of a 3D effect. I realised that all three
colour to that similar to the below Swiss design, as plain
architecture, the grid structure that I have been
layers of colour looked too much, so I removed the
white was boring and plain.
studying, and the uniformity of Swiss style design.
yellow filtered image, the result of this is the first image
At this point I also added the styled lines underneath
I began by adding the photograph the Photoshop,
on the right page.
the masthead, to give it an extra visual impact, giving it
shaping it to A3, then duplicating the photo multiple
I added the sub heading ‘form follows function’ in the
a sleek finish.
times, reducing the opacity to 70%, changing the colour
same colours again, for consistency, making the words
The orientation of my front cover works, as the reader
mode to ‘darken’, then adding photo filters of Cyan,
follow each other. The masthead and subheading
naturally reads from the top left to bottom right, also
Magenta and Yellow (CMYK colour scheme) as I had
needed a background to allow for readability, so I
givingt the cover balance.
Layout
These are the original thumbnail design layouts that I created, inspired primarily from Swiss style design, looking at the designs of Josef Muller-Brockmann, Armin Hoffman, Emil Ruder, Hans Neuburg and Wim Crouwel. Factors that were considered were shape, colour, space, balance, orientation, contrast, symmetry and asymmetry, typography, sign & symbols, and photography and imagery. I intend for my magazine to have a consistent feel to it, but showing a range of layout possibilities at the same time, to demonstrate a range of interesting design layouts. Single and double
page spread layouts were toyed with, each thumbnail is meant to be an open magazine, some designs being double pages, others simply being next to each other, not in any way meaning ther would be in that order in my actual magazine. A cross the a shape indicates an image, and lines indicate text. The main factor in the design of the layout for me is the use of shape, I wish to use shape, specifically the three geometric shapes that are the sqaure, circle and triangle, in my layout, which once again is inspired by the modernist Bauhaus movement.
After completing my thumbnail designs, I began
design, examining the use of space, balance and
images, where the balance of the page counted on
to create them on InDesign, so I could then decide
symmetry and asymmetry, which you can see in the
the alignment of the text.
which of the layout choices I would choose to apply
following pages of layout possibilities.
I finally added the page number, and ‘New Graphic Design’ in the bottom of pages to give more of a
to my own magazine. Each blue shape indicates an image, while placeholder text was applied to
The final page layout was chosen for it’s consistent
magazine experience, also adding a contents page,
the text boxes to give me an idea of the text layout.
feel, while showing variety, an array of possible
and back page. The final design is present at the end.
I experimented with the different orientations
choices of layout, where typographical aspects
of the text, with text boxes being flipped onto
change in shape and form but still read well. I chose
their sides, size of text boxes were also different
to justify the text alignment as it allowed for a
throughout, allowing me to see which worked the
nicer styled box of text, rather than letting the text
most effectively, allowing for maximum readability. I
be ragged on either side, the only exeption to this
wished to follow predominantly in the style of Swiss
constraint was when adding text to the side of select
Conclusion
To conclude, I feel that the final design of my magazine effectively represents modernst and post modernist aspects and design characteristics, with inspiration from both movements. However, looking back at the design, I have mainly used modernist perspectives throughout, with far less post modern ones, from this I have learned that I prefer the clean and efficient style design of the modernist period, sticking to the grid rather than breaking it. I have learnt a lot during this brief, much of which I will further use in future briefs, allowing for more
effective and efficient design work. If I had more time, I would have further experimented with the cover design, as this is the weakest aspect of the magazine in my opinion, but this was the last component of the magazine I looked at creating. The following pages contain the magazine I have created, with a range of information, which is based on my original body of research on the project, a selection of my own photgrahy, and several images of movements and designers.
Magazine
New Graphic Design - 1 -
-5INVESTIGATING MODERNISM -7MODERN TIMELINE -9INVESTIGATING POSTMODERNISM -11POSTMODERN TIMELINE -13SWISS INTERNATIONAL STYLE -15FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION -19SWISS DESIGNERS
-2-
Mode
Modernism, dating roughly from the 1860s through to the 1970s, is
developing industrial societies, with the First World War following
the series of reforming cultural movements in art and architecture,
shortly after. WW1 affected the whole globe, which subsequently
music, literature and the applied arts, Modernism can be viewed as
lead to people thinking differently, in need to be more modern in the
modern thought, character, or practice, and describes the style and
way they think, governmental, social and industrially. As art itself
ideology of art created during that era. Modernism is the feeling
has fundamentally changed during the modern period, so did the
of modern thought process, personal character appeal, and the
ideas about it, traditional expectations of one of the most important
practices of up-to-date lifestyle and technologies, the ideology was
tasks of works of art – to depict real things in the real world – and
to constantly push forward toward a perceived notion of progress.
instead represent either distorted images of recognisable things,
Modernism was fundamentally created as a rebellion against 19th
or completely abstract relations of shapes, colours and forms.
century academic and historicist traditions and against cultural
Modernists
absolutism and Victorian nationalism, wherefore the “traditional”
believing in standardisation and ease of mass production,
forms of art, literature, architecture, social organisation, religious
working with European ‘A’ paper sizes is extremely logical.
faith and daily life (in the modern world) were becoming dated. Modernism originally rose from large scale changes in Western society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The main factors that formed Modernism included the rapid growth of cities and
New Graphic Design - 5 -
are
driven
by
logic,
for
the
true
modernist,
ernism C haracteristics G raphic D esign • Explores subjective and psychological states, occasionally
It was in 1922 that the term ‘graphic design’ was coined, and
combined with a neglect of objective representation or realism.
is said that graphic design itself is a product of modernism.
