discover the fantasy world of
Shape Memory Materials
Acknowledgments We would like to express our sincerest thanks and appreciation to PhD Researchers Adrian Lara Quintanilla and Freek Sluis for their advice and material supply. We would also like to thank Frank Schnater for his feedback.
This manual was designed in the context of the course
AR0533 Innovation and Sustainability Designer’s Manual
Responsible Instructors Prof.dr.ir.A.A.J.F.van den Dobbelsteen E.R.van denHam Ir.P.G.Teeuw
Instructors Dipl.ing.T.Klein Ir.J.E.P.Smits
Authors 4412354 | Chrysanthi Anastasiou 4422570 | Ioanna Stavrou 4414942 | Lida Barou 4410386 | Maria Natalia Aloupi
TU Delft Q4 2014-2015
The yellow crocus responds 4
to a temperature shift from cold to warm. This blossom was plucked on a cold night and had fully opened in less than an hour when brought into a warm room.
Physiologic
properties of the petal are responsible for its kinetic response to temperature. This intrinsic kinetic response, immediate and without any higher level processing system proved to be the impetus for a comprehensive investigation into other smart materials that could perform in a similar way.
V
Shape
memory materials (SMM) are considered a class of the most promising smart materials. The reason why these materials are so unique is their property to recover their initial shape from a significant and seemingly plastic deformation when a particular stimulus is applied. This feature is called shape memory effect.
Memories of the future . 2050 Can you imagine the louvers of a facade closing without even making any effort as the sun starts shining? Can you think of a sweater’s sleeves getting shorter as the room’s temperature rises? And what about receiving a package of foam which grows and becomes a real stool? III
If all these wishes become true then you should be probably living in the 2050. Someone could call it the Smart Materials Era and especially the shape memory ones. Referring to them generally we could say that there are materials responding to external stimuli and changing their shape, taking a pre-programmed one. Therefore in the following years we can expect major innovations in various fields like architecture, engineering and even fashion and aerospace. Even today we are coming up with many of them so the future seems to be really bright! To be continued...
C
ontents
SMM VII
Instructions You can start your journey from three different starting points materials stimuli applications Choose what interests you more and discover the fantasy world!
manual map
Materials polymers
alloys
ceramics
SMP
SMA
SMC
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30
30
Applications 30
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59 60 61
8 7
structural
7 66 82 83
70 74 80
VIII
78 84
6 48
industrial
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44 56 58 64 65 52
climate
heat Stimuli
electricity
light
water
magnetism
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XIII
Polymers
XIV
Polymers
Intro Shape memory Polymers (SMPs) are intelligent materials, which represent a technologically important class of stimuli – responsive materials. An SMP has the ability to be fixed into a temporary shape, which would remain stable unless it is exposed to an appropriate external stimulus that triggers the polymer to recover its original shape. The first recognition of the polymer shape memory effect can be traced back to a patent in 1940s in which “elastic memory� was mentioned. The official term was initially introduced in 1984 in Japan and since then it has been widely researched for applications in various technological fields [1].
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Properties Polymers are large molecules composed of many repeated subunits. According to their temperature, they can be found in different states: • glassy • rubbery • liquid
The temperature difference triggers the movement of the polymer molecular chains. Higher temperatures trigger large deformations at polymers, because of their lower elastic modulus [3].
• •
• 2
•
Fig 1 | Diagram elastic modulus-temperature
in the glassy state all movements of the polymer segments are frozen in the rubbery state the rotation around the segment bonds becomes unimpeded when a stress is applied while the polymer is in the rubbery state, usually an irreversible relaxation will occur SMP can recover almost all of the residual deformation
S M Effect
The shape-memory effect is not related to a specific material property of polymer. It rather results from a combination of the polymer structure and the polymer morphology together with the applied processing and programming technology [4].
The basic molecular architecture of SMPs is a polymer network underlying active movement. In order for a polymer to perform the SME, it must consist of a dual-segment system: a stable network and the reversible molecular switches. The former is highly elastic and determines the permanent shape, while the latter is able to reduce its stiffness upon a particular stimulus and fixes the temporary shape.
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The network consists of netpoints, which can be either of chemical or physical nature. Chemically cross-linked SMPs can be formed through a suitable cross-linking chemistry and they are known as thermosets. Physically crosslinked ones require a morphology, which consists of at least two segregated domains, and they are mentioned as thermoplastics. The network of chains can be either amorphous or crystalline [5]. 4
The reversible molecular switches, upon exposure to a specific stimulus, are triggered and the deformation energy stored in the temporary shape is released, which consequently results in the shape recovery.
Fig 2 | Physical cross-linking network Glassy state
Fig 4 | Physical cross-linking network Rubbery state
Fig 3 | Chemical cross-linking network Glassy state
Fig 5 | Chemical cross-linking network Rubbery state
Traditionally SMM are only able to switch between two shapes: the permanent and the temporary one, which require a programming process to be fixed. However, there are polymers able to “remember� more that one intermediate shapes. This is the socalled multiple-SME for more complicated motion generation [6].
Stimuli The main actuation methods of SMPs can be generally divided into heat, electricity, light, magnetism and moisture. The SME of thermal-responsive SMPs is directly triggered by Joule heating from a source such as hot gas or hot water. Alternatively, special functional fillers can be incorporated into SMPs to trigger shape-memory effect through electricity, light, magnetism or moisture, etc.
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Thermal-activated shape-memory polymers
SMP changes between rigid and elastic states in reaction to thermal stimuli. The change takes place at what is referred to as the glass transition temperature (Tg).
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SMP can be formulated with a Tg that matches an application need. Current SMP systems have been demonstrated with Tgs from –30°C to 260°C (–22°F to 500°F). Above its transition temperature, which can be customengineered, SMP goes from a rigid, plastic state to a flexible, elastic state. When cooled below that temperature, it becomes rigid again, with high specific strength. The SMP can be manipulated and cooled into a variety of new shapes; when heated above its transition temperature, it will return to its “memorized” shape.
[SEE APP 4 | 12 | 13 | 15]
Activation methods: • Resistive heating • Embedded heaters (for example, stretchy heaters, nichrome wires) • Contact heating (MRE heaters) • Induction heating • Dielectic heating • Microwave heating • Infrared radiant heating
Fig 6 | Chemical cross-linking network Rubbery state
Thermomechanical cycle
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Fig 7
Electro-activated shape-memory polymers
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Electricity as a stimulus enables resistive actuation of SMPs filled with conductive fillers. In this way, external heating, which is unfavorable for many applications and is used to stimulate conventional shape-memory polymers, can be avoided. Recent developments focus in electroinduced shape recovery and the growth of electro-activate shape-memory polymers
[SEE APP 3]
Light-activated
shape-memory polymers
SMP microactuator (triggered by magnetic field) changes its shape to enable the mechanical removal of thrombus from blood vessels.
