Emu graduation thesis_Lin Wei Yun

An Interwoven Landscape Framework for a Reclaimed Former Sea Bed

“In considering the study of physical phenomena, not merely in its bearings on the material wants of life, but in its general influence on the intellectual advancement of mankind, we find its noblest and most important result to be a knowledge of the chain of connection, by which all natural forces are linked together, and made mutually dependent upon each other; and it is the perception of these relations that exalts our views and ennobles our enjoyments.”

— Alexander Humboldt, COSMOS: A Sketch of the Physical Description of the Universe, Vol. 1

HABITAT EMBROIDERY An Interwoven Landscape Framework for a Reclaimed Former Sea Bed

European Post Masters in Urbanism_ Strategies and Design for cities and territories

HABITAT EMBROIDERY: An interwoven landscape framework for a reclaimed former sea bed

Advisors Han Meyer Steffen Nijhuis Giambattista Zaccariotto

Student Lin Wei Yun June 2017

* Illustrations (maps, diagrams, figures, tables and visualizations) included in this thesis have been produced by the author, unless stated otherwise.

A preview of the landscape in Flevopolders

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would first like to thank my thesis advisors Prof. Han Meyer and Dr. Steffen Nijhuis from the Architecture and the Built Environment faculty at TU Delft for their guidance. I truly appreciate their effort to keep me always on the right track.

Every meeting is fruitful and inspiring, and I learned a lot through discussing and receiving reflection, which had made my way of thinking become more critical. Therefore I am more than grateful for having them as my mentors. In addition, I would also like to acknowledge my external advisor Giambattista Zaccariotto from IUAV for his suggestions.

I would also like to thank my family, friends and EMU colleagues for supporting me throughout my years of study. This accomplishment would not have been possible without them.

Special thanks to Krzysztof, for all his love and encouragement.

Thank you for always being there for me.

Finally, I would like to dedicate this thesis to Mother Nature.

Thank you for creating this beautiful world, and I sincerely hope to contribute my mite through this thesis to maintain this beauty.

CONTENTS

p.13

INTRODUCTION

1 Dredge for a needle in the sea 2 The border between nature and culture Natural / cultural landscape Habitat Sustainability 3 A vulnerable land

40

Problem #1: The loss of natural dynamics Problem #2: Urbanization in limited space Problem statement 4 Hypothesis 5 Objective & research questions 6 Relevance

p.53

METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

7 Theoretical background Landscape in urbanism Design with nature 8 Methodology 9 Design procedure

APPLICATION: p.65

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE

p.188

14 From artificial to semi-natural

10 Resources & Strategy Ecological system Urban system Operation: Habitat embroidery

98

15 Future uncertainties Uncertainty #1: Climate change Uncertainty #2: Urbanization

11 Design phase I: Ecological backbone Main structure Secondary structure 12 Design phase II: Multifunctionality Schemes Structure plan

130

Overall structural plan

Ecological structure

Ground level adjustment plan

Water management plan

Building density and typology plan

Development timeline 142

13 Case studies Almere Pampus Fluid zone Mosaic border

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION

16 Design phase III: Adaptivity 216

17 Design principles 18 Reflection Research by design Reflect on the objective Redefining nature

1 Location of the study area (False-colour image) Source: European space agency (ESA)

Amsterdam

Rotterdam

Flevopolders

ABSTRACT

The thesis aims to explore the possible spatial transformation and design principles for introducing a landscape infrastructure that could facilitate the establishment of a new relationship between human and nature.

Flevopolders in the IJsselmeer delta area is chosen as the site of study due to its unique natural and cultural settings, which represents a hard technology-based living environment that is dealing with its environmental vulnerability, the metropolitan pressure and the climate change uncertainty.

The application of landscape infrastructure is based on the concept of integrating natural and human habitats through biophysical forces to form an operative landscape structure. It is implemented through-scale under the guidance of two fundamental design principles, ground level adjustment and water level management. The overall operative structure consists of the prepared ground of the territory and a robust ecological backbone. It helps the territory to pick up the lost natural dynamics and habitat diversity, as well as to guide the cultural development in an ecological-based, multifunctional and adaptive way.

The notion of landscape infrastructure and its application transform the original landscapes in Flevopolders into an interwoven landscape that contains diverse and flexible interconnected spaces. It becomes the new framework that guides the future development of the territory, and reveals the optimal characteristics of a delta area.

Key words: Landscape infrastructure; Interwoven landscape framework

Habitat;

Multifunctionality;

2 Knardijk construction Source: Netherlands fotomuseum

12

INTRODUCTION

13

1 Dredge for a needle in the sea

As a foreigner, the Netherlands in my eyes is coloured with green and grey.

Green from the trees on the sidewalks, the canals, the well-organized parks, while grey from all the little details that enables the urban functions on this low and wet land.

As the saying goes, “God created the earth, but Dutch created the Netherlands.“ What could be experienced today in this territory is resulted from an enormous effort of fighting against the power of nature. This effort was therefore embedded and appreciated in the history, in the culture, and in the national spirit. From the outsider’s point of view, everything is advanced and functioning perfectly here, but if I may say so, it seems a little bit too perfect.

“What if the beginning of this perfection - the water drainage - would be stopped, what would happen then?“ This question opened up my imagination, and finally led me to the topic of this research. As I investigated further, I realized that the “perfection“ is not as perfect as it seems. In fact, the price behind this image is unable to value. The original landscape has been completely altered for the development of cultural environment, and the power of nature has also been diminished so dramatically to a point where survival is almost impossible without hard technology, especially for the vulnerable delta areas. And therefore the vicious cycle continues, which may bring undesirable consequences to the future taking into account the uncertainty of climate change.

What matters today is to change the way of living. Is there still a possibility for people to live with nature? Not just literally, but a harmonious relationship from the root, on this land where perfection is not perfect, where nature is not natural anymore? And what would “nature” mean in the future for this land? I hope to find out some possible answers to these questions.

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Even though the original natural landscape no longer exists, the power of nature remains. If this power could be used in a positive way, perhaps nature could be brought back in a new form. Perhaps in a form that could protect and support instead of harming the human culture.

To experiment on my imagination, I browsed through the satellite image of the Netherlands, searching for a test case. Turns out the Flevopolders caught my attention with its unique geographical settings. Located in the central part of the country, the polders connect in the north to the inner lake IJsselmeer and in the south to the forest on the main land, with a stripe of water body as border that separates itself from a direct attachment. While in the west - east direction, a constellation of urbanization is formed. As a result, Flevopolders becomes the intersection of two types of system development. (Fig. 4 & 5) After going in depth to understand its history of development and realizing that it is a reclaimed land from the former sea bed of Zuiderzee, with multiple environmental and urbanization issues due to landscape transformation, I acknowledged that the situation in this atypical delta area is more complicated and challenging than I had thought. However it is also a great opportunity to demonstrate the idea of my research topic, to show that even a piece of low land that is so easily flooded, that is still subsiding, that also needs to accommodate more residents in such circumstances, could still be guided and developed towards a human-nature equilibrium.

A habitat for both man and nature.

INTRODUCTION 15

3 The evolution of Zuiderzee environment Source: Sediment characteristics and late Holocene evolution of the IJsseldelta (The Netherlands)

1st century

16

10th century

13th century

15th century

17th century

INTRODUCTION 17

4 The impression of the unique surroundings of Flevopolders A vulnerable delta environment, that is extremely sensitive to the changes happening in all scales and in all aspects, but also represents a rich diversity of landscape in the territory derived from natural process.

5 Flevopolders: The intersection of urban constellation and open system corridor

18

20 km INTRODUCTION 19

2 The border between nature and culture

This section explains the definition of important terms that are frequently used in the thesis. Since these terms are also used in general with various implication from case to case, there is a need to clarify their meanings and usage. The terms include “natural landscape”, “cultural landscape”, “habitat” and “sustainability“. The clarification reflects on the ambiguous border between nature and culture in the overly transformed landscape, which eventually leads to the new definition of “nature“ after proposing the final design. (See chapter Conclusion & Discussion)

To start with, the origin of the term “landscape“ and its division should be understood. The division of image of land was firstly introduced by Alexander von Humboldt, a German naturalist in 19th century. He suggested that nature has a distinct feature from the human living environment. (Kwa, 2005) While the “landscape“ terms were developed by Otto Schlülter in the early 20th century, who divided the landscapes into two, the original landscape (Urlandschaft) and cultural landscape (Kulturlandschaft).

(Bharatdwaj, 2009)

The division indicates clearly that human culture has altered the original nature, and this trend has been continued until today towards an extreme especially in the Netherlands. Therefore it is necessary to redefine the boundary between natural and cultural landscape.

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Natural landscape

Cultural landscape

A process over time that forms an environment which is not engaged mainly in human economic activity.

A process over time that forms a built environment that provides the setting for human activity.

*Annotation* According to European Environmental Agency, since human have drastically transformed the physical space, the original “nature“ almost no longer exists. Therefore natural landscape could only be seen as degrees of naturalness within a landscape. (EEA, 1995) Even so, in order to distinguish the diverted cultural landscape feature from the uninhabited landscape feature, the term is still being used in the thesis.

*Annotation* UNESCO in 2012 defined the cultural landscape as “A landscape designed and created intentionally by man”, which could also be explained as a combination of natural material and the force of human culture, a “man’s record upon the landscape”. (Sauer, 1925) In this case, human’s management plays the dominant role rather than natural dynamics.

*Usage* The natural landscape in Flevopolders is created through human imprint on natural dynamics. For instance, the forests were planted according to the soil type, the selected species, the measured intervals, etc. (Provincie Flevoland, 1971) However nature played a role in the growth of the vegetation, which in some places resulted in an “accidental“ natural landscape, such as the nature reserve Oostvaardersplassen. (Fig. 6)

*Usage* In Flevopolders, the cultural landscape could be divided into 2 categories, built environment and agricultural fields. The former provides the space for living, working and recreation, etc., the latter dedicates to agricultural purposes such as crop cultivation, enclosure for livestock, etc. (Fig. 7) In both categories, natural elements could still be identified, such as urban greenery and agricultural grass.

6 Oostvaardersplassen aerial view

7 Agricultural field in Flevopolders

Author: Siebe Swart

Source: Alchetron. com

INTRODUCTION 21

Habitat

Sustainability

1. In general, a habitat refers to the environment in which it is natural for an organism to live and grow. (Oxford Dictionary, 2017)

A human – ecosystem equilibrium that improves the quality of human life while living within an adaptive supporting ecosystem that holds the ability to restore its natural dynamics in any condition.

2. Categories could be created according to the natural settings of habitat that support its own typical communities of flora and fauna to grow. (BBC, 2016)

*Annotation* Frequently the word is used specifically to indicate the environment for flora and fauna to live. However in this thesis the meaning also includes the environment for human to live, as a human habitat, such as urban and rural areas. *Usage* In Flevopolders, different types of habitats could be identified in both natural and cultural landscape, (Fig. 8) which are categorized below according to the chief environmental feature. These habitats are used in this thesis as key element to adjust the landscape structure in the territory, which will be explained in the chapter Application: Operative Landscape Structure.

Terrestrial habitat: Forest Grassland Urban area Rural area

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Freshwater habitat: Stream Pond Lake Wetland

*Annotation* The term sustainability covers a wide range of aspects, therefore in this thesis the focal point is set on the relationship between human and nature. The definition combines two sources. Shaker (2015) defined sustainability as a humanecosystem equilibrium , while in 1991 the document Caring for the Earth: A strategy for sustainable living published by IUCN, UNEP and WWF defined sustainability is something that improves “the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco-systems.� The concept resource conservation is included, while adaptivity is added in the final definition to emphasize the fact that the living environment needs to be able to deal with future uncertainties. *Usage* Sustainability is the objective of the design of this thesis.

See chapter Objective & research questions.

Natural landscape

Cultural landscape

Forest

Lake

Urban area Stream

Stream Grassland

Wetland

Grassland Pond

Rural area

8 The relationship between landscapes and habitats in Flevopolders *Similar habitats could be identified in both natural and cultural landscape, however the physical form and function are different. *Urban and rural areas are constructed with more than one type of habitats, however the collective habitats are designed to function together as one; in urban area to support human daily life, and in rural area to mainly produce food.

INTRODUCTION 23

3 A vulnerable land

To conduct the research in Flevopolders, firstly, main issues that need to be tackled with are identified, analysed and synthesized into a statement.

Two inter-connected common problems are identified in the delta areas in the Netherlands, including the loss of natural dynamics and the challenge of urbanization in a limited space, both have created significant spatial influences on the land. Likewise, Flevopolders falls into the same category, however its atypical environmental setting has increased the complexity of the problems. In addition, climate change has brought the risk of intensifying the negative spatial influences in the future.

Climate change

The loss of natural dynamics

Urbanization in limited space

9 Diagram showing the main problems

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3.1 Problem #1 The loss of natural dynamics The origin of this problem dates back to the beginning of the settlement in the Dutch deltas. The water-sensitive environment in these areas in the Netherlands has facilitated the cultural development to root on a collective yet intense infrastructural base. (Hooimeijer & Meyer & Nienhuis, 2009) Ever since the invention of dike took place in the Iron Age, human has learned to create a safer environment for agriculture and accommodation.

(Pleijster & Veeken, 2014) During these thousands years of continuous human settlement, the dynamics of delta had been treated as an enemy, while infrastructure such as dike, dam, ditch, windmill etc. has gradually taken over the water system.

Today, in these urbanized delta landscapes, the original flood plain had been transformed into cities, the courses of rivers had been altered, land has been subsiding due to groundwater extraction and pumping...These increased, intense urban land uses have resulted in the loss of capability of dealing with periodic flood with natural processes, and the loss of original abundant ecosystems. (Meyer, 2014; Meire, 2017) Pinning the problem to Flevopolders, a similar situation could be observed. Located in the former Southern Sea (Dutch: Zuiderzee), near the end of IJssel river, Flevopolders owns a distinct natural settings comparing to any typical deltaic landscape. It accommodated the sediments from IJssel river and sea currents from Zuiderzee, it was influenced by the enclosure of coastline through natural process, it layered up different types of soil, freshwater and salt water through time, (Fig. 11) and finally it was reclaimed as two adjacent polders in the 50s’ from the bottom of sea (which became IJsselmeer lake later) during the Zuiderzee Works (Dutch: Zuiderzeewerken).

(Provincie Flevoland, 1971) The Zuiderzee Works created the wondrous foundation for the development of Flevopolders through a series of infrastructure construction. (Fig. 12&13) However as previously described, these constructions work as a double-sided sword. In regional scale, the Afsluitdijk and Houtribdijk protect the inland from storms, but also have caused a drastic degradation in the natural habitat and biodiversity.

(Rijkswaterstaat, 2017; van Gogh, 2012) Inside the area of Flevopolders itself, the default ground level setting (3m to 6m below sea level) has increased the risk of being flooded greatly.