• Different ways of thinking about representation (for example,
Filled with cultural, social, political and economical changes, the
Cubism, of which attempts to view the same event or object
20th century was a revolutionary period of time in many senses,
from multiple perspectives at one time).
looking at visual communication pre 1900s and post one can
• Radical experimentation in form, including a breakdown in generic distinction.
see a definite change. All of these factors had a major influence on the development of art and graphic design. Technological
• Form is fragmented.
advancements including telephone, radio, television and flight
• Great amounts of ambiguity and simultaneity in structure.
are all evident in modernism. Politically there was Communist
• Use of irony and parody in artistic creation, in a complex manner
Russia, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, again all evident in art
of which the mass consumers find difficult to understand. • Modernist art encourages the use of specific materials and techniques, maintaining a pure look and feel.
movements during the modernist period. Because of these factors the world was changed, many for worse, as a result artists wanted to change their traditions, leading to the birth of modernism.
-6-
cubsim
expressionism
1900 - 1907
1919 - 1934
New Graphic Design - 7 -
Dada
de stijl
1917 - 1931
1917 - 1931
constructivism
Art deco
1919 - 1934
1920 - 1930
bauhaus
1919 - 1933
Surrealism
1920 - 1940
-8-
New Graphic Design - 9 -
in the 1960s and still present now, was a reaction to or even rejection of modernism, the second view was that postmodernism was the development and new generation of modernism and they are two aspects of the same thing. Postmodernism was first used to describe architectural designs that amplify and distort traditional ideologies. It embraced art, architecture, fashion, graphic design
and
furniture,
post-modernism
re-established interest in ornamentation, symbolism and visual wit. The postmodern period was an expressive and playful period where designers looked for eccentric and unconventional ways to break rules. Factors that influenced and allowed for postmodernism to emerge included World War II and the revolution in science and technology since the 1950s. Modern geometry was a big influence on postmodernism (evident in architecture) which moved away from modernism’s obsession with pure geometry. Postmodern designers often challenged the modernists’ obsession with progress and would intentionally violate the Bauhaus ideology that form must follow function.
One viewpoint of Post-modernism, beginning in the 1960s and still present now, was a reaction to or even rejection of modernism, the second view was that postmodernism was the development and new generation of modernism and they are two aspects of the same thing. Postmodernism was first used to describe architectural designs that amplify and distort traditional ideologies. It embraced art, architecture, fashion, graphic design
and
furniture,
post-modernism
re-established interest in ornamentation,
Postmodernism
One viewpoint of Post-modernism, beginning
period was an expressive and playful period where designers looked for eccentric and unconventional ways to break rules. Factors that influenced and allowed for postmodernism to emerge included World War II and the revolution in science and technology since the 1950s. Modern geometry was a big influence on postmodernism (evident in architecture) which moved away from modernism’s obsession with pure geometry. Postmodern designers often challenged the modernists’ obsession with progress and would intentionally violate the Bauhaus ideology that form must follow function.
Characteristics of postmodernism - Parody and irony are frequent characteristics found in many postmodern works, pop art being the most obvious. - High and low cultural forms are broken down. Postmodern artists would combine and contrast popular and mass produced objects in coherent ways, even if their intentions are far more complex. - Disorientation of subjects, where by the subject intends to disorientate the viewer, making them question it. - The questioning of narratives (Lyotard). - Postmodern culture shows interest in retro styles and fashions, involving these out of their original context, the recycling of subjects is prevalent in modernism, with intertextuality being very apparent. - Focuses on personal and individual interpretation, allowing for viewers to have their own contributions, therefore each individual viewer has their own meaning to an art piece. - Promotes the use of numerous mediums and techniques, combining them to create new interesting works.
symbolism and visual wit. The postmodern
- 10 -
pop art
Installation art
1950s onward
1960s onward
conceptual art
minimalism
Mid 1960s onward
1960s onward
New Graphic Design - 11 -
Graffiti art
brit art
Early 1970s onward
1980s - 1990s
neo-expressionism deconstructivism
1979 onward 1980s - 2000
- 12 -
Swiss International Style
Swiss Style originated in Switzerland during the 1940s and 50s, and was the basis of much of
the development of graphic design in the mid 20th century. It is well known for its attention to detail in design. Grids were used to form these
elements, enhancing the readability, clarity and precision of image and type.
Due to its sense of uniformity the Swiss
design style format of the grid became an
iconic formation in graphic language. Leading practitioner of The International Typographic Style
was
Josef
MĂźller-Brockmann,
he
introduced the style to America in the 1950s
then spreading globally, thus the name. The framework of Swiss Style was massive influence on many postmodern texts during its
development; it provided a neat structure which visual communication could be presented.