Light-induced SMPs have been produced by incorporating reversible photoreactive molecular switches when light of a special wavenumber light is applied. The stimulation is considered to have no relation with any temperature effects. Therefore, it should be differentiated from the indirect actuation of the thermal-responsive shape-memory effect.
Fig 8 | thrombus treatment
Water-activated
Magnetic-activated
When immersed in water, solvent molecules diffuse into the polymer sample and act as plasticizers, leading to a reduction in the transition temperature and resulting in shape recovery. The experimental results reveal that the lowering of the temperature depends on the moisture uptake, namely it indirectly depends on the immersion time. In timedependent immersion tests, the water uptake can be adjusted between 0 and 4.5 wt.%, which coincides with a decrease in the transition temperature (Tg) of between 0 and 35 K. As the maximum moisture uptake is around 4.5 wt.% after 240 h, this SMP is still considered to be a polymer and not a hydrogel.
The magnetically induced shape recovery of SMP composites could be realized by incorporating magnetic nanoparticles (e.g., Fe2O3 and Fe3O4) in SMPs [4]. The shape-memory effect of the composites can be triggered by inductive Joule heating in an alternating magnetic field, i.e., transforming electromagnetic energy from an external high frequency field to heat [7]. The magnetically induced SMPs can be remotely controlled to induce heating energy locally and selectively. They can be remotely controlled to induce heating energy locally and selectively.
shape-memory polymers
SMP joints (triggered by heat) incorporated in aircraft wing substructure in order to enable flexible wing skin and adjustements during flight.
[SEE Gels] [SEE APP 2] Fig 9 | folding wing detail
shape-memory polymers
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Gels
Properties
Shape memory gels belong to the polymers’ class introducing a new generation of biomaterials. They can be soft and weak to hard and tough and they are characterized as environmentally friendly because of their high water content (up to 90%). Their inner structure is the same as the polymers’ one. The polymer chains can be cross-linked by chemical bonds, forming chemical gels, by physical bonds forming physical gels, as well as by crystallites and other bonds. (8).
In general, shape memory gels are transparent at room temperature and elastic, being also thermoresponsive and being able to swelldeswell and change between liquid and gel phase. (9). They can be also combined with extenders in order to gain different characteristics. Some of these extenders can be fluid and especially water (hydrogel), organic solvent (organogel), air (aerogel).
Fig 10 | Memory Gel
S M Effect Shape memory gels are able to change shape really rapidly based on ordered-disordered transitions. At room temperature gels have a permanent shape due to their cross-linked network between monomers and cross-linkers. After applying a stress on them, and heating them up to the critical temperature (Tc), they deform within a second. This deformation can become permanent if the materials are then cooled below Tc. The original shape can be obtained by heating them up above Tc again, but now with no external stress applied. Fig 11 | Aerogel
[SEE Thermomechanical cycle] [SEE APP 2]
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Alloys
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Alloys
Intro SMAs are a class of metallic alloys that exhibit unique capability of recovering their original shape after being deformed. Engineering significance of shapememory alloys was not well recognized until 1963. During the last three decades they have been intensively investigated. Nowadays their exclusive memory performance, excellent processibility and mechanical properties constitute them important SMMaterials. In addition, alloys have very good corrosion resistance and biocompatibility, which enable them to be widely used in the biomedical field [10]. Their shape memory effect can be used to generate motion and/or force, while superelasticity can store deformation energy.
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Pseudoelasticity (Superelastic behaviour) 16
Fig 2 | Variation of martensite fraction of SMAs with temperature.
The effect of pseudoelasticity occurs at temperatures above the Af and is associated with transformation in the austenite phase, caused by applied stresses. During the stable austenite phase (T>Af), when a load is applied on the SMA, it follows a thermomechanical loading path which is a loop starting and ending to the parent (austenite) phase. If the load reaches a specific level, the state of the material starts to transform into detwinned martensite phase.
Properties SMAs are known for their unique thermomechanical characteristics such as pseudoelasticity and shape memory effect. The capability of SMAs to recover their original shape after being deformed is primarily due to the forward and reverse transformation between two main phases on the atomic level: austenite and martensite.
The figure below shows the variation of the martensite fraction in the alloy with temperature. Four transformation temperatures Mf, Ms, As, and Af govern the amount of martensite in the alloy, which accordingly controls the alloy’s mechanical behavior.
If the alloy is heated to a temperature above the austenite finish temperature Af the original shape of the alloy will be fully recovered. This shape recovery is associated with a relatively large recovery stress that depends on the material characteristics and level of deformation exerted on the alloy.
17 Ms = Starting temperature of martensitic phase Mf = Finishing temperature of martensitic phase As = Starting temperature of austenite phase Af = Finishing temperature of austenite phase
Fig 12 | Variation of the martensite fraction in alloy with temperature
S M Effect
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• SMAs atoms arrange themselves next to each other in rows or diagonally • The different arrangements are its phases • When SMMs change their shape and return to their original, they change their atoms organization • The phase where the atoms are in monolithic arrangement is called martensite, while the phase where the atoms are in cubic arrangement is called austenite • When activating a shape memory material, atoms shift position in a coordinate motion • Martensite phase exists at lower temperatures (relatively soft and easily deformed phase). Austenite occurs at higher temperatures (stronger phase) [12].
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There are categories of the shape memory effect: 1) The one-way SME describes the process during which the material can be deformed at maternsite phase only with the help of external force rather than automatically. 2) The two-way SME relies on the fact that austenite and martensite phases can change automatically by the application of the specific stimuli [13]. It refers to the repeatable shape changes under no applied mechanical load when subjected to a cyclic thermal load.
Fig 13 | Martensite - Austenite
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Stimuli The main actuation methods of SMPs can be generally divided into heat, electricity and magnetism.
Thermal-activated shape-memory alloys
An SMA exhibits shape memory effect when it is deformed while in the twinned martensitic phase and then unloaded while at a temperature below As. When heated above Af, the SMA will regain its original shape by transforming back into the austenitic phase.
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This procedure is illustrated in the thermomechanical loading path in a combined stressstrain-temperature space, in the following figure. Transformation temperatures of SMAs can be adjusted through changes in composition. Some alloys show transformation temperatures between -100°C and +IOO’C, while others up to 200’C (not stable in cyclic applications) [14].