(Fig. 10 & 14) The dikes along the waterfront have attracted seepage into the polders. The water management system that composed of ditches, pumping stations, weirs, sluices, etc. has maintained the groundwater level in certain height for the availability of agriculture and urban development, but on the other hand the water drainage has caused land subsidence, (Fig. 15) making the polder even more vulnerable to potential flooding. Last but not the least, all these infrastructure require constant maintenance, reinforcement or upgrade, which not only means a large investment of public money but also an unsustainable way of dealing with problems in terms of resource consumption.

This temporarily safe but in fact living-on-the-edge delta landscape is also facing the uncertainty of global climate change, which is not a new issue at all but still, and will, play a significant role in the natural and cultural landscape worldwide.

For the Netherlands, it could mean more flooding due to sea level rise and the potential change of precipitation pattern, an increased soil and water salinization, drought in summer, changes in crop growing rhythm, even a potential increase in human diseases in the unknown future. (PBL, 2012) Therefore, besides the technical and temporary solutions, a change is essential in the underlying way of urbanization to ensure the safety and quality of living for a long term future. (Meyer, 2014)

seepage

10 Diagram of the relationship between Flevopolders and surroundings

INTRODUCTION 25

11 Soil deposit formation in Flevopolders Data source: Sediment characteristics and late Holocene evolution of the IJsseldelta

26

12 Intervention in Zuiderzee Works Source: Wikipedia, re-made by author

INTRODUCTION 27

1961

1956 Knardijk constructed

1957 East Flevopolder drained

1973

1967 South Flevopolder drained

1975 Houtribdijk constructed

1980 Establishment of Municipality of Lelystad

( Lelystad as the capital of Province of Flevoland )

28

1981

1989

1984 Establishment of Municipality of Almere

2012

2017 The largest artificial island in the world

13 Historical evolution of Flevopolders

( Almere as the biggest city in the province )

Source: Provincie Flevoland Wikipedia Landschapsbeheer Flevoland Rijkswaterstaat

INTRODUCTION 29

m

14 Current ground level Source: Provincie Flevoland

30

Land subsidence is a common natural process happening in the polders due to the oxidation of soil. (Provincie Flevoland, 1971) However intense groundwater extraction could drastically worsen the situation, especially in the low-lying polder areas. (Pellenbarg, 1997) It is clear from the map that a potential stress exists mainly in the south Flevopolder, which indicates a necessary precaution for future urbanization.

15 Potential land subsidence until 2030 Source: Provincie Flevoland, re-made by author

INTRODUCTION 31

3.2 Problem #2 Urbanization in limited space 3.2.1 Unsettled orientation of development As explained in the previous section, the landscape of Flevopolders has been transformed for cultural land use. The original purpose of reclaiming Flevopolders was to gain new land for agricultural production, (Van der Wal, 1997) and the agricultural characteristic has indeed remained until today.

Nevertheless, the size and location of its reclaimed territory, and its potential to react to the fast-growing Randstad region have turned the Flevopolders from merely a giant agricultural field into a place with great possibility of having an ideal living environment. (Meyer, 2017) Among, the capital - Lelystad initially was designed to be the main centre of the IJsselmeer region with a development orientation towards creating an inner connection with other cities / towns. (Van der Wal, 1997) (Fig. 17) However due to the fact that the Markerwaard polder left unconstructed, later on also the industrial area in Oostvaardersplassen, Lelystad lost its central position in the IJsselmeer region, and the city Almere in the west took the advantage of its geographical location and attracted more and more population around Amsterdam, and finally became the biggest city in the Province. (Meyer, 2017; Gemeente Lelystad, 2017) The trend of growth has continued throughout some 30 years, nowadays Almere accommodates more than 195,000 inhabitants from 153 different nationalities, (Gemeente Almere, 2017) while Lelystad and other urban areas remains a relatively small scale. (Fig.18 &19) Since the orientation of the urbanization in Flevopolders had change, a new strategy was supposed to be formed to guide the future development, especially for Almere city. It was a complicated task that involved 24 authorities and other institutes. (Thorgeirsdottir, 2010) During the process, two opinions were raised, one considered that Almere should be part of the Amsterdam periphery and be developed as whole, while the other suggested that the whole Flevopolders is an individual territory that should be developed with the other polders in IJsselmeer and remain more isolated from 32

Amsterdam. Currently the development tends to integrate with Amstedam, however Almere municipality would also like to develop a distinctive feature from Amsterdam. (Gemeente Almere, 2017) Overall, the role of the two major cities should be reconsidered together with the orientation of Flevopolders.

Agricultural landuse Buildings

Lelystad

Oostvaardersplassen

Almere

from Amsterdam. Cur with the other polders Flevopolders is an ind developed as whole, that Almere should be During the process, t 24 authorities and especially for Almere c was supposed to be f the urbanization in F a relatively small sca Almere, 2017) while L 195,000 inhabitants fr some 30 years, nowa Lelystad, 2017) The tr became the biggest ci more and more po took the advantage o position in the IJsselm industrial area in Oost Markerwaard polder (Van der Wal, 1997) (F towards creating an in centre of the IJsselme Among, the capital Lel

ideal living environme agricultural field into region have turned territory, and its poten (Fig. 16) Nevertheles agricultural characte land for agricultural original purpose of re Flevopolders has bee As explained in the

3.2.1 Unsettled orien

3.2 Problem #2 Urba

The un-reclaimed Markerwaard polder

16 Plan Lely and the current development of the Flevopolders Source: i0.wp.com / TOP10NL

The original plan was to reclaim the Markerwaard polder and to have Lelystad as the centre of the IJsselmeer region.

The orientation that promotes the integration of Almere and Amsterdam while leaving the rest of the Flevopolders as a relatively separated region.

The orientation that suggests Flevopolders to develop on its own and to have a different characteristic from Amsterdam.

The connection between the IJsselmeer cities is therefore enhanced.

17 Diagram representing the three orientation of the development of Flevopolders

18 Population distribution in the Flevopolders

rrently the development tends to integrate s in IJsselmeer and remain more isolated dividual territory that should be developed while the other suggested that the whole e part of the Amsterdam periphery and be two opinions were raised, one considered other institutes. (Thorgeirsdottir, 2010) city. It was a complicated task that involved formed to guide the future development, Flevopolders had change, a new strategy ale. (Fig.18 &19) Since the orientation of Lelystad and other urban areas remains rom 153 different nationalities, (Gemeente adays Almere accommodates more than rend of growth has continued throughout ity in the Province. (Meyer, 2017; Gemeente opulation from Amsterdam, and finally of its geographical location and attracted meer region, and the city Almere in the west tvaardersplassen, Lelystad lost its central was left unconstructed, later on also the Fig. 17) However due to the fact that the nner connection with other cities / towns. eer region with a development orientation lystad initially was designed to be the main

development of Flevopolders. should be reconsidered together with the orientation of the Almere, 2017) Overall, the roles of Lelystad and Almere to develop a distinctive feature from Amsterdam. (Gemeente with Amstedam, however Almere municipality would also like

Source: CBS

19 Population growth in Almere and Lelystad Data source: CBS (1960-2014) 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000

Lelystad

2014

2011

2008

2005

2002

1999

1996

1993

1990

1987

1984

1981

1978

1975

1972

1969

0 1966

anization in limited space

1963

ntation of development

1960

ent. (Meyer, 2017) a place with great possibility of having an the Flevopolders from merely a giant ntial to react to the fast-growing Randstad ss, the size and location of its reclaimed eristic has indeed remained until today. production, (Van der Wal, 1997) and the reclaiming Flevopolders was to gain new en transformed for cultural land use. The e previous section, the landscape of

Almere

INTRODUCTION 33

3.2.2 Pressure from MRA Binding with the issue of the orientation of development is the continuous urbanization pressure coming from the west. The fuel of the urbanization growth in Flevopolders comes from the most well-known and attractive city, Amsterdam. The city itself together with the 31 municipalities around has formed an informal metropolitan grouping, which today accommodates more than 2 millions of inhabitants. (CBS, 2016) According to the governmental population projection until 2025, this metropolitan area (Dutch: Metropoolregio Amsterdam, MRA) will keep growing in a fast pace. (PBL, 2011) (Fig. 22) As previously stated, the Flevopolders was assigned to the mission to reflect on the metropolitan growth in Amsterdam.

As a result, Almere city has planned to build another 60,000 housings to absorb the anticipated 160,000 new comers until 2040, (MRA & Gementee Almere, 2009) which is comparable to building a medium size Dutch city. While Lelystad will have a relatively small growth of 3000 housings, but the expansion plan of its airport (Finishing in 2019) will also bring new requirement for infrastructure and related facilities, and the link between Amsterdam, Almere and Lelystad will also be intensified.

(Lelystad Airport, 2017 & Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Milieu, 2013)(Fig. 23) To implement the housing projects, a landscape transformation is expected. The location of projects include both existing urban area and agricultural field, with the latter as designated area for large housing plan. In this sense, a large portion of agricultural landscape near the existing urban area would be gone or become fragmented, which may cause not only a less agro-production but also the loss of the original place identity.

Precautions had been taken in some planning cases, such as Oosterwold, the largest housing plan in Almere. Even though 15,000 housing will be built in the future, a certain proportion of land will be functioning as agricultural production to maintain the characteristic of the space. (Fig. 20) Nevertheless, an overall strategy for the landscape development of the whole Flevopolders is still lacking.

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20 Housing plan Oosterwold Source: MVRDV

22 Population growth projection (2010-2025)in the Netherlands 21 Housing plan in MRA until 2040

Source: PBL & CBS, 2011

Source: Metropoolregio Amsterdam

23 Planned urbanization growth in Flevopolders Source: Metropoolregio Amsterdam, re-made by author

INTRODUCTION 35

3.3 Overview: The change in the landscape in Flevopolders The problem of losing natural dynamics and the problem of urbanizing on a limited space, both are very much related to the transformation of landscape. This section sorts out the major landscape transformation that took place throughout the development of Flevopolders as an auxiliary of the understanding of spatial influences.

Image source and reference: LandschapsbeheerFlevoland, wikipedia, Alchetron.com, Framepool Stock Footage

The initial state of the reclaimed polders contains a saturated wet, muddy ground.

As the process of evaporation began to take place, pioneer plants covered several parts of the polders. Natural habitats started flourishing.

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Ditches were dug when the land is walkable. The ground was prepared to drain the water for agricultural production and housing.

Housing and facilities such as pumping station started to be introduced on the land for creating a habitat for human.

As the agriculture was developed, factories or other facilities were built to support the production. Photo shows a grass-drying factory for pasture function.

INTRODUCTION 37

In areas with sandy soil that is not suitable for agriculture, forests were designed and planted in a sophisticated way. A natural habitat with human imprint was formed.

Recreational areas were designed especially near the border lakes in order to provide a better living quality.

Among, camping sites are the most common recreational space.

Natural habitat sometimes formed accidentally, an example is the nature reserve Oostvaardersplassen.

However later on the area has started to be managed by man to maintain the space for birds to live.

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Agricultural field was designed with large plots for the convenience of machinery. It forms an monotonic scenery.

From settlement to town, from town to city. With the help of infrastructure, the human habitat has continued to upgrade.

The series of photos above shows that landscape transformation could be done as a result from single spatial intervention. But in a reverse way of thinking, it could also be used as an initiative to start a design process that joint multiple disciplines and multiple inter-connected spatial issues. This philosophy is carried out in the thesis to tackle with the problems, with its elaboration in the chapter Methodological Framework.

INTRODUCTION 39

3.4 Problem statement

The process of land reclamation and water drainage in the polders of IJsselmeer delta area have resulted in a vulnerable habitat in which natural dynamic is hardly able to perform and to develop on its own, which makes the land itself hard to adapt to environmental changes without the aid of hard technologies. Built on this setting, the territory of Flevopolders has been embroiled into dealing with the necessity for new urbanization on a spatially limited and environmentally degraded land, without a clear and coherent guidance for its own space neither towards its regional surroundings.

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4 Hypothesis

Suppose the natural and cultural landscape in Flevopolders would be partially redesigned and interwoven, as an infrastructure that incorporates the power of human technology and the power of nature; on one hand, to restore the natural dynamics, on the other hand, to support cultural development with ecosystem services. It might be suitable to be used as a framework for sustainable spatial development in delta areas in the future.

Such landscape infrastructure should contain 3 main features, a robust ecological backbone across the territory of Flevopolders, the capability of including multifunctionality to a certain extent, and the ability to adapt to all changes in the future.

→

24 Conceptual drawing of the hypothesis

INTRODUCTION 41

5 Objective & research questions

Objective:

To explore what spatial transformation would be required in Flevopolders to condition a sustainable landscape infrastructure that involves both natural and cultural processes, enhances ecological and social values, and adapts to changes.

* See the chapter Methodological Framework for the elaboration on how the theory of Landscape as infrastructure could be used in practice.

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Research questions:

Methods

1. What is the existing ecological system and social system in the natural and cultural landscape in Flevopolders?

Mapping

Literature review

2. What design principle could be introduced to create conditions for the formation of the landscape infrastructure?

Deductive reasoning Trial & Error

3. What is the overall spatial development framework for Flevopolders derived from the landscape infrastructure?

Site visit

Statistics 4. What are the ecological and social values that would possibly be generated from the landscape infrastructure?

Precedents

Transect 3. What spatial adjustment could be made for the landscape infrastructure to be adaptive to main future uncertainties?

(Climate change and intensity of urbanization)

Visionary images

Scenario

INTRODUCTION 43

6 Relevance

This section emphasizes the importance of conducting the research from three aspects, scientific relevance, societal relevance and environmental relevance. In parallel with these relevance is the alignment with two major academic research topic in the faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment in TU Delft, (1) the theme Delta Urbanism under the Urbanism Research Program, which focuses on developing new approaches to balance urbanisation, port development, agriculture, environmental and ecological qualities. (2) Two of the key issues in EMU program, including the Territories of Dispersion and Cultural Landscape. The former deals with extended use of territory, rethinking new ways of working and living, while the latter focuses on the concept of conservation through transformation, putting emphasis on the re-evaluation of heritage, resources and identity.

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6.1 Scientific relevance Land reclamation is not a particular type of construction that only happens in the Netherlands. On the contrary, it could be recognized in many countries around the world. However, there is no doubt that the Dutch owns the engineering expertise ahead of time thanks to its accumulated experience since 1609, when Beemster Polder started to be reclaimed. It “...marks a major step forward in the interrelationship between humankind and water...“ (UNESCO, 1999)(Fig. 25) “With great power comes great responsibility.” As the saying goes, the Netherlands has been collaborating with many countries to provide their experience and advices on land reclamation projects, mostly for port development. (Fig. 27) It is clear that the Dutch cases should not be just copied and transplanted to other areas. Nevertheless, even though being aware of the local environmental condition, the unpredictable future has created unexpected negative impact in several collaborated project sites, such as the erosion problem in Dubai Palm islands. (See section 6.1.1) Therefore it is necessary and ethical to recover the damage that had been done, and to prevent it from happening in the future.

By developing the research in this thesis, a showcase could be built not only for the country but for the world, to demonstrate that in such a place like Flevopolders could still be transformed and relink the harmonious relationship between human and nature.