The principle “form follows function� was used by many modernist artists, designers and
architects after the 1930s; consequently, most
of the Swiss Style craft is committed to minimal elements
of
style
including
typography
and content layout instead of textures and illustrations.
The use and development of grid structures was one of the important aspects of graphic and typographic design that occupied theorists and practitioners. This seems to have been done in
a very thorough way, going beyond the simple desire to make the arranging of type, charts,
tables and illustrations into a logical procedure. As a result, once peace was attained after the
war, the whole appearance of Swiss design
came as something of a revelation to students and designers worldwide. The Swiss content
was always impressive in its combination of great presentation with functional efficiency.
New Graphic Design - 13 -
- 14 -
SWISS The Swiss style is characterised by its
attention to detail, craft skills and it’s precision in design, and as a whole, Swiss style pursues simplicity. For modernist architects, the term
FORM
“form follows function” became their guide for achieving clean design. Because of this principle, the majority of Swiss design is true to the basic elements of style, with focus on typographic design and content layout instead of illustrations and texture. Buildings were designed and built to be functional, not to look admirable. Asymmetrical building layouts were common, and followed the street pattern. Ornamentation and decorations were removed, with structures reduced and simplified in order for them to be made quickly. Features that make Swiss style architecture notable includes flat and bare white walls,
FOLLOWS
flat roofs, lots of windows, and sharp corners, with steel, glass and concrete being the main building materials. The interior would bare all mechanical equipment with things such as pipes and elevator shafts being exposed. The use of steel meant that architecture was no longer restricted by height and shape, as steel frames would support. The Bauhaus was majorly influenced by the International style and its notions.
FUNCTION New Graphic Design - 15 -
BAUHAUS Mechanisation and industrialisation was seen
shapes. Reducing objects to their most basic
Like the Swiss, the Bauhaus favoured
by many during it’s advancement in negative
state was used as a strategy for quickly mass
glass, steel and concrete, and plywood. The
way by many, due to the poorer quality of
producing retail goods. This became the
finished designs of buildings construction
goods being produced. The Bauhaus was
Bauhaus’ answer for designing a clean and
and structure allowed the designer to control
active in producing a new style which would
efficient living space in the technological
their external look, regarding the outcome
echo the processes and values of mechanised
age. Angular, Abstract geometric forms were
as “styless”, this developed from the phrase
production; the “industrial” or “machine”
consistently used to create a simple, clear
“form follows function”. The Bauhaus has
aesthetic is what it would often be named.
appearance. These forms were inspired by
impacted design on an international level,
The Bauhaus followed in the same footsteps as
the modern industrial machinery including
where form follows function in the design
Cubist artists, who would reduce objects down
pistons, wheels and tubes, amongst other
world.
to their most fundamental state of geometric
mechanical components.
- 16 -
New Graphic Design - 17 -
- 18 -
of grid structures, but Josef Muller Brockmann gave a new
Josef Müller-Brockmann
direction to the teaching graphic design. He demonstrated that intellectual analysis was very important, even when a solution required intuitive input. He also explored the application of grids to a wide range of problems, simple and complex, in two and three dimensions. He was influenced by numerous designs and art movements which included De Stijl, Suprematism, Constructivism and Bauhaus. He is recognised for his clean use of typography and his simple designs.
Armin Hofmann
At the age of 26, Armin Hofmann began teaching at the Allgemeine Gewerbeschule in Basel. Emil Ruder and Hofmann created an advanced class for graphic design at the school which received much attention from all over the globe. Hofmann practiced new techniques of photo-typesetting, photo-montage and experimental composition and heavily favoured sans-serif typography. Armin Hofmann, as well as the rest of the Swiss International Style, thought that the use of the poster was one of the most effective and efficient forms of communication, most of his career was dedicated to designing posters, with frequent designs for the Basel Stadt Theatre.
Carlo Vivarelli After attending the School of Arts and Crafts in Zurich, he moved to France, studying with Paul Colin. He moved to Milan where he became the artistic director for Studio Boggeri, Vivarelli later moved back to Zurich where he establihed his own studio in 1946. Vivarelli was one of the members creating the magazine publication ‘Neue Grafik’. It was this magazine that unified the international movement, presenting it to an international audience.
Emil Ruder
Swiss born graphic designer and typographer, Emil Ruder helped Armin Hofmann establish Swiss Design. His teachings explained that above all, typography’s purpose was to communicate ideas through writing. His work is both concise and clear, his typography especially, with sans-serif typefaces having a great importance. Ruder favoured asymmetrical compositions, as did most Swiss Design designers, Negative space and the counters of characters were of a high importance in his compositions. Emil Ruder played an essential role in the development of graphic design in the 1940s and 1950s. Ruder’s usage of grids in design has influenced the development of web design on many levels.
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SWISS DESIGNERS
Many designers contributed to the widespread application
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Photography and layout by Leo Patterson University of Huddersfield U1259121 Email: lap21@hotmail.co.uk