[SEE APP 1 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 11 | 17 | 18 | 19]
Training an SMA refers to a process of repeatedly loading the material following a cyclic thermomechanical loading path until the hysteretic response of the material stabilizes and the inelastic strain saturates [11].
Thermomechanical cycle
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Fig 14
Electro-activated shape-memory alloys
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Shape memory actuators respond to a temperature change with a shape change. The change in temperature can be caused by electrically heating the shape memory element. In that case, it is an electrical actuator that performs a specific task on demand. Actuators combine large motion, rather than high forces and small size, thus they provide high work output. They usually consist of only a single piece of metal, e.g. a straight wire or a helical spring, and do not require sophisticated mechanical systems [14].
[SEE APP 10 | 14 | 20]
NiTi Alloy (NiTinol) drills are used in root canal surgery, which involves careful drilling within the tooth. NiTinol drills can bend to rather large angles, which induce large strains, but still withstand the high cyclic rotations. [15]
Fig 15 | Schematic showing a NiTi drill used for root canal surgery.
Magnetic-activated shape-memory alloys
NiTinol orthodontic archwires are more effective than stainless steel. They provide a nearly constant, moderate force to actively move the teeth over a longer period of time compared with stainless steel. There is a large increment in stress, for a small increment in strain which results in a large amount of force on the tooth for a small amount of corrective motion. [15]
Fig 16 | NiTinol braces used for alignment purposes.
In some alloys, the martensitic transformations may be induced by applying magnetic fields. These are mainly ironbased shape-memory alloys. Magnetic ordering transitions occur at temperatures above the start points of martensitic transformations. A large difference in magnetic moment between parent (austenite) and martensitic phases facilitates the field-induced transformation, and vice versa. [10]
[SEE APP 16]
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Ceramics
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Ceramics
Intro The SME was firstly reported in ceramic materials in 1986 [16]. Though there were some debates about whether this phenomenon was SME at that time, it was later confirmed (in zirconia ceramics), that this material class could support shape memory programming. While this was achieved earlier with alloys and polymers, scientists have struggled with ceramics for decades because of their brittleness.
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Properties The molecular structure of ceramic materials is based on ionic and covalent bonds. The crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline, and often completely amorphous. [17]
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Ceramics do show plastic deformation. However, due to their rigid structure, they deform very slowly even when they are viscous. [18]
SMCs are: • brittle • good electrical | thermal insulators • ductile • durable under compressive stress
The key to achieve shape memory ceramics is to think in smaller scales. Brittleness can be solved by making minuscule ceramic objects invisible to naked eye. Shape memory ceramics with these properties represent a new class of actuators or smart materials with a set of properties that include high energy output, high energy damping, and high-temperature usage. [19]
Fig 17 | Molecular structures
S M Effect Because the martensitic transformation and its associated shape change generally leads to substantial internal stresses, ceramics, which are in general brittle materials, have a tendency to crack during such transformation.
Shape memory and pseudoelastic martensitic behavior is enabled by a crystalline structure. This is the case of ceramic materials that are capable of undergoing a reversible martensitic transformation and forming martensitic domains.
SME in ceramics functions in a similar way to that of SMAs. SMCs can exist in two phases: martensite and austenite. The transition from a tetragonal to a monoclinic structure occurs as a martensitic phase transition, which is induced thermally or by the application of stress. These materials are called martensitic ceramics [20]. There are some ceramics that are simultaneously ferroelectric and ferroelastic. Their ferroelasticity ensures that recoverable spontaneous strain is available for contributing to the SME and the ferroelasticity implies that their spontaneous strain can be manipulated not only by mechanical forces but also by electric fields [21].
Fig 18 | Different phases of ceramics
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Stimuli
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In particular, the ceramic structures can be controlled with a wide range of stimuli, including, e.g., mechanical, thermal, electric field, magnetic field, and other stimuli, for undergoing martensitic transformation. The ceramic structures are therefore well-suited as mechanical actuators, as mechanical couplings, as armor materials for dissipating energy when the material is impacted or loaded, in biomedical devices, and in particular in applications in which an electrically-controlled actuator is desired. It is also shown that electric field can be used for enhancing the shape strain produced by the bending load, although some fraction of the shape strain becomes irrecoverable on repeated SME cycling under the combined effects of mechanical and electric loads [22].
While a micrometer is considered small by most standards, it is actually not so small in the world of nanotechnology. Thus, SMCs could be used as microactuators to trigger actions within devices, such as release drugs from tiny implants. [23]
Thermomechanical cycle
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Fig 19
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R
eferences
[1] Xie, T.; Polymer (Invited Feature Article), Recent advances in polymer shape memory, 2011 [2] C. LIANG, C. A. ROGERS and E. MALAFEEW, ‘‘Smart Structures and Materials’’, AD-Vol. 24/AMD-Vol. 123 (ASME, New York, 1991) p. 97. [3] Wei Z. G., Sandstrom R. and Miyazaki S., Review Shapememory materials and hybrid composites for smart systems, Journal of materials science 33, 1998 [4] Mohr R, Kratz K, Weigel T, Lucka-Gabor M, Moneke M, Lendlein A. Initiation of shape-memory effect by inductive heating of magnetic nanoparticles in thermoplastic polymers. PNAS 2006;103:3540–5. [5] Harper Meng, Guoqiang Li; A review of stimuli-responsive shape memory polymer composites, 2013 [6] Xuelian Wu, Wei Min Huang, Yong Zhao, Zheng Ding, Cheng Tang, Jiliang Zhang; Mechanisms of the Shape Memory Effect in Polymeric Materials, 2013 [7] Razzaq MY, Anhalt M, Frormann L, Weidenfeller B. Thermal, electrical and magnetic studies of magnetite filled polyurethane shape memory polymers. Mater Sci Eng A – Struct Mater Prop Microstruct Process 2007;444: 227–35. [8] Jin Gong, M. A. (2015, 06 19). High Transparent Shape Memory Gel. Yonezawa, Japan. [9] M. Hasnat KABIR, M. M. (2014). Structural Analysis of Shape