25 Beemster polder Source: Made by Jan-Willem van Aalst

26 Landscape in Beemster Polder Author: Siebe Swart

INTRODUCTION 45

27 Countries with reclamation project that collaborates with the Netherlands Source: Dutchwatersector, sorted by author Image source: leosdunord.info dutchwatersector.com www.bothends.org SeaNews.Turekey.com

46

Punta Pacifica, Panama

Artificial islands, Jakarta

Port Saupe, Brazil

Port Bronka, Russia

Marginal da Corimba, Angola

INTRODUCTION 47

6.1.1 Reclamation projects

Dubai: Palm Jumeirah

There are mainly two types of reclamation: Infilling and draining.

(Lambi, 2001) The former involves in dredging activities, which is more common, while the other simply remove the water from a submerged wetland or lake / sea bed, (Fig. 28) polders belong to this category. Both process could generate various problems, few of them were already described in the previous problem analysis. This section presents two other reclamation projects to reveal the global importance of conducting research in this topic.

The construction process began in August 2001 with the help of Dutch experts. Several issue occurred after the reclamation, such as coast erosion and ecosystem destruction. First of all, since the natural pattern of the coast was disrupted by the shape of the islands, less sand could be transported and deposited on the natural beaches, which resulted in an acceleration of coastal erosion. Even though the breakwater was constructed to protect the islands, the sea current force is still a major problem. (Gibling, 2013) Secondly, the marine ecosystem has been altered due to the process of dredging, which buried the reefs and oyster bed with sediments, and further cause the breakdown of ecosystem. Salt flats in the region were also destroyed and led to great habitat loss.

29 The Palm Jumeirah Source: www.youtube.com

28 Two major reclamation method

48

China: South China Sea reclamation Even though there is no collaboration between the Netherlands and China regarding land reclamation so far, China already has many projects done based on its own effort. One of the most controversial projects is the large amount of small islands reclaimed from South China Sea, which is surrounded by many countries, such as Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines. The reclamation has brought up political issue due to the fact that China has been setting up military base on the reclaimed islands. (Cooper, 2016) Besides the political issue, the reclamation also caused major ecosystem destruction. Due to the fact that the reclaimed islands were formed directly on top of the coral reefs, the similar ecological issue as the Palm island occurred.

30 The South China Sea reclamation project and the formation process of one of the islands Source: Coral Reefs of the South China Sea – a Need for Action

INTRODUCTION 49

6.2 Societal relevance Due to the growing Amsterdam metropolitan pressure, more population will inhabit in the cities of Flevopolders in the future, which represents a social influence in terms of demographic change and the accompanied spatial demand, such as infrastructure, recreational spaces, public spaces, etc. While this research seeks to explore the possibility for the space in Flevopolders to adjust to these changes, and further to create a safe, multifunctional, high quality and adaptive living environment that is based on a new relationship between human and nature. This aim is much related to the enhancement of both physical environment and social values.

6.3 Environmental relevance This research tackles with environmental issues in both local scale and regional scale.

Locally, the research contributes to developing the means for the recovery of natural dynamics, which is important for the enhancement of the biodiversity and genetic diversity in the ecosystems. In addition, the natural dynamics are also leveraged to provide ecosystem services, which facilitates the improvement of land capacity and reduces the consumption of resources.

In the regional scale, the recovery of natural dynamics and the generation of ecosystem services would also benefit the IJsselmeer delta dynamic. Moreover, the establishment of development orientation of Flevopolders that would be proposed in the research would create significant future spatial influence in the country.

50

31 News relate to the plan of Oostvaardersplassen Source: https://www.omroepflevoland.nl The nature reserve Oostvaardersplassen that located in Flevopolders could be introduced as an example for both social and environmental relevance. A debate has been raised whether the nature reserve should include more recreational function or not, and how could a connection towards Veluwe be established.

These issues are addressed in the thesis along with the formation of the landscape infrastructure.

32 Relevance of the research in multiple scales

INTRODUCTION 51

33 Soil excavation in Flevopolders Source: Netherlands fotomuseum

52

METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

INTRODUCTION 53

7 Theoretical Background

Four key theories were selected from the body of knowledge to frame the scope of research, and to set the perspective and direction for final design proposals. They were categorized into two; Landscape Urbanism and Landscape Infrastructure focus on the role of landscape in a space, on how it could be used as an integrator for physical structure, function and values, while Design with Nature and Landscape Ecology focus on the relationship between man and nature, with landscape as a mediator to balance the development of culture and ecology.

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7.1 Landscape as integrator

7.1.2 Landscape infrastructure

Key author: Pierre Belanger, Steffen Nijhuis, Daniel Jauslin 7.1.1 Landscape urbanism

Key author: Charles Waldheim, Stan Allen, James Corner Landscape urbanism provides a way of reading urbanism through the lens of landscape. (Waldheim, 2016) It argues that by using landscape as a medium of design and intervention in the city, a horizontal integration in terms of social, ecological and economic performance in the city could be developed, which helps to generate a responsive and flexible structure.

In practice, criticism about Landscape urbanism pointed out that even though the words seem pretty, the projects derived from it often focuses on an aesthetic imagery or obscure description without truly integrating the ecological and social value in an urban system, especially the latter. (Talen, 2010; Thompson, 2012) Nevertheless, there are still successful project that revitalize an area, such as the theatre square in Rotterdam. (Fig.34) Reflection: The theory is integrated in the research as a foundation to perceive landscape as the carrying structure in the territory.

Taking into the account the criticism it received, the social system is considered as an important factor besides the ecological system.

Two literatures were included in this theme. On one hand, Landscape as Infrastructure reflects on the change of relationship between urban economy and environment, from separated to inseparable. Base on this notion, infrastructure is redefined from a traditionally hard technological system into a collective system of hard technology, biophysical resources, agents and services. (Belanger, 2013) Landscape is therefore seen as an infrastructure that serves as index and interface which could synthesize the disciplines involved in this collective system, and could guide the ecology in different context and scale towards future spatial development. On the other hand, Urban Landscape Infrastructures proposed a design concept to provide operative force for infrastructure as landscape. (Nijhuis & Jauslin, 2015) Through integrating landscape processes into physical space with a focal point on the interaction of the two, design could jump out of the box of an architectonic approach that focus on object itself or focusing only on the dynamic processes. Hence value and identity could be enhanced through a tangible relationship. The design concept took into account the space of flows that could be directed through the arrangement of space of places and generate qualities in various aspects.

The space of places thus should be formed into a robust and adaptive system which could maintain its characteristic while open to change.

Reflection: The notion of landscape as infrastructure is the main theory that supports this research. The perspective it holds is used to establish the hypothesis and the orientation for design proposals. In the design phases, by integrating the power of man and the power of nature, the physical structures, associated values and flows in the current landscapes in the territory will be spatially rearranged into an infrastructural system, that supports the dynamics of both natural and cultural landscape.

34 Schouwburgplein in Rotterdam Source: www.melk-nyc.com INTRODUCTION 55

7.2 Landscape as mediator 7.2.1 Design with nature

Key author: Ian McHarg Human culture, which further on led to the suggestion of urban environment should be built on the respect for nature. In this regard, the carrying capacity of the land should be analysed in prior to decide the intensity and structure of urbanization.

Factors like geological components, physiography, hydrology, plant associations, environmental issues, etc., would need to be taken into account to determine the land capacity. Values and suitable function of landscapes could therefore be identified next, and further contribute to the management of resources by designing strategies through a multi-disciplinary integration.

the shape, size, location...the physical conditions of each type of spatial pattern could influence the performance of ecosystem.

Accordingly, a set of design principles was proposed. Through designing a combination of various spatial patterns, the landscape mosaic could be arranged and managed in a way that contributes to the improvement of built and un-built environment.

Reflection: Landscape ecology is used as the main theory for designing the spatial pattern and habitat composition of the ecological structure, of the whole landscape infrastructure. (Fig. 35)

Reflection: The theory supports the importance of introducing a landscape framework in the territory, and the concept of understanding land capacity is especially essential to the vulnerable delta landscape. The theory also provides practical knowledge and examples for understanding the key elements that influence the dynamics of natural and urban landscape, as well as how to visualize the dynamics and analyse the compatible land-use.

However, reflecting on the stance of the theory which considers human and nature as opposing forces, the research focuses on altering this common notion by landscape operation instead.

35 Conceptual diagram of ecological structure in design proposal

7.2.2 Landscape ecology

Key author: Richard Forman The theory is built upon the understanding of landscape in reality consists of numerous fragmented habitats that formed naturally or culturally, as a mosaic across periods of time and scales of space. It focuses on the improvement of relationships between ecological processes in the environments by integrating structures, functions and dynamics. By decomposing the habitat structures in landscapes into spatial patterns, (patches, corridors, edges) it provides a clear way of understanding how 56

7.3 Other literature review Besides the key theories, other literature were also used as secondary guidance for exploring the performance of landscape in delta areas or in a territory in general, or as tools to facilitate the construction of design proposal. The table on the next page shows the how literature are integrated in this thesis according to their supportive theme in the design process.

INTRODUCTION 57

8 Methodology

This section elaborates on the system of methods used in this thesis to develop the analysis and design proposal that answer to the research questions. It also demonstrates the steps of translating theory into practice.

36 Methodology diagram

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Mapping One of the most typical and powerful method in the field of Urbanism. The traditional Dutch 3-layer mapping (natural landscape, infrastructure and inhabitation) was inherited in the research in 3 scales and 2 systems to decompose the spatial characteristics of the territory. (Fig. 37) 3 scales: Regional (Flevopolders and its surroundings), city and local (range from a number of communities to a district) 2 systems: Ecological system and social system.

Each system contains sub-layers of maps that could be superimposed freely to understand the relationship in between.

It also contributes to the design in the systematic way by indicating the potential area that could be influenced when an intervention would be introduced. For instance, when an urban wetland is introduced in a community, the flow of ecosystem would change, as well as the flow of water. The flow of people would possibly change too if the wetland includes recreational function.

Another important mapping method is aerial photo mapping. It compensates the missing data from GIS database, and provides extra detail of land use. For instance, underused grassland in the urban area could be identified through satellite image and street view but not in GIS. In the mapping of city scale and local scale, this method was widely used.

37 Three-layer mapping in Almere

INTRODUCTION 59

Literature Review A method to obtain secondary-sourced current knowledge and findings. Key theories and other literatures were studied, reflected and were used as tools throughout the whole research from setting up the theoretical framework to design proposals.

It provides a way to explore the possibility of the realization of landscape infrastructure in the territory of Flevopolders.

Deductive Reasoning “The process of reasoning from one or more statements to reach a logically certain conclusion.” (Sternberg, 2009) It was used in the process of forming design principles by directly drawing the conclusions and proposals for principles from the context. For instance, by understanding that in Flevopolders the groundwater level has been maintained at certain level since the beginning of reclamation, water level management logically became a fundamental design principle to change the condition of the ground.

Trial & Error A repeated process for examining the feasibility of proposed design principles in the study area. After the initial design principle was proposed through deductive reasoning, additional knowledge was obtained from literature, and went through the deductive reasoning again to verify if the condition of the site is suitable for developing the principle. If not, then the principle would be either discarded or adjusted accordingly. In the process of this method, extra understanding of the context could also be obtained. Figure 38 shows an example of the process loop of deducting the design principle of tree plantation.

Propose to plant trees to increase rain water infiltration and greenery

↓

Realizing that soil is already saturated and further infiltration is impossible, neither could trees grow

↓

Ground elevation should be firstly applied to plant trees

38 Example of developing a design principle through trial and error

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Scenarios Possible future in extreme situations that are driven by climate change and urbanization intensity was explored and used as a background for setting up strategies for the spatial development in the near future. The representation of 4 scenarios focuses on the spatial pattern and relationship between urbanization and ecological structure, which could be used to examine the adaptivity of design proposals, and adjust them accordingly.

Statistics Quantitative analysis were driven by the statistics and be done in 2 themes; demographic data, especially the total amount of population, indicates the possible trend of urbanization in the near future, while annual and daily precipitation pattern were calculated and used to test out the water storage capacity in the landscapes, which was determined by surface area, infiltration, interception percentage, depth of storage space, etc.

Transect A stack of cross-sections were drawn in 2 directions to represent the transformed landscape in the whole territory, in terms of ground level comparison and wet / dry areas.

Site visit Field work was done to (1) understand the accessibility of the nature reserve Oostvaardersplassen through taking public transportation and walking. (2) To have an insight into the natural landscape in Flevopolders. (3) To observe the spatial relationship between natural landscape and cultural landscape.

Precedents Several projects that had been implemented in reality were studied and presented as reference to support the conceptual development and feasibility of the design proposal in the case studies.

Visionary Image Collage and hand-drawn perspective images represent a possible future spatial transformation of the place, which involves the changes in ground condition, physical structure, function, overall scenery, ecosystem, cultural interaction and place identity. 3 cases were selected to develop the future image of the place. ( Almere Pampus, Fluid zone and Mosaic border) These images show the different spatial characteristics and qualities that could be derived from the landscape infrastructure.

INTRODUCTION 61

9 Design Procedure

62

INTRODUCTION 63

39 Ground improvement in Flevopolders, 1965 Source: Netherlands fotomuseum

64

APPLICATION: OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE

65

10 Resources & Strategy

The design of the landscape infrastructure is guided by a strategy that consists of three steps. (Fig. 40)

1. Define and analyse operative resources The landscape infrastructure aims to create an interwoven spatial relationship between human and nature, therefore the key factors in the ecological system and urban system are considered as the main operative resources. By analysing these resources, the first set of design principles was deducted.

2. Setting main operation The deducted design principles provided a hint to establish the main operation for designing the landscape infrastructure. The operation “habitat embroidery“ is composed under 2 fundamental design principles that could be leveraged to enhance ecological and social values.

3. Setting design phases Three design phases were proposed to determine the priority of local interventions. Among, forming an ecological structure that could recover natural dynamics was considered as of first importance, while other functions were added according to the designed ecological structure.

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1. Operative resources

2. Main operation: Habitat Embroidery

3. Design phases

Urban system

Ecological backbone

=

Ecological system Multifunctionality Ground level adjustment

+ Water level management

Adaptivity

40 Strategy of applying landscape infrastructure

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 67

10.1 Ecological system An ecological system consists of biotic and abiotic components.

In this section, the essential components that have direct relation with space - meaning soil and water - as well as the habitats that derived from them, and the ecological flow in the territory are analysed. (Fig. 41) Several design principles are generated through deductive reasoning at the end of analysis.

10.1.1 Soil Soil formation in the Flevopolders had been though a long and complicated development throughout history as introduced in the 2nd chapter. Influenced by the big environment of IJsselmeer, various deposits had been accommodated and layered, eventually formed the soil pattern today.

41 Ecological system analysis structure

The surface nowadays is covered by sea clay, while the edge around the polders contains a variety of soils. (Fig. 43) Based on the soil type, the function that could be applied on top and the vegetation species that could grow differ fundamentally. In areas with sandy soil, since agriculture could not benefit from the strong infiltration, woodlands were developed instead; while in the sea clay soil area where water and nutrients between layers underground are easily kept, agricultural function flourishes. (DuPont, 2012) (Fig. 42) Despite of the limitation added by soil type, knowing the characteristics of soil enables minor adjustment to be proposed for breaking through some limitations of functions.

For instance, in sea clay areas that are not suitable for trees to grow, ground elevation could be applied to provide trees enough air in the root zone.

2 design principles were deducted from the soil analysis: 1. Adjust ground level to achieve different function in an area.

2. Make use of soil type to design the vegetation growth.

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42 Characteristics of sand and clay particle Reference: http://extension.psu.edu/business/start-farming/

43 Soil type Source: Provincie Flevoland, re-made by author

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 69

10.1.2 Water Water, the source of life, facilitates the diversity of species and habitats. In the ecosystem of Flevopolders, water still plays this role, but in an artificial way. Therefore in order to understand the dynamic of water in the ecosystem here today, water management has to be understood. This section depicts the different types of waterbody that could be observed in Flevopolders, and their relationship with hard technology.

44 Diagrammatic section of waterbody in Flevopolders

Waterbody The general condition of water in Flevopolders has to be understood in two layers: surface and underground. (Fig. 44) Due to the landscape evolution in the IJsselmeer area, a layer of saline water had been developed under the ground of Flevopolders. After the Afsluitdijk was built, the sea quickly turned into freshwater lake with the infill of rainwater, the saline water underground has also been covered with freshwater, but with a heterogeneous pattern. As a result, in some areas a saline seepage would occur easily due to the fact that the saline water level underground is higher, and is easily drawn by the dug ditches, which often results in the formation of brackish water. (TNO, 2008) (Fig. 48& 49) Since the brackish water would significantly influence the growing of vegetation, freshwater is introduced to flush the ditches. (Rijskwaterstaat, 2011) On the surface, water could be identified in lakes, ponds and open ditches. (Fig. 45& 46) Since there is not yet an universal definition for a lake or a pond, the thesis borrowed the proposed definition from freshwater biologist. Overall, the closed waterbody that is located inside Flevopolders could be considered as pond for its shallow and static characteristics.

Rooted plants are able to penetrate the water surface, which often resulted in a wetland-like habitat. On the other hand, lakes, like IJsselmeer or the border lakes, are relatively deep and contain wave actions. Both lakes and ponds are important waterbody for natural landscape to develop.

Ditches, one of the most common spatial structure in Flevopolders, tend to facilitate agricultural production rather than ecosystem development. This simple-looking but in fact carefully-designed element plays an important role in water 70

Lake

Pond

Ditch

45 Image of surface water in Flevopolders Source: Google Maps

46 Water in Flevopolders Data source: TOP10NL

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 71

management, which has a crucial influence on ecosystem as well. Small ditches were placed in the field with measured depth and distance to maintain the water level in the parcel (Fig.46) for crops to grow, for houses to be built, for cows to graze on this saturated land. Therefore, ditches could become a tool to make a parcel wetter or dryer depending on the purpose. A wetter ground limits the function and types of vegetation that could be developed on the land, while a dryer ground has to take precautions for the possible subsidence due to oxidization.

Seepage The word itself means “The slow escape of a liquid or gas through porous material or small holes“ (Oxford, 2017) In Flevopolders, it is a steady, slow water movement that gradually goes through a permeable soil.

Two types of seepage could be discovered here, (Fig. 48 & 49) one that came from the salt water underneath the polders had been mentioned in the previous text, which could be found in quite a wide range of space in the territory. The other type of seepage came from the precipitation in the higher ground of Veluwe forest in the east. The rainwater infiltrates into the ground, after hundreds of years of gravity influence, it reaches the bottom of border lake and is prepared to be released.

However due to the pressure of water in the lake, the seepage cannot go through and continued to flow. When it finally reaches the other side of the dyke, the open ground allows it to release and accumulate in the Flevopolders. This process has started since the beginning of the reclamation of polder, and had as well been a problematic issue for the local farmers. (Olieman, 2011) This is part of the reasons why the border of the polder was designed as a recreational space instead of agricultural land. However this rare groundwater seepage contains special nutrient poor quality, which is unique for developing certain types of grassland that could be hardly found in the Netherlands. (Noordhoff, 2012; Bal, 1995) Therefore it could be used as a resource to restore the biodiversity.

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47 Principles of placing ditches

48 Diagrammatic section of seepage situation in Flevopolders

49 Seepage area in Flevopolders Source: Water atlas in the Netherlands

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 73

Overall water management

2 design principles were deducted from the water analysis:

In Flevopolders, the water system is managed by a series of hard technology infrastructures. (Fig. 50)

1. Adjust groundwater level through the distance, width and depth of ditches to achieve different function in an area.

1. Dykes not only separates the land from water, but also separates the two polders into individual water drainage units.

The drainage in each unit is decided also by its own local topography, but with the similar inclination from southern east part towards the Markermeer and IJsselmeer, which influences the water flow fundamentally.

2. Ditches were dug to guide the water to flow towards 4 pumping station that were located along the edge of polders.

3. Locks and weirs facilitate the change in direction and volume of water flow.

In order to ensure the various functions assigned to the land could work properly, such as housing and crop cultivation, water level was maintained in different height underground (desired water level / Dutch: gewenst peil ) according to the local condition of the land. However, since the intense groundwater extraction has lowered the ground level itself, especially in agricultural land, water level became relatively high, and therefore more drainage was required to lower the water level again. As a conclusion, a new water management should be proposed to stop the vicious cycle.

Knardijk

Lock

23 Images of Knardijk and Lock Source: Wikimedia / Omroep Flevoland.com

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2. Make use of the quality of groundwater seepage to recover special type of natural habitat.

level

50 Water management in Flevopolders Source: Waterstraatkaart, re-made by author

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 75

10.1.3 Natural habitat Natural habitat in this thesis refers to the environment that support the growth of its ecological associations. It is distinguished from human habitat in a narrow definition, but in a broader sense it could also be included. Urban greenery for instance, is a habitat for plants, insects, birds, etc. The space itself is not for human to live, but it is included in an urban area, where people inhabit and make use of its amenity. Agricultural land on the other hand, is mostly not considered as a natural habitat except for the agricultural grass patches because the environment does not support its ecological associations, but planted crops that would not grow on its own without human intervention. In this section, the formation, maintenance and spatial pattern of the natural habitats were discussed through the comparisons between the performance of habitats in natural dynamics (ecological succession and ecotone) and artificial management.

Ecological succession As noted before, the habitats in Flevopolders are categorized into two, terrestrial habitats and freshwater habitats. These habitats in theory should derive from the natural process of ecological succession, which represents a gradual change in species structure and population of a ecological community over time through colonization and extinction. (Bazzaz, 1979) For a just reclaimed wet area like Flevopolders, pioneer plants would take over first, forming a marsh landscape. Soon afterwards the soil would start to dry up, and a hydrosere would occur, (Fig. 52) and eventually the original wetlands would become forests.

(Offwell, 2007) However apparently that was not the case in Flevopolders. The reclaimed wet ground was transformed very quickly in most of the place into agricultural space before the succession had a chance to start. The few wetlands exist today are exceptions in which nature were preserved. They are valuable in terms of various ecosystem services and biodiversity. Part of the territory in Flevopolders together with the whole IJsselmeer waterbody are zoned under the European Commission program Natura 2000 for protecting bird habitats. For instance, 76

51 Natural habitats in Flevopolders Data source: Provincie Flevoland / TOP10NL Marker wadden

Oostvaardersplassen

Horsterwold

Veluwe

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 77

the nature reserve Oostvaardersplassen was planned as an industrial zone but the wetland naturalness it gained put forward the awareness and respect of ecosystem. (Hara & Nijhuis & Hooimeijer & Ryu & van Timmeren, 2014) Until today, the wetland is maintained by human through grazing the grass with herbivores to prevent the succession from transforming the wetland habitat into woodlands.

Ecotone The process of habitat change also happens in a range of space. A transition area could form between two habitats under natural dynamics. For instance, between a wetland and a forest, a wet to dry transition in soil moisture from open water to the land would eventually result in a gradient of zones of plant communities from reeds to grass to thickets and trees, leading the landscape towards diversified habitats. (Brownstein & Johns & Fletcher & Pritchard & Erskine, 2015) (Fig. 53) In the case of Flevopolders, most of the habitats were formed in a determined way. For example, forests were planted in areas not suitable for agriculture, while grasslands were designed for pasture, agriculture or urban greenery. The function-oriented landscape design has resulted in an ecological fragmentation in the territory. Most of the habitat patches do not have a chance to form an ecotone towards the surroundings due to the barrier created by cultural environment, (Fig. 51) which is a pity since the edge of habitat is an important space for enhancing biodiversity and ecological flow. (Forman, 1986) Fortunately, the awareness has been raised in recent years. For instance a connection is now being designed to link the forest Horsterwold, wetland Oostvaardersplassen and forest Veluwe for red deer migration.

52 Process of Hydrosere

Ecotone

Current landscape

2 design principles were deducted from the habitat analysis: 1. Make use of grazing or mowing to maintain or create certain habitats. (Design concept: Include multifunctionality into an action could enhance values in different aspects) 2. Ecological succession and ecotone could be initiated to recover / enhance natural dynamics.

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53 Comparison between natural habitat gradient and current landscape

Wetland Regulate water Regulate temparature Habitat for birds, fish, etc.

Recreation Swamp ragwort

Cane

Marsh cudweed

Marshelder

Beech

poplar

Fern

Moss

Deciduous forest Regulate water Regulate temparature Habitat for mammals Recreation Wood cultivation

Grassland Regulate water Soil purification Recreation

Native prairie grass 54 Pattern, function, scenery and key vegetation of main natural habitats www.kiwinurseries.com http://rslandscapedesign.blogspot.nl alfa-img.com Stojan Nejkov http://www.landstylist.com http://www.panoramio.com http://www.northcreeknurseries.com

Photo source: Cola en Pia, google map Google earth http://hans-hobbies.nl http://www.nhdfl.org http://www.natuurnieuwegein.nl http://www.buzzle.com prairienursery.com

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 79

10.1.4 Ecological flow

Habitat as corridor

Judging from the location of the habitats in Flevopolders, a tendency of fragmentation could be observed. To understand the connectivity and integrity of the habitats in the territory, ecological corridors that supports the movement of species were analysed. Three categories of corridors were identified:

A stripe of forest patch was planted on the edge of the eastern Flevopolder to provide recreational function. Part of the stripe created a continuous habitat for approximately 13km. Even though the stretch is not connecting to other habitats on the ends, it still forms a less-disturbed ecological environment.

The stripe could have been continued along the border lakes to towards the south, however, the recreational spaces such as theme parks and golf courses have interrupted the connection.

Linear corridor 1. Roadside greenery Two types of roadside greenery could be identified in Flevopolders. (Fig.55) The open roadside greenery provides a better perspective view for the users but is not as efficient in terms of supporting ecological flows. Closed roadside greenery performs the opposite, it provides a continuous, secure ecological environment for species to move. The multi-layer vegetation also enhance the biodiversity. This type of corridor could be found in along some major road connections between forest patches, however the structure remains rather open. It is also used as windbreaker. (Provincie Flevoland, 1971) 2. Open water channel Also functions as freshwater habitat.

1 design principle was deducted from the ecological flow analysis:

1. Make use of the existing corridors to form the landscape infrastructure.

Open roadside greenery

Stepping stones Clusters of stepping stones provides alternate route for ecological flow, at the same time maintaining an orientation for connection between big patches. (Forman, 1989) Two types of stepping stone exist in the current landscape.

Closed roadside greenery

1. Wetlands in all sizes have created an attractive habitat for birds. Once the new wetland archipelago Marker Wadden near Houtribdijk will be finished, the network of bird habitat will be reinforced. (Fig. 56) 2. A patchwork of agricultural grassland and small forest could be identified in the central part of Flevopolders, connecting the forest near Oostvaardersplassen and a wetland area next to border lake. The stepping stones has the potential to be designed into a continuous corridor that links Oostvaardersplassen and Horsterwold in the future.

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55 Comparison between open and closed roadside greenery

56 Ecological flow in Flevopolders

Marker Wadden is a wetland archipelago designed with the combination of technology and natural process. It aims to restore a bird habitat with natural water dynamics, (periodic fluctuation on the edges of islands) and to introduce more recreational activities in the IJsselmeer delta area.

57 Marker Wadden - A wetland archipelago Source: www.natuurmonumenten.nl OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 81

10.2 Urban system An urban system is defined and analysed in this thesis as a network of spaces and flows that facilitates the cultural experience. The topics of social interaction and the relationship between urban and natural landscape are especially put forward. It provides an insight into the relationship between space and function, as well as between human and nature in this territory. (Fig. 58) Lelystad as a mono-core city

Almere as a multi-core city

58 Urban system analysis structure

10.2.1 Urban space Urban space is roughly categorized here into residential space and social space. The former represents the types of neighbourhood and buildings that form the main urban fabric.

The latter focuses on the public spaces that could facilitate the social experience and the interaction with natural landscape or natural elements, which includes recreational areas, urban greenery and other public spaces.

Two scales are used to carry out the analysis, the regional scale demonstrates the general characteristics of the cities and the distribution of large recreational areas, while the others were analysed together based on 2 major cities: Almere and Lelystad.

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Residential Commercial Sport Office Educational Health Industrial Logistic Others

59 Building function and 1995 urban planning concept Data Source: BAG3D Image source: In Praise of Common Sense

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 83

Figure 59 shows the building function in the regional scale.

It is clear that most of the cities and towns in Flevopolders are residential-based, with industries on the border or in the outskirts. The only exception is Almere. Since it is designed as a multi-core city, some industrial areas are located on the edge of the core instead of the whole city. Comparing Almere and Lelystad, the fundamental urban planning has influenced its development. The multi-core plan of Almere has provided it the capacity to accommodate a lot more population.

Recreational area Especially refers to the spaces that were assigned with specific recreational function during the urban planning process of Flevopolders. As noted in the ecological system analysis, the landscape plan has led to the formation of forest patches on sandy soil, and these patches further became one of the main recreation area. (Fig. 60&61) As a result, a concentration of recreational space could be identified on the edge and near / inside the natural habitat of Flevopolders, with mainly nature reserve, camping site, golf course, beach and marina. (Fig. 62) It shows that a close relationship between human and nature is tend to be built by people through activities, and a multifunctional space is hence the platform to reinforce the relationship. (Fig. 63)

60 Landscape plan for east Flevopolders Source: Atlas voor Flevoland 1971

61 Recreational area plan for east Flevopolders Source: Atlas voor Flevoland 1971

84

21 Recreational 62 area Recreational in Flevopolders area Source: Made by author

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 85

86

Nature reserve - Oostvaardersplassen

Camping site

Source: Photo by author

Source: www.eurocampings.nl

Summer houses

Golf course

Source: Google maps

Source: http://www.golfadvisor.com

Theme park

Marina

Source: www.reddit.com

Source: www.bungalowexperts.nl

Fishing

Beach

Source: Google maps

Source: http://www.campingsprivesanitair.nl

63 Images of recreational areas

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 87

Lelystad Inhabited area: 37 km2 Population: 76,000 Status: The capital of Province Flevoland

The first inhabitants settled in 1967. The city was designed with ample greenery in and around the city, while 90% of the housing was built as single house with garden, aimed to create a optimal environment. (Brand & Merkelyn & Doesburg-Maas, 1988) (Fig. 68) As many studies have shown, living close to green environment is indeed helpful for enhancing physical and mental wellness. (Hough, 2013; Alcock, 2014; Bratman, 2015) In addition, it provides Lelystad a clean and healthy ground condition to maintain soil and water quality in a long term.