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Memory Gel. 248-252. Switzerland [10] Z. G. Wei R. Sandstrom, S. Miyazaki; Shape-memory materials and hybrid composites for smart systems, Part I Shape-memory materials; 1998 [11] Moochul Shin; Nicholas Wierschem; Bassem Andrawes, A.M.ASCE; Active Confinement of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Columns Using Shape Memory Alloys [12] Ramirez A., Magical metals, how shape memory alloys work, website: http://ed.ted.com/lessons/ainissa-ramirez-magicalmetals-how-shape-memory-alloys-work, 2011
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[13] Leng J.,Lan X., Liu Y., Du S., Shape-memory polymers and their composites: Stimulus methods and applications, journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pmatsci, 2011 [14] Dieter Stoeckel; The Shape Memory Effect - Phenomenon, Alloys and Applications; 1995 [15] Dimitris Lagoudas; Shape Memory Alloys, Modeling and Engineering Applications; 2008 [16] M V Swain. Shape Memory Behavior in Partially Stabilized Zirconia Ceramics[ J] . Nature, 1986, 322: 234-236 [17] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic [18] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_ materials#Properties_of_ceramics [19] Shape memory and superelastic ceramics at small scales
[20] Lendlein A., Kelch S.,Shape-Memory Polymers, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2002, 41, 2034 - 2057 [21] Verita M.,Ferroelectric Ceramics: Tutorial reviews, theory, processing and applications, Birkhäuser, 2012 [22] P Pandit, SM Gupta and V K Wadhawan, Effect of electric field on the shape-memory effect in Pb[(Mg1/3Nb2/3)0.70Ti0.30] O3 ceramic, Institute of Physics Publishing, Smart Mater. Struct. 15 (2006) 653-658 [23] David L. Chandler, How to make ceramics that bend without breaking. New materials developed at MIT could lead to actuators on a chip and self-deploying medical devices, MIT News Office September 26, 2013 35
Figures’ references
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p I-II: http://www.liftarchitects.com/air-flower/ P IV: made by author p VIII : made by author P IX: http://www.intechopen.com/books/composites-and-theirapplications/bio-inspired-self-actuating-composite-materials p 2: fig 1 | made by author p 4: fig 2-5 | made by author p 5: http://www.nibib.nih.gov/news-events/newsroom/polymerfoam-expands-potential-treat-aneurysms p 6: fig 6 | made by author p 7: fig 7 | made by author p 8: fig 8 | made by author p 9: fig 9 | made by author p 10: fig 10 | https://www.tourmedica.pl/artykuly-medyczne/ powiekszanie-piersi-czy-wiesz-jak-dobierane-sa-implanty/ p 11: fig 11 | http://www.buyaerogel.com/product/coloredaerogel-discs/ p 12: https://www.behance.net/gallery/21767053/ProgressBefore-Perfection-Day-181-210 p 15: http://designsociety.dk/2013/05/03/nickel-titanium-shapememory-alloy/ p 16: http://www.grasshopper3d.com/photo/1-26 p 17: fig 12 | made by author p 18: fig 13 | made by author p 19: http://www.orambra.com/~makeItWork.html p 21: fig 14 | made by author p 22: fig 15 | made by author p 23: fig 16 | Dimitris Lagoudas; Shape Memory Alloys, Modeling and Engineering Applications; 2008 p 24: http://www.themarketbusiness.com/2015-03-30-futuristic-
factories-workforce-is-robotic-ants-butterflies p 28: fig 17 | made by author p 29: fig 18 | made by author p 31: fig 19 | made by author
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A
pplications
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A
pplications
Intro Taking advantage of the ability of Shape Memory Materials to recover their original shape from a temporary shape when exposed to an appropriate stimulus, a broad range of applications are already in use. The disciplines where SMM are used, range from outer space and aerospace engineering to automobiles and robotics and from biomedicine to fashion. The innovative approach of applying SMPs in architectural and industrial design as well as in civil engineering constructions is an upcoming challenge. In the following chapter conceptual and already applied designs will be analyzed.
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stimuli
material
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field Electricity
magnetism
water
Climate
structural
industrial design
page 56
Geotextile
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08
Reinforcement
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07
Earthquake resistant structure
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06
Dynamic shading
05
Wind control
Heat
04
Translated Geometries
SMA
03
Passive Cooling
SMP
02
Air Flow(er)
Index 01
58 59 60 61
09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
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64 65 66 70 74 78 80 81 82 83 83 84
Moisture adaptive shell Acoustic panels Reef Foldable furniture fabrics Haute Couture fashion Oricalco Portable Kitchen Lamps Computer mouse 3D textiles Braille smartphone
01 Air Flow(er) Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Climate design | Ventilation Designer | Lift architects The air flower is an energy independent ventilation device, which behaves like a flower, whose “petals” open wide when exposed to warmer temperatures. Building on principles found in nature, the Air Flow(er) aims to regulate airflow and interior temperatures without electricity. The active component is a custom manufactured Shape Memory Alloy wire, which can be easily deformed, opening and closing the “petals”. 44
The device could be used as the operable blind or shade on either the exterior or interior face of a naturally ventilated double-skin façade system. In the summer the cavity between the inner and outer skin could be vented through the Air Flow(er)’s automatic response to rising temperatures. In this way it mitigates the solar gain and decreases the cooling load on the building’s mechanical equipment. During the winter, the Ai Flow(er) seals the cavity so that the double skin façade can act as a passive solar heater. Three physical prototypes were developed and tested for various building applications: a roof vent, a traditional single skin aperture, and a naturally ventilated double skin façade system. All of the prototypes were designed to facilitate natural ventilation in buildings and are completely energy independent. As a building Fig 1 | kinetic effect of Air Flow(er) panels
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heats up past a specific temperature threshold (approximately 80°F=26°C), the panel system opens up to allow air to flow into a building. Once the interior space cools past its lower temperature threshold (approximately 60°F=15°C), the panels close to keep the temperature regulated at comfortable levels.
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The greatest benefit of the present invention is the fact that it requires zero electrical input to operate the ventilation device. This means that energy demands that are typically allocated to mechanically operated ventilation systems can be dramatically reduced. Because the panels open and close according to the mate-
rial characteristics of the SMA wire, there are no complicated sensors, circuits, or processing devices required to operate the system. This means low maintenance and operating costs. The Air Flow-er’s modularity allows it to be combined to fit almost any opening and can be used to retro-fit existing buildings to make them more efficient. As a horizontal system, the single leaf prototype could be applied to the roof of a large vertical space, like an atrium in a high-rise building, or in towers mounted to the roof of a structure to create natural ventilation through “stack effect”.
Fig 2 | developed prototypes
Fig 3 | deformation according to temperature
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Fig 4 | panel structure
1 | rigid connector tubes 2 | inner tubes 3 | outer tubes 4 | panels 5 | wire mesh screen 6 | gasset plates 7 | frame 8 | elastic cords tied between panels and outer frame 9 | shape memory alloy wires 10 | barrel crimp 11 | 4-way connectors
02 Passive cooling system Material | SMG Stimulus | Heat Climate design | Thermal comfort Designers | IAAC team: Akanksha Rathee, Pong Santayanon, Elena Mitrofanova Hydroceramic is a formula which is designed to cool down interior spaces. The materials used for this patent are clay (two ceramic layers), hydrogel and stretchable -absorbent fabric.
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Hydrogel is a material which absorbs water up to 500 times it’s volume and expands. When the temperature is rising, the water evaporates and the hydrogel gets its original shape and solid state. Hydroceramic takes advantage of this property, and the water that evaporates is slowly absorbed by the ceramic and cools the surroundings.
clay breathing layer streching fabric hydrogel clay supporting layer
Fig 5 | Growth and evaporation cycle
Fig 6 | Layers of hydroceramic
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Fig 7 | Hydrogel pellets, both with and without absorbed water
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Fig 8 | A proposal for a ‘‘cooling pavillion’’
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Fig 9 | Hydroceramic
03 Translated geometries vol2 Material | SMP Stimulus | Electricity Climate design Designer | IAAC research team: Efilena Baseta, Ece Tankal, Ramin Shambayati
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Looking forward to an architecture that is able to harness flows of energy and information in its various transitions the team of IAAC University tried to propose a new concept based around the motif of architecture in transition. They are using a Shape Memory Polymer that they apply to a responsive architectural prototype. The SMP (Veritex) can change phase from an external and controlled stimuli, reaching a ‘soft’ and rubbery state when exposed to heat above its glass transition temperature (around 70o C) and can undergo significant geometrical deformations from then on. The initial geometry that is expanded and deformed in the final shape has its starting point to foldable paper origami structures and then evolved into a rigid pattern with triangulated tessellation design. The whole structure consists of separate components that can be assembled to create the whole using hexagonal nodes that control better the general deformations of the geometry. The final prototype in 1:1 scale is a cluster of 7 units, introducing a buffering wedge between the SMP joint and the triangulated wooden panel. Its action is two-fold:
Fig 10 | 3 different positions
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Fig 11 | Components
Fig 12 | Actuation
a. Firstly it acts to take most of the shape memory property of the material, as a result the SMP is in its original flat memory state when the component is at its most closed and acute angle. This means that reversion to the original closed triangulation state is embedded within the material system.
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the triangles surrounding the middle component. The actuation for the deformations is achieved through the force of pulling by many octocopter drones. From a flat position where the entire structure is heated the drones pull at specific points and raise the structure into the desired place, upon which holding
until the SMP cools, at which point the new form is taken. This process can be repeated indefinitely, as the structure is able to respond to a given environment or user’s preferences for various spatial configurations, a never-ending transformable multi-purpose space.
b. Secondly the wedge introduces physical constraints in the opening / closing of the modules as when it reaches to furthermost open state the wedges push against each other and limit any further movement. In the prototype the heating is applied uniformly across through a parallel circuit connected to the embedded heat wires but the vision for the future suggests that each triangulated component will be a self-containing unit wirelessly controlled and powered by the solar fabric embedded in
Fig 13 | 1:1 prototype SMP wedges
Fig 14 | 1:1 prototype
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04 Shape morphing wind responsive faรงade systems 56
Material | SMA SMP Stimulus | Heat Climate design | Ventilation Designers | Lignarolo L., Lelieveld C., Teuffel P. This conceptual design presents a solution for enhancing the airflow of high-rise buildings. It aims to exploit the kinetic adaptation of shapemorphing elements towards a responsive faรงade in terms of wind optimization. The idea derives from the aerodynamic characteristics of a rough surface, which show
Fig 15 | element deformation
better airflow control than a smooth one (golf ball). A series of Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations has been performed to prove that theory and analyze the wind pressure on the surface of a building. The results were used to design a building envelope that has the property of changing its surface texture for the control of wind pressure and velocity. This concept enables the opportunity for natural ventilation in high-rise buildings. The proposal is based on a faรงade with small deflecting elements, which can open and close according to wind
Fig 16 | the rough surface of a golf ball provides more controled airflow
Fig 17 | elements that add roughness to the building envelope
Fig 18 | possible posiitons of the adjustable elements
Fig 19 | CFD simulations prove the low wind pressure in high rise buildings with the addition of elements on the surface
Fig 20 | smart composite of SMAs in a SMP matrix
velocity and direction. Every element can be controlled individually, leading to diverse surface texture, optimized for every height. The purpose of these elements is to steer the wind on the building envelope to secure control of the wind flow. An important parameter is that the elements should be adjustable in both vertical and horizontal directions. A smart composite was developed within this research project, which provides the requested adaptive behavior. Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) was implemented in a Shape Memory Polymer (SMP) matrix, where the SMAs are applied as an actuator material and enable the deformation of the element. SMP provides the fixation of the deforma-
tion, as constant energy is needed to maintain the shape of the SMA, when external forces are applied. The prototype consists of 3 SMAs and a SMP matrix, which becomes fully rubbery after heated. The 2 outer SMAs provide the deformation, while the middle one is responsible for recovering the composite upon activation.
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05 Dynamic shading faรงade Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Climate design | Lighting Designer | Decker Yeadon
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A dynamic shading system using shape memory alloys that can regulate indoor ambient air temperature without any supplied electricity was developed by Decker Yeadon. Muscle wires expand in high temperatures and crate openings in the faรงade. The openings are defined by the environmental conditions: when the room temperature is low, they allow solar radiation to enter the building. As the temperature rises, the openings close to create a cooler environment. Preprogramming the degree to which the muscle wires expand and contract in response to specific temperatures creates a self-
regulating system equipped with sensors that requires no electricity. Shading elements are implemented to control daylighting and radiation.
Fig 21 | Dynamic Shading Faรงade
Model Tips With the use of a model that combines thermodynamics and mechanical equations, it is possible to accurately predict internal temperature and stress distribu-
06 Earthquake-Resistant Structures Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Structural design Engineer: Research News & Publications Office Georgia Institute of Technology
tions for shape-memory alloys. If the load is applied in a slow rate, there is enough time for heat exchange and the stress is uniform.
Fig 22 | Variations in surface temperature of a shape-memory alloy experiencing loading and unloading recorded by a thermal camera.