Even though Lelystad was developed before Almere, the scale of the city is much smaller. An organic street pattern was designed to have more cul-de-sac in the neighbourhood, which could potentially increase the social interaction, (Fig. 65) while the main social space in the city is located near train station in the central part of the city, where people go and do shopping.

Since the space in the city is quite occupied by housing and greenery, not so many big public squares could be developed.

Therefore the current development orientation of Lelystad is planned to enhance the connection to IJsselmeer, where more leisure activities could be added by designing waterfront and waterfront housing. (Gemeente Lelystad, 2017) (Fig. 67) The project Marker Wadden mentioned previously also contribute to the recreational purpose in the IJsselmeer and the link between Lelystad and water.

64 Housing with greenery 65 Cul-de-sac neighbourhood 66 Central square 67 waterfront of the city Source: Google Maps 88

68 Urban Greenery in Lelystad

69 Public spaces in Lelystad

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 89

70 The shift in neighbourhood design in Lelystad Source: In Praise of Common Sense 90

Row house

Apartment

Row house + storage

Single house + front / backyard

Row house + frontyard

Multi-family house + front / backyard

71 Main housing typology in Lelystad Source: Google Maps

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 91

Almere Inhabited area: 60 km2 Population: 196,000 Status: The biggest city of Province Flevoland

Almere is a city designed with 3 cores to accommodate the future population coming from Amsterdam region. The first developed core, Almere Haven in the south in 1975, (Fig. 78) has the similar urban fabric to Lelystad. “Cauliflower neighbourhood“ as they called it, interweaves urban greenery and housings with cul-de-sac to provide an attractive living environment with strong social contact. (Gemeente Almere, 2017) (Fig. 72) The cores developed later in the north adopted a modern style in terms of architecture and urban fabric. Urban greenery still exists but neighbourhoods with very few nature element could also be found easily. (Fig. 76) The spatial pattern of the social spaces in Almere is also similar to Lelystad. The main social space exists as a pedestrian shopping district near train station, while plenty of sport fields were allowed to develop in the farther areas thanks to the urban plan. However the large amount of reserved space for future urbanization also became an issue regarding the efficiency of land use. These spaces often became underused and mowed grasslands, which does not contribute to either social value or ecological value due to the lack of attractiveness and vegetation.

(Fig. 77) 3 design principles were deducted from the social space analysis:

1. For the newly developed urban areas, urban greenery should be developed first, and other cultural function later.

2. A strong connection should be established between city and surrounding natural landscape.

3. Underused grassland should be re-designed with multifunctionality.

72 Cauliflower neighbourhood 73 Housing without greenery 74 Main social space 75 Underused grassland Source: Google Maps

92

76 Urban Greenery in Almere

77 Public spaces in Almere

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 93

Urban cores in Almere 1 Almere Stad 2 Almere Buiten 3 Almere Haven

1

3

2

78 The urban cores in Almere Source: In Praise of Common Sense, sorted by author

94

Almere Stad

Almere Haven

Almere Buiten

Single house + open garden

Row house

Single house + small front / backyard

Row house + frontyard

Row house + frontyard

Row house

Modern apartment

Multi-family house

Row house

79 Main housing typology in urban cores in Almere Source: Google Maps

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 95

10.2.2 Urban flow Urban flow is defined in this thesis as the movement of people and their concentration, destination and purpose in relate to social interaction. Mobility and accessibility analysis were used as the two indicators that determine the direction and process of the flow towards social spaces. (Fig. 82) Mobility Mobility is analysed in the regional scale through main transportation infrastructure. In general, mobility is highest in between Almere and Lelystad, with a tendency to increase towards Dronten and farther to the east through railway. This connection will be even more intensified by the expansion plan of Lelystad airport.

Since there is no bus that directly leads to the nature reserve, and train station in Lelystad is way too far from the destination, the only logical way is to arrive at Almere Oostvaarders train station and starts walking. (Fig. 82 zoom-in area; Fig. 80) The route in between is around 1.8km long, which remains in a walkable distance. However only one route exists due to the fast traffic main road that lies in the middle. In the future an passage could be designed to increase the accessible links.

2 design principles were deducted from the social flow analysis: 1. Extra public transportation could be introduced to reach important social spaces if necessary.

2. Crossings could be added and linked to public transportation system to increase the accessibility of a social space.

Accessibility The accessibility of a space in general in Flevopolders is assessed through different transportation.

1. Vehicle: Almost all places are accessible by car in Flevopolders.

In fact, very often it is the only way to reach a destination in a short time since the service of public transportation system only covers a small part of the territory.

2. Bus: Only Almere has an inter-connection bus network, while the other areas are linked only with regional bus route. In certain spots bus connects directly to the camping sites.

80 Site visit record

3. Train: The only public transportation that connects Almere and Lelystad. It forms a physical barrier on the border of Oostvaardersplassen. (Fig. 81) 4. Bike: One of the most easiest way to travel in Flevopolders. A large area in the territory is covered by bike lane.

5. On foot: A person without private vehicle or a bike could only depend on public transportation system and walking, which is not easy to go around in Flevopolders.

A site visit was done by the author to gain the experience of reaching the tourist centres in Oostvaardersplassen by public transportation and on foot from both Lelystad and Almere.

96

81 Railway as physical barrier Source: www.jeroenoosterveld.nl

Dronten Lelystad

Oostvaardersplassen

Lelystad airport

Almere

Zeewolde Horsterwold

82 Mobility and accessibility in Flevopolders

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 97

10.3 Operation: Habitat embroidery The design principles concluded from the understanding of current situation of Flevopolders are the tools to transform the landscape. According to the hypothesis, by interweaving natural and human habitats in a sophisticated way, which takes into consideration of the function and connection in the space through-scale, these embroidered habitats could perform as a landscape infrastructure system that enhances ecological and social value. Therefore the design principles are categorized based on their subjects of influence. Among all the design principles, ground level management and groundwater level management are the two fundamental principles to prepare the ground for the proposed adjustment of function and connection. (Fig. 83)

Ground level management

Enhancing ecological value

→ Soil extraction

Groundwater level management

Ditch deepening

Ditch widening

83 First set of design principles

Plot rewetting 98

Enhancing social value

Make use of soil type to design the vegetation growth.

Make use of the quality of groundwater seepage to recover special type of natural habitat.

→

Make use of grazing or mowing to maintain or create certain habitats. (Design concept: Include multi-functionality into an action could enhance values in different aspects)

Ecological succession and ecotone could be initiated to recover / enhance natural dynamics.

→

Make use of the existing corridors to form the landscape infrastructure.

→

For the newly developed urban areas, urban greenery should be developed first, and other cultural function later.

A strong connection should be established between city and surrounding natural landscape.

→

Underused grassland should be re-designed with multifunctionality.

Extra public transportation could be introduced to reach important social spaces if necessary.

Crossings could be added and linked to public transportation system to increase the accessibility of a social space.

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 99

84 Conceptual representation of “Habitat Embroidery“

100

10.4 Setting design phases Three design phases were concluded through problem analysis, hypothesis and resource analysis. They are set to form the landscape infrastructure through conducting habitat embroidery.

Phase I: Ecological backbone Since a priority is to recover the lost natural dynamics in Flevopolders to recover land capacity, to conserve natural resources and to enhance ecosystem services, an ecological backbone across the territory is proposed to restore natural dynamics and to prepare suitable ground condition for future urbanization.

Ecological backbone

Phase II: Multifunctionality Cultural function is adjusted or added locally according to the structure and feature of ecological backbone. A variety of ecosystem-based living environment is proposed to make use of the ecosystem services. In addition, this variety characteristic also reinforces the identity of delta area.

Multifunctionality

Phase III: Adaptivity To ensure that the proposed cultural landscape structure could resist the impact resulted from climate change and the uncertainty of urbanization itself, the ecological backbone should be adjusted to at least reach a minimum requirement of safety, while spaces in the cultural landscape should also be adjusted to become more independent, self-sufficient and flexible.

Adaptivity

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 101

11 Design phase I: Ecological backbone

The first phase of constructing the landscape infrastructure is to form a robust ecological backbone that has the ability to regain natural dynamics in different habitats, and to form the spatial structures for current and new urbanization to follow in a long future.

The ecological backbone consists of two parts, the main structure which remains relatively segregated to the cultural landscape, with spatial transitions on the edges to ensure the quality of core natural habitat; while the secondary structure is interwoven with the cultural landscape, supporting and guiding the spatial development within.

102

11.1 Main structure

2. From Oostvaardersplassen to Horsterwold ( Wetland - forest ecotone )

Location-wise, three connections were proposed to form the main structure of ecological backbone:

1. From Oostvaardersplassen to Almere Pampus ( Wetland extension ) The wetland in Oostvaardersplassen is extended to the edge of Almere Pampus, a future urbanization area which has the potential to develop urban wetland systems.

A transition from wetland to forest is formed passing through the existing green patches in the middle, the connection provides a migration route for red deer living in the nature reserves.

3. From Horsterwold to Roggebotsebos ( Grassland mosaic ) A large area of habitat patchwork is established. Taking the advantage of the unique quality of freshwater seepage, the patchwork consists of large area of fenland and a mosaic of various grassland habitats, which enhances biodiversity and soil recovery.

Roggebotsebos

Oostvaardersplassen Horsterwold

Almere Pampus Urban wetland

Wetland patchwork Wet - Dry transition

85 Overview concept of main ecological structure

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 103

IJSSELME

86 Habitats of main ecological structure

1 Wetland extension

Marker Wadden

2 Wetland - forest ecotone 3 Grassland mosaic

MARKERMEER

1

2

IJMEER

104

EER

3

Function-wise, the main structure of ecological backbone focuses on recovering natural dynamics, conserving natural habitats to maintain biodiversity and forming a continuous landscape patchwork to maintain the quality of ecological function and flows. Available types of landscape were identified through the soil and water condition in the Flevopolders, (Bal & Hoogeveen, 1995) and designed in various plot sizes to achieve different spatial qualities.

The structure is introduced in several schemes from figure 89 to 99.

VELUWE

105

11.1.1 Water structure Water is the essential element for ecosystem to develop. In order to restore the natural dynamics, re-designing the current water system that could cooperate with the development of natural habitats is considered as the first step. The main methods include ditch-restructuring and water level management. (Fig. 90 & 91)Two sub-structures of open water courses are designed according to the local habitat restoration: (Fig. 89) 1. From Oostvaardersplassen to Horsterwold, open and meandering streams are designed on both sides of Knardijk by re-opening the underground ditches. These streams support the development of the ecotone transition between wetlands and forests. The meandering structure and the ponds along could effectively enhance the edge effect and biodiversity.

(Forman, 1989) 2. On the edge of east Flevopolders, ditches are also re-opened and led to several reservoirs in various sizes. These reservoirs serves the purpose of providing extra water storage in the areas where strong freshwater seepage occurs, and to support fenland and specific grassland habitat to grow.

1 design principles were deducted from the water management: 1. Make use of the existing ditch structure to create an open water structure suitable for ecological development.

88 Water management example: re-opening ditch, rewetting plot and wetland development

106

87 Process of re-opening a ditch

1 Meandering streams 2 Seepage reservoirs Besides raising groundwater level through ditches, soil extraction is also used in certain location to facilitate the formation of reservoir.

MARKERMEER

1

2

89 Water structure

Open water Freshwater seepage zone

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 107

-2

Desired water level (in meter) Areas with ground level lower than desired water level Division of higher and lower ground

108

90 Current desired water level

-2

Desired water level (in meter)

91 Water level management in ecological backbone

Division of higher and lower ground High water level (0-50cm freeboard zone) Mid water level (50-100cm freeboard zone) Low water level (>100cm freeboard zone)

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 109

11.1.2 Wetland structure According to ecological succession, wetland is the first stage of habitat that derives from open water. Being the base for the development of other habitats, it not only contains a high biodiversity but also provides numerous ecosystem services in multiple scales and aspects, such as flood control, climate regulation, freshwater supply, food supply, recreational area, etc.

(WRI, 2005) The existing wetlands are only located on the edge of Flevopolders in a very limited amount, with Oostvardersplassen among as the biggest and most important patch. Therefore new wetland patches are designed in other areas in the ecological backbone in order to bring back the ecological succession that supports the development of biodiversity and habitat diversity, and to make use of the ecosystem services.

→ 92 Wetland-Forest ecotone transition diagram

New wetland patches are introduced in mainly two areas: 1. In the ecotone transition zone between Oostvaardersplassen and Horsterwold, wetlands are designed on both sides of Knardijk to create a gradient towards the forests in the periphery. (Fig. 92 & 94) 2. In the seepage zone, the newly developed seepage reservoirs also function as the core areas for developing large area fenland to start the peat recovering process. The nutrient poor water quality provides a suitable environment for fenland to develop, (Joosten & Clarke, 2002) however due to the fact that the original agricultural land use in the past has already turned the soil into nutrient-rich by fertilizing, topsoil (0-25cm below ground) or together with subsoil (25-50cm below ground) is needed to be extracted for the nutrient poor water to be leveraged. (Dijk & Stroetenga & Bodegom & Aerts, 2007) The fenland has the potential to start the ecological succession of forming blanket peat or peat bogs, which eventually would add extra soil and elevation to the ground. (Fig. 93) The elevation process would take a long time with the average rate of 1mm / year (Keddy, 2010), nevertheless, the numerous environmental benefits that it could bring is invaluable.

110

93 Peat bog formation process (Ecological succession)

1 Tidal dynamic restoration 2 Ecotone transition 3 Peat restoration A large area of soil extraction is needed in the future fenland area since the

3

1

2

94 Wetland habitat

Open water Marsh Fenland Reeds Existing wetland

95 Section of fenland area

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 111

11.1.3 Grassland structure Grassland is one of the most common habitat that could be observed in Flevopolders. It is an important open habitat for insects, birds, small mammals and of course. There are many types of grassland that could grow in different types of soil and water condition. Overall, the nutrient condition in soil has the most significant influence. The more nutrient the ground condition is, the less biodiversity a grassland has, especially regarding flowers (Ash, 1992) A flowery grassland would attract more pollinators (butterflies, bees, etc.) to support reproduction, which is extremely important in the dynamic of an ecosystem. Meanwhile, a flowery grassland also provide ecosystem services such as increasing pollination in agricultural field, aesthetics value, etc. In general, agricultural production and grazing would rise the amount of nutrient in the soil. Surprisingly, in a long-grazed, mowed grassland, if the nutrient in the soil stays poor, an extremely high biodiversity could be found. (National Geographic News, 2012) Nevertheless, in Flevopolders the soil nutrient is generally high because of the fertilizer used in agricultural production and intensive grazing, which resulted in a monotonic grassland habitat. Therefore in order to increase the diversity of grassland habitat, removing soil nutrient is an essential task. Two areas are designed with new grassland habitat: (Fig. 96) 1. In the ecotone transition, some grassland already exist as stepping stone corridor. The corridor is extended towards Horsterwold, to continue the species movement and to cooperate with the ecological succession together with wetlands and forests.

2. In the seepage zone, the nutrient-poor water benefits the growth of flowery meadow and wet grassland besides fenland.

(Bal, 1995) Among, wet grassland (Dutch: Nat schraalgrasland ) has been considered as a rare and protected habitat in the Netherlands with certain plant community that is called as “blue grass�. (Everts & Grootjans, 2007) This type of habitat contains a water-logged environment, which could form a smooth transition towards fenland. In the ecological 112

backbone, a mosaic of grasslands is designed in the seepage zone to recover the valuable habitats. The patchwork feature contributes to the diversity and dynamics of ecosystem more than a monotonic habitat development. The size and shape of the existing plots of agricultural field (500m x 200m) are used as the basic unit to create the mosaic for the convenience of management, smaller parcel could be divided to increase the variety. The high biodiversity could contribute to the pleasure of experiencing a landscape and human well-being. (Dallimer, 2012) (Fig. 97) Another function of the grassland mosaic is to form a transition between natural landscape in the inner part and agricultural landscape on the other side, as well as a buffer from high to low water level. Therefore this zone becomes important in terms of function gradient and storing excess rainwater. A mosaic of grasslands and pasture land is developed as a buffer of the functions, while ditches in the transition zone are widened to provide storage for precipitation.

Finally, to initiate and maintain the grassland mosaic, mowing or extensive grazing should be applied with different frequency according to the grassland type. Local farmers are assigned with the responsibility, and in exchange government should provide educational opportunity to help the farmers to set up local tourism agriculture. The concept will be elaborated in the next chapter.

1 Grazing in Oostvaardersplassen 2 Ecotone transition 3 Grassland mosaic 4 Grassland - Agricultural field transition

4

1 2

3

96 Grassland habitat

Grassland Flowery meadow Wet grassland Existing grassland Transition zone

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 113

Fenland

Flowery meadow

Seepage reservoir

Wet grassland

Ordinary meadow

114

Reeds

Flowery meadow

97 Visionary image of grassland mosaic

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 115

11.1.4 Forest structure In the chapter Resource & Strategy the structure of forest habitat had already been analysed. It was concluded that some of the existing forest patches are fragmented and interrupted by other land use such as agriculture and recreation. In the formation process of ecological backbone, the fragmentation is compensated by the development of other types of habitats, including wetlands and grasslands. New forest plantation is located in the ecotone area near Knardijk, where red deers are require to migrate during the winter from Oostvaardersplassen to Horsterwold, and father to Veluwe and Germany. Since red deer has the nature to stay in the edge of the forest and requires the ecotone from forest to grassland (Forestry Commission, 2017) the existing landscape that is composed of grassland, agricultural field and a small forest patch does not provide a secure enough environment for the deers. Therefore several small forest patches are planted nearby with one extended directly to Horsterwold, in between grasslands facilitates the formation of ecotone. However, since the clay soil in Flevopolders are relatively saturated, ground elevation would need to be implemented first in the area for trees to grow.

1 design principles were deducted from the forest habitat design: 1. Ground elevation is needed in general in Flevopolders to enable tree plantation.

98 Images of Horsterwold Source: www.staatsbosbeheer.nl / www.hetgroenebos.nl / http://www.ookflevoland.nl

See chapter Design phase III: Adaptivity

116

1 Stepping stones in the ecotone 2 Horsterwold 3 Stepping stones on the border

3 1

VELUWE 2

Forest

99 Forest habitat

Existing forest

100 Oostvaardersplassen to Horsterwold ecotone section

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 117

11.2 Secondary structure Branching from the main ecological structure are the green corridors and smaller patches that supports the ecological flows (Fig. 102) and fundamental ecosystem services in the cultural landscape, such as wind-breaking, air and water purification, recreational activities, etc. The structure is also used as a guidance for future urban development, and help to form transitions from natural landscape to cultural landscape.

Even though the water courses are separated by the Knardijk in the middle, the ecological function could continue across the dyke through some designed corridors. (Fig. 101) 1 design principles was deducted from the secondary ecological backbone structure: 1. Corridors could be form to guide the ecological function to cross physical barrier.

101 Secondary ecological structure

118

102 Secondary ecological structure

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 119

12 Design phase II: Multifunctionality

The ecological backbone provides the basic structure for future cultural development to follow. In the limited space of Flevopolders, multifunctional land-use is necessary to enhance the efficiency, variety and sustainability of living environment. (Kato & Ahern, 2009) The territory is divided into several main sections depending on the location, relationship with the ecological structure and future function, each section has its own spatial characteristics that reveals specific ecological and social values.

120

12.1 Development schemes for urbanization and agriculture This section explains the overall development orientation of Flevopolders and several basic concepts for including multifunctionality based on the structure of ecological backbone.

Reflecting on the struggle of development orientation noted in the problem analysis, (Fig.17) a proposal is made to emphasize on an even development across the territory.

(Fig. 103) Considering the demand and potential of the natural and cultural landscape, the orientation should not be confined on any certain direction, but take advantage of the strategic “intersection� setting of Flevopolders to enhance the connections to the surroundings.; West to Amsterdam through the Almere-IJburg link, east to the growing city Zwolle, north to the IJsselmeer region, and south to the Veluwe open area. ( Also see Fig. 151 on page 187)

The underlying concept of the inner development of Flevopolders is the division of the two polders. Spatially they are already divided by the Knardijk. However considering the formation of ecological backbone and the metropolitan pressure coming from the west, two polders are assigned with different roles.

(Fig. 104) Southern Flevopolder: The population growth in Amsterdam Metropolitan Area has been pressuring the spaces around Almere. To accommodate the urgent development, the polder is allowed for a relatively intense urbanization comparing to the East Flevopolder. Nevertheless, the original agriculture feature should still remain and be integrated into the new urbanization with the ecological structure.

Eastern Flevopolder: Since the urbanization would be concentrated in the Southern Flevopolder, the space would be remained for mainly agricultural and natural landscape. The polder could be also considered as a reserved urbanization area in case of extreme need for urban development in the future.

Eastern Flevopolder IJsselmeer

Amsterdam - IJburg

Zwolle

Southern Flevopolder Veluwe

103 Proposed orientation of development

104 Fundamental characteristic of the two polders

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 121

12.1.1 Urban development Four potential urbanization are developed in different areas with distinctive characteristics according to their relationship with the ecological backbone.

122

105 Development scheme for urbanization

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 123

12.1.2 Agriculture development The space for agriculture in Flevopolders will be occupied by the development of ecological backbone and urbanization. Therefore in order to maintain the agro-productivity at a certain level, new types of agriculture are introduced in certain areas to correspond with the ecological backbone and urbanization scheme.

In Almere Pampus and Almere Hout, the concentration areas of future urban development, urban agriculture is promoted in order to keep the original identity and to enhance the multifunctionality of the land. The new developed urban area could also be seen as a experimental space for various types of urban agriculture, such as rooftop agriculture, community agricultural garden, etc.

124

From the water analysis, several places were identified to have very thin freeboard zone, which is not suitable for either agriculture or urban function. Hence these areas together with the future rewetting fluid zone are designed to experiment on the development of agriculture based on wetland. This type of agriculture would not depend on water drainage so much, and therefore could contribute to the regain of natural dynamics.

On the border of grassland mosaic, extensive grazing is allowed to maintain the agriculture on one hand, on the other to make use of the grazing to prevent the ecological succession to happen in grassland.

Therefore the grassland mosaic is able to be managed in a nutrient poor ground condition.

106 Development scheme for agriculture

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 125

12.1.3 Transect of the territory The combination of the characteristics of the new urbanization and the ecological backbone has resulted in the decision of overall ground preparation. As described in the design of ecological backbone, part of soil would be extracted from creating grassland habitat mosaic in the eastern Flevopolder. The soil would be then transported and reused for ground elevation in several areas. On the other hand, some part of the territory would be applied with ground-rewetting operation to create more water storage.

126

Existing elevation New elevation Ground-rewetting Dyke Dune

107 Sections representing the elevated ground and wet area

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 127

12.2 Structure plan

12.2.2 Water management

The structure plan indicates the specific operation proposed for specific area. (Fig. 108) It represents how the cultural function could be added into a space by following or blending into the firstly developed ecological structure. Overall, the future urbanization is concentrated in the southern Flevopolder, while the eastern Flevopolder keeps its agriculture characteristics.

The ecological backbone in the middle serves as a landscape connector that integrates the cultural development and facilitates the natural dynamics to restore. Under the guidance of this structure plan, Flevopolders is able to cultivate various living environments with different characteristics, which demonstrates the diversity a delta area contains.

One of the fundamental design principle is to set up the ground condition by deciding the groundwater level. The water level management along with the establishment for extra water storage form the new water system in Flevopolders that could help the living environments to tackle with the water issue in the future in a long term. The water level is maintained in three ranges according to the measurement of freeboard zone, which is the unsaturated underground area in between the groundwater table and the ground surface. The bigger the freeboard zone is, the dryer the soil is. (Fig. 111)

The plan is decomposed into four layers for further elaboration, including the ground level adjustment, water management, the ecological backbone and its social value and the building density and typology which is influenced by the ground condition.

12.2.1 Ground level adjustment Part of the ground in the territory is either elevated or degraded according to different purpose. In general, the edge of eastern Flevopolder would be largely excavated to maintain a poor nutrient soil quality. The soil would then be transported to Almere Pampus, Almere Hout and between Dronten and the grassland mosaic for elevation. These elevated areas represents the potential future urbanization that would firstly take place. In the Fluid zone, both elevation and degradation would be applied but with no definite form. It requires the collaboration between municipality and future inhabitants to decide the optimal form of ground condition. That is, in this zone the ground remains flexible and owns the capacity to adjust quickly to the changes, while the inhabitants also have the freedom of choice to realize their desired living environment. (Fig. 109)

128

1. Small freeboard zone: (0~50cm) Water level is relatively high and the soil is wet. Both sides of the ecotone area (Fluid zone) and the area of grassland mosaic are designed to have high water level to develop wetland / wet grassland that could support the ecosystem. The fluid zone also represents as a transition area between the natural landscape (Ecotone) and the cultural landscape (Almere Hout).

2. Mid freeboard zone: This range covers a large portion of land in east Flevopolder. It provides a safe zone for the agricultural crops to grow.

3. Large freeboard zone: The area represents a low water level, which could result from a sandy soil or an elevated ground. The existing forest area, existing urban areas and the newly elevated reserved space for urban development in Almere Pampus, Almere Hout and between Dronten and the grassland mosaic belong to this category. In these areas, land subsidence could still be a risk for the future, but to an extent.

Extra water storage is established in three ways. The wetlands are blended in the urbanization development as a respond to the ecological backbone, the individual water storage is assigned to the new housing and promoted in the existing housing, finally the ditch widening program is realized in the border of grassland mosaic to accommodate excess rainwater storage.

12.2.3 Ecological backbone

12.2.4 Building density and typology

In the previous chapter, the composition of the structure of ecological backbone had already been elaborated. These embroidered habitats themselves, however, contains more than just the function of guiding spatial development and ecological functions. Fig. 112 represents the related activities that could be developed in site to enhance social value. It is an important aspect to be discussed in regards of multifunctionality since the future population would require various options for recreation, while the designed landscape has a great potential to contribute to this aspect by allowing experience in its diversity.

Experiencing the landscape not only could strengthen the link between human and nature, but it is also educational.

Based on the area characteristics and the designed water management, the new cultural development includes different degrees of building density and building typology. In general, the newly urbanized areas have less density comparing to the existing ones. Among, a gradient of density is designed from ecological backbone to its periphery, from low to high to maintain the quality of ecosystem. (Fig. 113)

The type and degree of recreation is decided according to the feature and sensitivity of the habitats.

1. Wetland: In general wetlands are dynamic and sensitive areas that require conservation. However minimal recreation function could be included in a way that would not disturb the ecosystem, such as bird-watching. Several areas are also open to strolling and guided tour.

2. Forest: Forests are usually accessible with planned routes.

Hiking and camping in certain sites are very popular activities.

Three types of housing could be identified in the future development. Traditional type of building could be found in the existing urban areas and the high density new urbanization in Almere Pampus and Almere Hout, amphibious building is designed in the areas which require urban function on a ground with high water level, such as fluid zone. These type of housing has the ability to adjust to water fluctuation, or to even form an interlocking urbanization model to adjust to different situation.

Finally, ephemeral and recyclable building is assigned to the development in the border of the polders. These buildings are suitable to provide temporary function such as camping, green house or summer house. The material of the buildings are designed to be recyclable for other purposes or could be even directly reusable for the reinforcement of the dyke nearby.

3. Ecotone area: Since the habitats in the ecotone is very important for the restoration of natural dynamics, only a few routes is open to public, with Knardijk as the main path.

Crossings are made for the pedestrians and animals to be able to cross on both sides.

4. Grassland: Among all the grasslands, the wet grassland and its surroundings are remained relatively segregated, only strolling on a certain path would be allowed for the sake of conservation. Nevertheless, a big part of the rest is still open to public for strolling, picnic, camping, etc.

5. Water: The relationship between the land and water is reinforced by the recreational spaces such as marina and beaches. A cross-dyke design principle is developed to enhance the accessibility to the water. (See case study: Mosaic border) OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 129

Combining 108 Overall the ecological structural plan backbone with the concept of multifunctionality, a structure plan is proposed to indicate the future landscape in the Flevopolders. The ecological backbone is designed as an infrastructure that integrates the landscape process into local spatial development, and in a large scale guide the overall developmetn of the polders.

130

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 131

109 Ground level adjustment plan

132

Average water level

High water level

Low water level

Average ground level

Elevated ground level

Degraded ground level

110 Ground level / water level combination and suitable elements

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 133

111 Water management plan

134

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 135

112 Ecological backbone and related activities

136

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 137

113 Building density and typology plan

138

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 139

12.3 Development timeline

140

The timeline indicates the priority of the operations to construct the interwoven landscape framework, and the responsibility of stakeholders. All in all, the structure plan is proposed by the province, and ground preparation, the most fundamental task, initiates the collaboration between municipality, inhabitants and NGOs. Meanwhile, the preparation of developing urbanization starts, including involving public participation and developing ecological structure as bases. Unlike urbanization, the growth of ecosystems is a lot slower. Therefore in order to balance the urgency of urbanization and the slow growth of ecosystems, area that is allowed to contain higher building density and less greenery could be firstly developed. In Flevopolders it would be Almere Hout.

NGOs: *NCEA - Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment *ECNC - European Centre for Nature Conservation *DWARS - de GroenLinkse jongerenorganisatie

114 Timeline of suggesting landscape development priority and accountability

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 141

13 Case studies

Three areas were selected for demonstrating the possible realization of structure plan and for visualizing the future images. These areas include (Fig. 115)

1. Almere Pampus 2. A section of Fluid zone 3. A small section of the grassland mosaic (Named as Mosaic Border)

The zoom-in areas represent how the landscape infrastructure could guide the development of other functions, in a way that knits nature and culture into an interwoven, multifunctional landscape. These cases are also compared to Amsterdam and IJburg, which provides an overview on the different living environment that could be developed under different ground condition, and the potential diversity that could be found in the delta area.