Shape-memory alloys exhibit unique characteristics that you would want for earthquake-resistant building and bridge design because of their ability to bounce back after experiencing large loads. They are used in bearings, columns and beams, or connecting elements between beams and columns. shape-memory alloys for seismic applications could operate in a variety of environments, such as water if used in bridge structures or air if used in building structures, which would produce different rates of heat transfer. SMAs can be manufactured in a variety of components, cables, bars, plates and helical springs, depending on the different loading conditions.
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07 Reinforced Concrete Bridge Columns Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Structural design Engineers | T.-H. Kima, K.-M. Leeb, Y.-S. Chungc, H.M. Shinb Inadequate flexural ductility and insufficient shear capacity of piers result in catastrophic bridge failure. The ductility capacity of concrete members can be enhanced dramatically when the core of the concrete section is confined. Passive confinement with external steel wraps is the most common approach to reinforce vulnerable concrete elements. 60
An innovative technique for applying active confinement on reinforced concrete bridge columns uses SMAs. Under seismic excitations SMA spirals improve the seismic behavior of the columns significantly in terms of column strength and effective stiffness. This is a new retrofitting way for applying active rather than the traditionally used passive confinement. The use of SMA for reinforcement is easy, reliable and effective.
Fig 23 | Schematic illustrating the concept of using prestrained SMA hoops to apply external confining pressure on RC bridge columns.
08 Geotextile Reinforcement Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Structural design Engineer | Philip Beesley The Memory Geotextile is a composite of wire mesh and nitinol shape-memory wire. It is a landscape fabric which allows movement of air, water, and fertilizer into the soil. The nitinol is activated when a heat source is applied and it reverts back to its “remembered� shape. The geotextile can be used to reinforce a steep slope in order to acieve minimum spatial occupation without compromising safety. Implant Matrix is an interactive geotextile developed by Philip Beesley, appropriate for reinforcing landscapes and
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Fig 24 | Geotextile with SMA wire reinforcement
buildings of the future. The matrix is capable of mechanical empathy and is composed of interlinking filtering ‘pores’ within a lightweight structural system and shape-memory alloy wire actuators.
Fig 25 | Reinforced Geotextile
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Fig 26 | Reinforced Geotextile Fibers
Pentagonal nodes: Hemispherical apex for structural attachment Inverted pentagonal nodes: Hemispherical apex for structural attachment
Fig 27 | Geotextile Illustration
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09 Moisture adaptive building shells Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Climate design | Indoor air quality
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Panels that are suitable to absorb sound can be combined with shape memory materials in order to deform and be available only when needed. One of the most common materials used for acoustic panels is felt. This material can be stitched with shape memory alloys which can roll it and unroll it when needed. By this way, spaces can house different activities, including ones needing good acoustic performance of the room.
Fig 28 | Drawings
Fig 29 | Ventilation system
10 Acoustic panels Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Climate design | Acoustics Designer | Author’s proposal Panels that are suitable to absorb sound can be combined with shape memory materials in order to deform and be available only when needed. One of the most common materials used for acoustic panels is felt. This material can be stitched with shape memory alloys which can roll it and unroll it when needed. By this way, spaces can house different activities, including ones needing good acoustic performance of the room.
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Fig 30 | Acoustic panels
11 Reef installation Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Installation Designer | Rob Ley, Joshua G. Stein
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Reef installation is a system that integrates SMA to imitate the responsiveness of lower level organisms to external stimuli. “A field of sunflowers as they track the sun across the sky or a reef covered with sea anemones, offer images of the type of responsive motion this technology aff ords” [Reef] In this installation at Storefront for Art and Architecture in New York, the border between public and private space is redefined by exploding the typical boundary separating private and public space. Reef’s variation of biokinetics represents an image of nature beyond the static, instead creating an environment of vigorous interaction. Context Reef adds an extra attribute to the “Storefront” through the introduction of a flexible negotiation of the public street and the typical 1st floor retail space. The original façade installation by Acconci and Holl engaged public space in a novel way by locating the art and architecture experiment at interface between gallery and street rather than excluding it from the public life of the street. Reef extends this experiment through the introduction of a more precise and fluid secondary interface; one charged
Fig 31 | Reef through Storefront facade
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with the purpose of emergent refined social interactions through a variable, and fluid porosity.
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Using a bunch of 600 responsive fins that form a singular surface, the installation enhances the unique site condition of the gallery, affecting social and movement patterns both inside and outside the gallery. “Unlike the typical activities that one associates with ground floor spaces of the city -- retail, office, or gallery - here the motion and sway of nature, like trees in the wind, is enfolded within interior space, drawing in the sensibility of the outdoors� [Reef]. The responsive surface is structured by an aluminum lattice capable of matching perfectly with the concept gallery. Within Storefront’s facade, this surface moves from simple vertical plane to volumetric habitable space producing intense and varied experiential conditions. At the narrow end of the wedge, the vertical responsive surface
acts as an interior spectacle drawing in the public from the busy street intersection. As the wedge of the Storefront gallery expands from this corner, this surface wraps back on itself to create a barrel vault of reactive fins offering a more physically immersive experience. The surface is populated with a fin pattern running parallel to the storefront. The effect of combined fin movement creates local moments of visual transparency or opacity and alter the perceived scale of the space creating different kinds of experience for each visitor.
Fig 32 | Perspective view
Fig 33 | Close-up nitinol wire connection at fin. As wire contracts, the fin is pulled into curled position.
Fig 34 | Perspective view through the facade
Fig 35 | 3d visualization of components
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12 SelfAssembling furniture Material | SMP Stimulus | Heat Industrial design Designer | Carl de Smet
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What If your new chair arrives a home in a thin package and the only thing you need to do before laying on it is to plug it in the electricity? Guess what! It’s expanding! The new project of self-assembling furniture by Noumenon, based in Brussels, aims to achieve this very soon and to make the IKEA dominance a thing of the distant past. This idea gives a different meaning to the term of compact package and self-assembly at the same time. Based on research into the ideal form of self-deploying space antenna, designer Carl de Smet
has been translating the latticework of pop-up metal into “shape memory polymers”— cheaper plastics that can be smushed for easy shipment, then popped back into their “remembered” forms later. De Smet explains. “The material is doing the work, wherein the packaging and the final product are the same thing, the same material” [Self-Assembling Furniture]. It’s about a revolution in the field of industrial design and packaging because the product becomes the packaging medium at the same time and the opposite. In that way since the packages occupy less space for transportation they can be easily and massively transported and the most important at the less possible time. This seems to be a great chance for small designer firms that can now be appreciated in an international context. In order for this furniture to take its original shape the
Fig 36 | Different phases throughout the transformation
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user should help by triggering the packaged material. The furniture is made out of shape memory polymer foam that needs a temperature over 70o C to start transforming and finally take its designed shape. Unfortunately that’s a really high temperature to be reached in a house environment. Therefore De Smet is currently researching on the subject and the next big step
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is to integrate a plug in mechanism in order to trigger expansion. Currently the project is in a small scale concept prototype. One cause is that the material is expensive enough and its structural properties are not yet tested in a bigger scale. More research needs to be done of course to define the limitations and the new possibilities.