142

115 Three case studies and their geographical relation with Amsterdam and IJburg

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 143

Overview Three areas are selected for detail zoom-in design, including Almere Pampus, a part of Fluid zone, and a small section of the border development. In figure 116 the main design principle between these zoom-in areas are compared along with Amsterdam and IJburg.

The fundamental way of treating the ground and water level has significant influence on the future development of the land.

Both Amsterdam and IJburg were designed with an elevation of

116 The ground and water level comparison between the zoom-in areas

Current ground level

Original water level

Original ground level

Proposed water level

Proposed ground level

144

ground level that allows a more stable urbanization comparing to the Flevopolders, which are suffering from more and more serious of land subsidence due to intensive pumping. In these potential or already subsided areas such as Almere Pampus and Fluid zone, ground elevation or ground rewetting is proposed to either provide a safer living environment or to create extra water storage with natural landscape development. While in area that is relatively safe, like the border in eastern Flevopolder, certain spots could also be developed with higher water level and higher biodiversity.

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 145

13.1 Almere Pampus

The wetland near Oostvaardersplassen is extended into the Almere Pampus area and farther across the lake IJmeer to reach IJburg in the west. A wetland necklace is therefore formed in the route to perform as natural habitats, extra water storage for the future urbanization and the reserved space for possible urban development.

IJmeer

IJburg

146

Almere Stad

Almere Poort

117 Wetland necklace concept for the transformation of Almere Pampus

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 147

13.1.1 Surroundings in Almere Pampus Almere Pampus is located in the northern west corner of the south Flevopolder. It is surrounded by lake IJmeer, Almere city centre and planted woodlands, with a small connection to the wetland in the east near Oostvaardersplassen. The area remained half agriculture and half woodland due to the development history of the Flevopolders, (Fig. 70) which originally was oriented towards Lelystad. However the importance of Almere has increased overtime, and the urgency of absorbing metropolitan pressure from Amsterdam in recent years has made the area even more focused. Almere Pampus therefore, with its unique geographic location, becomes a strategic spot for future urbanization and for creating a direct link to the west.

50% Agriculture

50% Woodland

2

4 3 1

118 Satellite image of Almere Pampus Source: Google map (Numbers indicate photos on the next page)

148

1 Border between Almere Pampus and Almere centre

2

Agriculture ďŹ eld

3 Scenery from Oostvaardersdijk

4 Path to woodland

119 Typical scenery in Almere Pampus Source: Google map

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 149

Original plots

13.1.2 Concept for transformation Three main concepts were proposed for the development of this district:

Replotted: Smaller parcel for urban development

1. Ground preparation: (Fig. 120) The ground should be rearranged through replotting, redirecting ditches and elevating the ground partially to ensure a safe living environment by providing ecosystem services. The size of original plots should be decreased for the suitability of residential development, the measurement should be made according to the size of parcel in Almere centre to maintain a similar characteristic.

2. Several zones with different orientation were designed. (Fig. 122) 3. Connection towards IJburg should be considered. (Fig. 124)

The main urbanized area

Housing concentrated on higher ground

Original water system

High ground

Low ground

New water system: Integrate small wetlands

120 Ground preparation

150

121 Structure plan of Almere Pampus

Connection to IJburg

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 151

122 Concept for zoning

152

123 Conceptual drawing

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 153

13.1.3 Implemented principles Spatial characteristics are designed in different zones according to the spatial features, function and surroundings. According to this, various principles are implemented.

General principles: 1. Housing should be developed mostly on elevated ground.

2. Rain water runoff should be collected by housing and community wetlands.

3. Organic agriculture should be promoted to decrease the usage of fertilizer.

4. Thick edges should be constructed along forest areas.

Spatial openings: 1. Wetland-based, low density development 2. Recreational / educational function should be included in the wetland area.

Agro-based areas: 1. Non-elevated area: allow bigger agricultural plots 2. Elevated area: develop slope agriculture

1

2

Agro-based area Larger size agricultural plot Community agriculture IJmeer

Urban wetland 154

Core: 1. In general: Allow taller buildings and denser road network.

Concentrate around 70% of housing in the whole district.

Green corridors should be formed along water courses.

2

1

2. Elevated area: Central wetland should be proposed to collect runoff.

Slope could be used for agricultural function with trees to support the soil.

3. Urban agriculture could be experimented in this area.

3

Woodland-based area: 1. Non-elevated area: Emphasize the connection to adjacent woodland.

Low density development.

Enhance the linkage to Markermeer.

1

2

2. Elevated area: The shape of elevated ground could be used to form passage for small mammals.

Core Woodland-based area

Natural wetland

Community wetland

Animal passage

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 155

124 The “wetland necklace“ - Bird-eye view of IJmeer

156

The connection between Almere Pampus and IJburg is proposed as a “wetland necklace“. A direct road would be built, and the structure also facilitate the accumulation of sand, which gradually would generate islands of wetland.

Channels are kept open in between the wetland patches to ensure the boat and water connection. The wetland patches supports the ecological development and also serve as a reserved development area for the future.

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 157

13.2 Fluid zone

The Fluid zone assumes the responsibility of forming a transition from natural landscape (ecological backbone) to cultural landscape (urbanized area). A large part of land is therefore rewetted to form a patchwork of wetlands that supports ecological function and water storage. While the urban and agricultural functions are blended in the patchwork with special typology.

158

Oostvaardersplassen

125 Wetland patchwork concept for the transformation of Fluid zone Horsterwold OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 159

1

2

13.2.1 Surroundings in Fluid zone The fluid zone serves as a transition space from ecological backbone to urbanized areas. The original landuse in the areas is mainly agriculture with low density farmhouses located as clusters in certain alignment. The mechanization of agriculture has formed a monotonic landscape.

3

The selected section for zoom-in is attached to the ecotone of the ecological backbone, and also connects almost directly to Oostvaardersplassen to Horsterwold. This section is important to be explored since it is the first contact between the new ecological structure with cultural landscape.

126 Satellite image of Fluid zone Source: Google map

160

1 Border between natural landscape and agriculture ďŹ eld

2 Typical farmhouse cluster

127 Scenery in Fluid zone

3 Intersection of main roads

Source: Google map

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 161

13.2.2 Concept of transformation To form the transition, the original spatial structures (plot, ditch, road, green corridor) and the border of proposed ecological backbone were used as main guidelines for new development, (Fig. 128) while the farmhouse clusters were assigned as the “base“ for new neighbourhoods to form.

Three design concepts were introduced in the fluid zone: 1. A patchwork of wetland, urban and agriculture should be formed in a certain proportion (30%, 20%, 50%) through groundrewetting.

2. Plots with farmhouses are assigned as the bases for urbanization.

3. New housing should locate according to the existing structure, either on the base or along the roads and green corridors to prevent from the fragmentation of landscape.

129 Expected formation of Fluid zone

162

30% Wetland 20% Urban 50% Agriculture

Proposed green corridors Elaboration of the ecological backbone border Urbanization base

128 Design concept

The ground preparation of fluid zone focuses on rewetting part of the plots and form an interconnected wetland system that could help with water storage. (Fig. 130) The existing ditches were partially reopened to the surface, linking small parcels of ponds that were formed by removing soil on top and drainage underground. The new overall structure could be seen as an irregular but quite evenly distributed water storage system. As a result, the water level of the land within the zone is relatively high but with less risk of future land subsidence.

Plots

Since the high water level would limit the chance to integrate ordinary urban function and agricultural function, specific housing typology and agriculture model that could adjust themselves to the situation should be proposed. The detail design in the next section shows some possibilities.

Original water system

New water system: Integrate small wetlands

130 Ground preparation

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 163

The southern part of the district is even more zoomed in to demonstrate the possible corresponding structure plan of the local area. (Fig. 131) In general as described in the principle, a large part of the original ground is rewetted and transformed into wetlands, while small parcels of the land that scatter in the territory are elevated in order to allow small patches of woodland to grow. Since there is no definite size for the designed wetlands, the communities should be responsible

131 Structure plan of Fluid zone (Not a definitive form of the local structure)

High ground

Low ground

164

for providing enough space for urban wetland to develop, and these small urban wetlands could be connected through ditch systems to the bigger regional wetlands that could be used as reservoirs. Based on the new water systems, the new housing and agricultural function could be added with specific typology to adjust to the wet environment.

52 Conceptual drawing

132 Visionary image of Fluid zone

Source: Made by author

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 165

13.2.3 Detail design: The urbanization base An aggregation of farmhouses that consists of four plots is a typical agricultural scenery in Flevopolders. (Fig. 133) A standard plot (around 70m x 100~120m) usually contains one to three large buildings for agro-production usage with the rest of space as grass land. (Fig. 134) However the same size of plot could approximately accommodate 30 typical single Dutch residential house plus open space. That is, a farmhouse aggregation that consists of four standard plots could accommodate more than 100 housing. As a result, these plots have the potential for the need of future development.

A farmhouse aggregation transformation is designed to show the possible future image in detail. The transformation includes the change of buildings, the rewetting operation of the open spaces, and to include new function besides the existing residential and agricultural function. (Fig. 136)

133 Farmhouse aggregation Source: Google map

134 Standard farmhouse plot

135 Original composition of the farmhouse aggregation

166

Structure plan

Wetland reservoir

Single house neighbourhood

Agriculture centre + Bike station

Apartment

1 3

Floating house

Water square

2

Forest 136 Detail plan and structure plan (The numbers indicate the visionary images on the following page)

The detail plan demonstrates the various type of spaces that could be formed in an urbanization base. It only represents a possibility instead of a definite form, all the elements that are available to be used could provide the inhabitants the freedom to realize their optimal living environment, figure 140 shows some possible element options. With the freedom of choice, the landscape of Fluid zone would contain a high diversity.

Multifunctionaligy is realized in the plan through interweaving natural habitat, agriculture, residential function and public spaces. (Fig. 138) Among, wetland habitat plays the dominant role that guides the space and flow of the area. (Fig. 141)

137 Transforming traditional farmhouse to floating houses

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 167

Overview

Connection Navigable route Pedestrian path Bicycle lane Road

Freshwater habitat Open water

Forest / Woodland / Hedge

Marsh

Grassland

Ditch 168

Terrestrial habitat

138 Program and habitats in Fluid zone

1

2

3

Agriculture centre + bike station

Floating house + wetland agriculture

Water square

139 Visionary images of Fluid zone

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 169

140 Some available elements to construct the Fluid zone

170

13.2.4 Detail design: The Neighbourhood-scale living machine Wetland is the most important element in Fluid zone. It maintains the health of environment as well as providing other ecosystem services. Considering the fact that the Fluid zone is transformed from an agricultural field that has been mechanized for many years, fertilizers and other chemicals had been used for crop cultivation. It resulted in the degradation of soil and water quality. On the other hand, urbanization that is planned to take place would also produce large amount of grey water that needs to be treated. Therefore in order to maintain the environmental quality, the concept of living machine (John Todd, 1976) is adopted for water treatment.

A living machine is a series of constructed wetland (or its miniature) that could filter the water step by step by flowing through different wetland settings, including abiotic and biotic elements. The concept is generally used in a small scale such

as a building, however the idea is enlarged and experimented in the neighbourhood scale of Fluid zone.

The living machine in the detail plan is constructed in four levels. The water flows from south to north, passing several residential and agricultural areas. The grey water is accumulated by the water flow, reaching different wetlands and finally enter the wetland reservoir. Since the detail plan is only a small part of the overall fluid zone, which means the pattern of living machine would cover the whole Fluid zone, water that generates from down streams still have a chance to flow through the wetland filter. Nevertheless, the grey water could not be fully cleaned just by flowing through the wetland, an external water treatment is still necessary.

1 design principle was formed in the case study: 1. Constructed wetland could be connected to form a series of water filter system.

Vegetations

Ficinia nodosa

Acorus calamus

Butomus umbellatus

Nuphar lutea

Nymphoides Hydrocharis peltata morsus-ranae

Lemna trisulca

E. perfoliatus.

Polygonum hydropiper

Animals

Bivalves

Algivorous fish Zooplankton

Rotifers

Insect larvae

141 Vegetation and animals suitable for living machine. (Clay soil)

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 171

Grassland

Floating house + Wetland filter 2 Grey water

Small woodland patch on elevated ground

172

Wetland filter 4. (Reservoir)

Water square

Grey water Extra water storage

Agriculture Wetland filter 3

142 Section of Fluid zone and the neighbourhood living machine

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 173

13.3 Mosaic border

The freshwater seepage from Veluwe provides special condition for the border of east Flevopolder to develop certain types of grassland landscape.

A grassland mosaic is therefore designed to conserve biodiversity. As part of the multifunctional scheme of “border development“, the zoom-in area demonstrates how the border of the grassland mosaic could develop recreational function towards ecological backbone and border lakes, as well as maintaining part of the original agricultural function.

174

Veluwemeer

143 Grassland extension concept for the transformation of Mosaic border

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 175

13.3.1 Surroundings in Mosaic border The site consists of mainly two types of landuse, approximately half as golf course and the other half as pasture land. (Fig. 144) Two sides of the site are surrounded by cultivated woodland and another with border lake, which makes the area relatively closed. The infrastructure such as main roads and ditches also limited the access into the area. Nevertheless, the pocket-shaped land provides a space for enhancing potential recreational activities in the border of polder.

2

1

3

144 Satellite image of Mosaic border Source: Google map 176

1 Golf course

2 The edge of golf course

3 Dyke as a passage and an edge of landscape

145 Scenery in Mosaic border Source: Google map

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 177

13.3.2 Concept of transformation The site is relatively small and simple comparing to the other two cases. Minimal interventions are proposed: 1. The recovery of rare grassland landscape is integrated in the original landuse.

2. Temporary recreational structures / houses are introduced.

3. A connection towards border lake is developed by creating wetland outside the polder with physical connection to cross the dyke.

146 Original plan of zoom-in area

178

147 Structure plan in Mosaic border

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 179

Golf course as conservation area

The design integrates the golf course as part of the wet grassland and flowery meadow landscape recovery space.

Since golf course has been considered also an important place to conserve biodiversity, (Gange & Lindsay & Schofield, 2003) the topography and water structure inside has the potential to be managed by the club into a natural conservation space with recreational function. (Fig. 148) The function of grazing is still kept by maintaining ordinary grassland. However the grazing should be limited in an extensive way in order not to fertilize the soil. The grassland could also accommodate temporary, recyclable facilities for recreational purposes such as camping or small greenhouse farming as habit. This type of facility is designed to be quickly built and dismantled, with materials that could be instantly reused in dyke reinforcement or other purpose.