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Fig 37 | Packaged furniture - Ready to use
13 Shape memory fabrics Material | SMP Stimulus | Heat Industrial design Researchers | Jinlian Hu, Harper Meng, Guoqiang Li, and Samuel I Ibekwe
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The applications of SRPs in textiles can be broadly classified into finishing and built-in methods. Finishing methods include coating and laminating, while built-in methods include blending and spinning. From the application point of view, the prerequisite for thermally sensitive polymers such as shape memory materials is that the thermal transition temperature needs to be above the temperature of the environment in which they are being applied. The switching temperature of SMPs is tailorable and can be
set around body temperature. The superior processability, soft mechanical properties, high deformability and high recoverability of these kinds of SMPs make them suitable for textile applications, either via the finishing or the built-in method. Shape memory fabrics with inbuilt SMP fibers can be used in textiles and clothing to create self-adaptable textiles with self-regulated structures which can perform in response to changes in environmental temperature. Though the SME of the fiber is simply length change, once incorporated into fabrics, the shape memory effects of the fabric can be various, such as shrinkage, bending and thickness increase, as determined
Thermal-responsive polymers in textile applications. Shape memory finishing Shape memory fiber Shape memory fabrics Two-way SMP fabrics Breathable fabrics Damping fabrics Phase change materials SMP nanofibers Shape memory foams Thermochromic textiles.
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Fig 38 | Self-adaptability of SMP garments
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by the fabric structure. Apparel prototypes of shape memory fabrics have been developed using SMP fibers by knitting and weaving. The garments made of SMP fibers can be enlarged suitably in order to fit the wearer’s body configuration. Vertical pressure tests have shown that, in comparison with fabrics made of elastic fibers (Spandex fibers), garments made of SMP fibers have a relatively low vertical tension stress. This can be attributed to the deformability and fixability of SMP fibers into temporary shapes, which diminishes the adverse pressure sensation to wearers. Cotton fabrics coated with SMPU and cotton fabrics with shape memory alloy wires incorporated can achieve the function of a wrinkle-free effect. Fabric with SMP fiber incorporated may achieve a similar wrinkle-free function when it is exposed to the heat of the body or subject to washing at a high tem-
perature. SMP fibers, yarns and fabrics were also developed by [Stylios et al:2005]. As shown in figure, SMP filament was woven spaciously and loosely along the weft so as to given enough room for the SME to take place. Contraction (shape recovery) occurs when the environmental temperature is over the glass transition temperature of the SMP. Thus, fabric with SMP yarns can show aesthetically appealing effects. The shape memory fabrics can perform well as temperature and moisture management fabrics too. It was found that if the shape memory filaments were used alone in fabrics either by knitting or weaving, the fabric was rough. Therefore, SMPU filaments are preferably used with other fibers such as cotton or wool. The temporary elongation needs to be considered during fabrication of shape memory fabrics because it can lead to shrinkage of the fabric. The temporary
elongation also influences the shape memory performance of the shape memory fabrics produced.
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Fig 39 | SMP garments
14 High-Tech Fashion Material | SMA Stimulus | Electricity Environment | Interior + Exterior Industrial Design Designer | Hussein Chalayan
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Fashion designer Hussein Chalayan introduces programmable clothing, using shape memory alloys wived in the fabrics. These alloys are activated with electricity and by running a partcular current a shape is created and “remembered� until the current is switched off. Different shapes can be obtained when applying different current. Hussein Chalayan realised his proposal by exhibiting clothing demonstrating the use of memory shape alloys in haute couture design.
Fig 40 | Foldable dress
Fig 41 | Adjustable dress
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15 Oricalco Material | SMP Stimulus | Heat Environment | Interior Industrial design Designer: Grado Zero Espace
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Oricalco is an orthogonally weaved fabric using Nitinol fibers and was designed Through the Technology Transfer Programme of the ESA by Grado Zero Espace. Transfering the knowledge from fields like aerospace engineering and medical applications, Nitinol material which is a lightweight Shape Memory Alloy with a content of Titanium of 45% and an extraordinary ability to recover any pre-programmed shape (upon heating) comes into the world of fabric. It becomes the first shape memory shirt at industrial level having memory! The sleeves of the shirt can be programmed to shorten as soon as the room temperature rises. After taking the short-version shape it
Fig 42 | Oricalco shirt
can be mechanically deformed again and after heating it up with warm air again it returns on the previous shape again. This transformation between the two different shapes can happen a lot of times and according to the choice of the most suitable type of textile one could decide almost every type of staring and final shape. After the production of Oricalco new knowledge paths are opened regarding the materials, machinery and the different types of weaving and the problematic concerning cost of Nitinol wires. Based on that
Grado Zero Espace continued its study on SMM and different types of Alloys, gathering a lot of experience in manufacturing different types of smat textiles (fabrics, knits, tubular, special yarn, hybrid yarn) and often optimizing the manufacturing processes with the final goal of serial production.
Fig 43 | Button detail
16 Portable kitchen and pan Material | SMA Stimulus | Magnetism Industrial design Designer | Merwyn Wijaya Portable kitcken and pan can be stored flat without losing their functionality. Two way ferromagnetic shape memory alloy curves upon inductionand after washing it becomes again flat.
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Fig 44 | Portable kitchen & pan
17 Lamps Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Industrial design Designer | Romolo Stanco, Nendo Animated lamps, using shape memory alloys activated with heat from the light bulb, change shape when they are switched on.
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Fig 45 | Shape memory lamp by Romolo Stanco
Fig 46 | Shape memory lamp by Nendo
18 Computer Mouse
19 3D Textile
Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Industrial design Designer | Wang Hui
Material | SMA Stimulus | Heat Industrial design Designer | Danish Design Center, FAD, Happy Materials
Flat surface, made out of polymer is activated by the heat of the hand and it becomes curved, forming an electronic mouse.
3D printed advanced textile with shape memory forming different shapes or even letters. 83
Fig 47 | Computer mouse
Fig 48 | 3D printed textile
20 The world’s first Braille Cellphone Material | SMA Stimulus | Electricity Industrial Designer: | Sumit Dagar
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Entrepreneur Sumit Dagar with his company, Kriyate, has drawn up the first prototype of te first braille cellphone Sometime in the next 12 months he’ll be rolling out the world’s first braille cellphone. Dagar says that test users found it difficult to imagine dynamic braille on such a small device. “But once they comprehend it, the joy is so immense. That’s what makes us most happy.” On the drawing board are plans for an even more advanced phone with a camera that can translate text to braille and images
to raised relief figures on the device’s “display.” The phone has a screen comprised of a grid of pins, which move up and down to form into Braille shapes and characters whenever an SMS message or email is received. It uses Shape Memory Alloys, so as each pin expands, it remembers and contracts back to its original flat shape. The phone presents up to 10 braille characters at a time. The numerical keypad has braille markings for each of the numbers. Users can enter braille letters, which are formed from a three-by-two grid, by pressing six keys on the keypad in the shape of each letter. The first proto-
type in massive production will have some typical smartphone features such as a music player, an e-mail client, a calendar, and even GPS navigation. However since the CPU has to power only a 10-character display, it doesn’t need to be a typical smartphone CPU, keeping the (yet to be announced) price low.
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Fig 49 | Mass-market version with a screen composed of a gridof pins
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R
eferences
[1] http://www.liftarchitects.com/air-flower/ [2] http://www.archdaily.com/587076/mackay-terrace-shaunlockyer-architects/54b5d554e58ecee810000052 [3] http://www.iaacblog.com/maa2013-2014-digital-matterintelligent-constructions/2014/06/translated-geometries-vol-2/ [4] Lignarolo L., Lelieveld C., Teuffel P., Shape morphing windresponsive faรงade systems realized with smart materials, Delft University of Technology Institutional Repository, 2011 [5] http://smartercities.wikispaces.com/Shape-Memory+Alloys [6] http://www.news.gatech.edu/2012/02/09/model-analyzesshape-memory-alloys-use-earthquake-resistant-structures http://sanfrancisco.resiliencesystem.org/shape-memory-alloysearthquake-resistant-structures [7] http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0141029605000052 [8] https://vimeo.com/61501340 http://www.interactivearchitecture.org/implant-matrix-philipbeesley.html [9] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Ug9k1WDp0w http://www.felt-atelier.com/-acoustic-panels--art.html [10] https://www.pinterest.com/pin/418342252856903702/ https://www.pinterest.com/pin/418342252856903705/ [11] http://www.reefseries.com/downloads/Reef_Ley_Stein.pdf
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[12] http://www.fastcodesign.com/1672424/self-assemblingfurniture-that-could-make-ikea-obsolete#1 [13]Jinlian Hu, Harper Meng, Guoqiang Li, and Samuel I Ibekwe A review of stimuli-responsive polymers for smart textile applications, April 2012, www.stacks.iop.org/SMS/21/053001 [14] http://www.oobject.com/best-interactive-clothes/shapememory-alloy-clothing/633/ [15] http://www.gradozero.eu/gzenew/index.php?pg=oricalco&la ng=en&PHPSESSID=b4bc2c61453a39fb00c0cf3e4d8fe222
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[16] http://www.yankodesign.com/2012/03/15/everything-butthe-kitchen-sink/ [17] http://makingtoys.net/2011/04/14/smas-researchapplications/ [18] http://www.yankodesign.com/2013/02/28/new-magicmouse/ [19] http://hellomaterialsblog.com/2013/04/18/damadeidesign-and-advanced-materials-as-a-driver-of-europeaninnovation/#more-3728 [20] http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/26/tech/mobile/firstbraille-smartphone/index.html
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Figures’ references
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p 44-47: fig 1-4 | http://www.liftarchitects.com/#/air-flower/ p 48-51: fig 5-9 | http://www.liftarchitects.com/#/air-flower/ p 52-55: fig 10-14 | http://www.iaacblog.com/maa2013-2014digital-matter-intelligent-constructions/2014/06/translatedgeometries-vol-2/ p 56-57: fig 15-18,20 | made by author fig 19 | Lignarolo L., Lelieveld C., Teuffel P., Shape morphing wind-responsive façade systems realized with smart materials, Delft University of Technology Institutional Repository, 2011 p 58: fig 21 | http://smartercities.wikispaces.com/ShapeMemory+Alloys p 59: fig 22 | http://www.news.gatech.edu/2012/02/09/modelanalyzes-shape-memory-alloys-use-earthquake-resistantstructures p 60: fig 23 | http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0141029605000052 p 61-63: fig 24-27 | http://www.philipbeesleyarchitect.com/ sculptures/0610implant_matrix/ p 64: fig 28-29 | https://www.pinterest.com/ pin/418342252856903702/ https://www.pinterest.com/pin/418342252856903705/p 15: http://designsociety.dk/2013/05/03/nickel-titanium-shapememory-alloy/ p 65: fig 30 | http://www.felt-atelier.com/-acoustic-panels--art. html p 66-69: fig 31-35 | http://www.reefseries.com/downloads/ Reef_Ley_Stein.pdf p 71: fig 36 | http://www.dezeen.com/2012/10/25/noumenon-bycarl-de-smet/p 72: fig 12 | made by author
p 73: fig 37 | http://www.fastcodesign.com/1672424/selfassembling-furniture-that-could-make-ikea-obsolete#1 p 75: fig 38 | made by author p 77: fig 39 | https://www.flickr.com/photos/ plusea/14928434925/in/photostream/ p 78-79: fig 40-41 | http://adam-wright.com/tag/husseinchalayan/ p 80: fig 42-43 | http://www.gradozero.eu/gzenew/index.php?p g=oricalco&lang=en&PHPSESSID=b4bc2c61453a39fb00c0cf3e4 d8fe222 p 81: fig 44 | http://www.yankodesign.com/2012/03/15/ everything-but-the-kitchen-sink/ p 82: fig 45-46 | http://makingtoys.net/2011/04/14/smasresearch-applications/ p 83: fig 47 | http://www.yankodesign.com/2013/02/28/newmagic-mouse/ p 83: fig 48 | http://hellomaterialsblog.com/2013/04/18/ damadei-design-and-advanced-materials-as-a-driver-ofeuropean-innovation/#more-3728 p 85: fig 49 | http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/26/tech/mobile/ first-braille-smartphone/index.html
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