The site is extended towards border lake through guiding the grassland habitat to grow across the dyke with the support of slope. Moreover, on the other side of the dyke, a wetland is formed through sand accumulation, as an ecotone that derives from grassland to the sea. To increase the accessibility , minimal interventions of pedestrian crossings are designed to avoid the fast traffic on the dyke. (Fig. 149) The management of grassland lies on the golf club and the farmers. Wetland outside the dyke is formed by constructing structures that accumulate sand on the edge. The same design principle could be seen in many places in Flevopolders.

1 design principle was formed in the case study: 1. Cyclable facilities could be designed to facilitate temporary function and contribute to resource preservation.

2. Sand-accumulation could be applied to form extension ecological structure towards the sea.

180

Cyclable house *Reference project: H+N+S adaptive dyke

Extensive grazing

Sand- accumulation

2 1

148 New plan of zoom-in area (The numbers indicate the visionary images on p.181)

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 181

150 Visionary image of possible transformation

1 Grasslands and recreational function Cyclable camping / holiday house

149 Design concept of dyke transformation in stages

2 Extanding accessibility towards water

Grass slope passage Extensive pasture Extensive pasture

182

Flowery meadow

Extensive pasture

r

Stairs to wetland Pedestrian gridge + Scenic overlook

Slope to wetland Wetland

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 183

13.4 Second set of design principles Several design principles are formed in the process of introducing multifunctionality in the terrotory:

→

Make use of the existing ditch structure to create an open water structure suitable for ecological development.

Ground elevation is needed in general in Flevopolders to enable tree plantation.

Corridors could be form to guide the ecological function to cross physical barrier.

New housing should be developed mostly on elevated ground.

Rain water runoff should be collected by housing and community wetlands.

184

Organic agriculture should be promoted to decrease the usage of fertilizer.

Thick edges should be constructed along forest areas.

The shape of elevated ground could be used to form passage for small mammals.

Recreational / educational function should be included in the wetland area.

Constructed wetland could be connected to form a series of water filter system.

Sand-accumulation could be applied to form extension ecological structure towards the sea.

Cyclable facilities could be designed to facilitate temporary function and contribute to resource preservation.

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 185

Railway Ecological connection Main future urbanization Ecological backbone

186

151 Overall transformation of Flevopolders: Flevopolders as the regional connector of ecological system and urban system

OPERATIVE LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 187

152 Seeding preparation in Flevopolders Source: Netherlands fotomuseum

188

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION

189

14 From artificial to semi-natural (Concluding the main story)

Flevopolders, a territory that reveals its fundamental characteristics in the name - a reclaimed land from the ancient lake Flevo - has been understood as a thriving territory that possesses abundant natural and cultural resources, but also as a vulnerable and artificial territory that has been struggling among the urbanization pressure from Amsterdam and the force of climate change. It is a land where real nature no longer exists, but the all-over human imprint has kept degrading the quality of the land.

Being squeezed in all sorts of elements and influences from big and small environments, the territory is looking for a chance to re-organise its spatial resources, and further to use them to re-establish the connection between nature and human, as well as to re-orientate its development towards the unknown future.

The theory of landscape infrastructure brought a new perspective regarding the issue, and further facilitated the initiation of the design process. Through designing an operative landscape structure that brings together the power of hard technology and the power of natural process, a biophysical system that aids the restoration of natural dynamics across the territory is formed.

Eventually water could run freely, wetland could start to grow, deers would be able to migrate‌ This ecological development not only is important to the health of Earth but also plays an important role in human cultural through providing ecosystem services. The ecological structure protects the cultural environment from flooding, it provides high quality water and soil, it also serves aesthetic and recreational purposes‌ In other words, the relationship between man and nature is strengthened through performing synergies.

The proposal of spatial transformation provides Flevopolders a new way of thriving. A way that is fundamentally respecting nature, supporting culture, and leads to sustainability. This biggest artificial island in the world, is turning into a semi-natural habitat, for both nature and human.

190

153 Relationship between man and nature (water as a medium)

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 191

15 Future Uncertainties

Despite that the designed landscape infrastructure has generated new types of urbanization that based on ecosystems, it is still unsure that whether the structure could sustain all the potential future conditions.

Reflecting on the two main problems in the delta areas, urbanization and climate change, the landscape framework needs to be able to adjust itself to these uncertainties. Therefore scenario construction is used to explore the extreme situations that may be generated under the two main driving forces, and could further on be used to decide the overall strategy for the near future.

Intense urbanization

Moderate climate change

Extreme climate change

Shrinking urbanization

192

15.1 Uncertainty #1: Climate change Climate change due to urbanization and industrialization has been a global main issue for decades. Because of the serious environmental impact it brings or it may bring, cities nowadays are trying to reduce and prevent the negative effects that result from urban development. Thus strategies that could help the urban areas - existing or newly developed ones - to weather the potential impact, have become extra crucial.

In the context of the Netherlands, possible impacts regarding climate change had been identified by the government. (Fig. 154) Among, water-related issue is obviously a significant topic. It reflects once again on the long history of developing on a vulnerable low land, and the necessity to recover the natural dynamics. Therefore, the spatial challenges that water may bring in the future is chosen as the focal point of framing climate change to Flevopolders. The challenges include sea level rise and the change of precipitation pattern.

154 Possible climate change in the Netherlands (1900-2100) Source: The effects of climate change in the Netherlands, PBL

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 193

15.1.1 Sea level rise Global sea level has been rising over the past century due to global warming, and a tendency of rate increasing has been identified in recent decades. (NOAA, 2016) (Fig. 155) The rising sea level not only creates higher risk in terms of flooding from storm surge (Fig.156) but also levels up the difficulty to drain the water from inland to the sea or lake. According to the Dutch Delta programme commissioner (2016), the drainage from IJsselmeer to Wadden Sea has already become difficult, combining with the fact that sudden heavy rainfall might cause the IJmeer to discharge high volume of rainwater into the lake, it would create a dangerous situation for the delta area.

Strategies have been proposed to deal with the extreme weather situation, including new water level management plan for IJsselmeer and the reinforcement of the major flood defense such as Afsluitdijk and Houtribdijk. Locally in the IJsseldelta, ground elevation, room for river and dyking have been proposed to ensure the safety of living environment. Even though there is no direct strategy for Flevopolders so far, the changes in its surroundings would already generate positive influence for the territory. Nevertheless, considering the safety of inland and the fact that the territory is as low as the bottom of the former sea, it is still necessary to propose local spatial adjustment to prevent future negative consequences.

Since the design of landscape infrastructure has created a more adaptive inland condition comparing to the original landscape, therefore regarding sea level rise, the focus of spatial adjustment would be related to dyke reinforcement.

(See chapter Design phase III: Adaptivity, section 16.1) Taking into account the importance of restoring natural dynamics and multifunctionality, the dyke could be transformed into a multifunctional structure that help to defend the flood and meanwhile increases ecological and social values. The on-going pilot project in Houtribdijk is a good example that demonstrate the multifuncionality. Sand is accumulated around the dyke and forms a natural reinforcement while providing space for recreation and ecosystem development. (Fig. 157) 194

155 Global average absolute sea level change (1880-2014) Source: EPA

156 Diagram of storm surge influence Source: USC

157 Pilot project in Houtribdijk Source: Ecoshape.com

15.1.2 The changing precipitation pattern One of the most significant influence brought by climate change is the change of precipitation pattern, which has a tendency to increase in general and also in terms of intensity. (PBL, 2012) (Fig. 159) A higher amount of total rainfall would rise the groundwater level in a region, while a sudden heavy rain shower could bring serious water drainage flooding locally. (Fig. 158) For Flevopolders, the increasing rainfall would bring significant influence to the available landuse. Since the majority of the ground is suffering from soil subsidence already, the rise in water level would create a very difficult situation for crops to grow or for buildings to be constructed. This issue was tackled by the designed landscape infrastructure through water level management, ground level adjustment and new programming.

Nevertheless, whether the design could sustain the future precipitation pattern is unsure. Therefore a simulation should be applied to demonstrate the water capacity of the landscape infrastructure. (See chapter Design phase III: Adaptivity, section 16.2) Extreme situation is considered as the base of simulation and the base for further design adjustment in order to ensure that the landscape infrastructure could support the territory in all condition.

158 Trend of increasing precipitation in the Netherlands Source: KNMI

159 Frequency of water drainage floods Source: PBL

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 195

15.2 Uncertainty #2: Urbanization Currently the population in Flevopolders is increasing, so is the urbanization. However in the unknown future, this process could slow down, halt, or even reverse. It is a matter of quantity, density and speed. To discuss the issue, the range needs to be determined. Scenarios made from government is taken as a reference, and the year 2050 and 2100 is set as the time frame.

Considering the fact that the current strategy of the cities in Flevopolders is already planning for 2040, the scenario here would consider the year 2100 as the target.

According to the published report Verkenning actualiteit Deltascenario’s (Deltares & KNMI & PBL, 2016), in an extreme population growth scenario, the current 17 millions of population would reach 24 millions, which is some 40% growth.

While in the extreme shrinking scenario, the population would decrease until around 12 millions, which is around 29% less.

If the same trend would be applied to Flevopolders, a range from 235,000 to 464,000 of population could be expected. (Fig. 161)There are many other demographic factors that should be considered to form a complete scenario, including age, ethnics, etc. However the focus of the scenario here is related to the distrubution of future population and its relationship with the ecological backbone, and finally relate to the uncertainty of climate change. Therefore the main factors considered here is the total quantity, the quantity and type of required housing, and the location of distribution.

160 Population growth x Temperature change scenario Source: Verkenning actualiteit Deltascenario’s

464,000

332,000 (Current) 235,000

161 Comparison between the current population and the expected growth / shrinkage in 2100

196

16 Design phase III: Adaptivity

The landscape infrastructure is adjusted according to the two major uncertainties. Design proposals are made for each uncertainty and eventually merged together to generate the final structure.

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 197

16.1 Adaptivity I: Dyke transformation Two types of natural dyke reinforcement is tested in Flevopolders. The site include Oostvaardersplassen and the Southern-east edge of the polders. In Oostvaardersplassen, the wetland habitat is separated from lake Markermeer by the dyke. As a result, there is no water fluctuation inside, which is against the natural dynamics of a wetland. Therefore, a dyke replacement design could be introduced to transform the original dyke into sand dune, which is beneficial for the wetland ecology and also serves the purpose of flood prevention.

On the edge of the polders, physical structures are extended from the dyke to accumulate sand. This intervention has already been introduced in the third case study. Several small beaches could already be observed in the current situation, and these beaches form similar protection effect as the Houtribdijk intervention. It could not only be an reinforcement but also a recreational area.

2 design principles was deducted from the dyke transformation: 1. Dyke reinforcement could be achieved through natural process. (In this case sand accumulation) 2. Ground elevation could be applied for creating animal shelter.

1 Sand dune allows the Markermeer lake water to periodically flood a small part of the wetland and restore its dynamics.

2 Elevation in the inner part of Oostvaardersplassen allows animal to escape from extreme flooding.

3 Sand is accumulated through physical structure to form small beaches along the dyke. Crossings are introduced to enhance the accessibility towards water.

4 Several grass slope is installed along Knardijk to help flora and fauna to reach both sides.

1 2 4

3 162 Dyke transformation

198

16.2 Rainwater storage (for year 2100) 1000 mm

16.2.1 Annual precipitation

830 mm

+ 20% in inland in the Netherlands (KNMI, 2011)

Simple calculations are done to analyse the possible future annual precipitation and sudden rain shower in Flevopolders.

The calculation includes four steps: 163 Annual precipitation increase

Step 1. Annual precipitation The annual precipitation is likely to increase around 20% until the year 2100 in the inland of the Netherlands. (KNMI, 2011) By calculating the average rainfall detected in the Lelystad weather station from 1993 to 2015, and considering the trend, 1000mm of annual precipitation could be expected in Flevopolders.

(Fig. 163) Step 2. Excess rain water 600 mm of rain water out of 1000 mm would go to the air through evapotranspiration, which is the combined process of evaporation (From ground to air ) and transpiration (From vegetation to air). The remained 400 mm rain water therefore becomes the excess water that needs to be stored in the territory. (Fig. 164)

Data Source: KNMI

Annual precipitation

Transpiration

400 mm Excess rain water

600 mm Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration Evaoporation (KNMI, 1990-2015)

164 Precipitation dynamic Data Source: KNMI

Step 3. Calculating habitat water capacity The excess rain water could be stored by all types of habitats.

By calculating the surface area each habitat occupies and considering its process and available volume of water storing, the proportion of water absorption could be estimated. (Fig.165 & 166 & 167) Overall, 40% of rainwater could be stored in the proposed interwoven landscape.

Step 4. Water fluctuation in ditches 60% of excess rainwater (240mm) that couldn’t be stored in the landscape would need to be discharged by ditches. In this case, a slightly more than 24 cm of water level rise could be expected in all the ditches in Flevopolders, which would significantly influence the function on the ground. However since the calculation is regarding annual rainfall, in reality the drainage process would not lead the territory to such high rise water level. Nevertheless, more water storage could be considered.

Wetland Grassland Forest Agriculture Urban

Ditch

165 Diagram representing the 2-layer water storage Data Source: KNMI

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 199

Wetland

Existing urbanization

Grassland

Future urbanization

Forest

Proportion of habitats in future urbanization

Agriculture

200

166 Surface area of the habitats

*Overall water storage = Annual precipitation x surface area proportion x water storing capacity *Infiltration of forest dramatically decreases in one hour since soil becomes saturated, however annually only 48mm rainfall would be distributed to forest, it is considered to be fully absorbed.

167 Habitat water storage capacity (annual rainfall) Data Source: Bowen & Pallister, 2000; http://uregina.ca/~sauchyn/geog327/intercept.html

168 Natural habitat water storage process

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 201

16.2.2 Sudden heavy rain shower In general, the precipitation in Flevopolders is not much. The highest daily rainfall ever recorded since 1991 was 45.6mm, (Fig. 169) while in average only 2.3mm per day. Nevertheless, in an extreme weather the numbers could possibly raise dramatically. In addition, if the intensity of precipitation is high, which means heavy rain falls in a short period of time, the water would not be able to be discharged immediately. As a result, local drainage flooding might occur.

The amount of rainfall calculation is set as 90mm, which is around twice as much as the highest daily rainfall. The number took the reference from an anticipated Amsterdam Schipol extreme rainfall statistic done by the institute KNMI (85mm / 100 years return time), to ensure the validity. The calculation of the capacity for sudden heavy rain shower is done in two scales, Flevopolders and street block.

1. Flevopolders: Using the same method as calculating the annual rainfall, the result shows that 40% of the water could be stored, and the fluctuation in ditches would be around 6cm, which is within an acceptable range and would not case dramatic influence to the landuse. (Fig. 169)

2. Street block: In order to understand how a typical residential area could accommodate the rainwater, a street block in Almere centre that has lower water adaptivity is chosen as a test case.

The selection of the block is based on the runoff coefficients data. As shown in figure 171, the darker the colour, the harder the water could penetrate the surface, which indicates the space that generates more runoff. Besides the data, the location of the test neighbourhood is selected as far from the large waterbody as possible to exclude the factor of fast drainage.

The block consists of two row houses with front yard and back yard, with a gutter along the road. (Fig. 172) The front yard is often used as parking space or remained empty, while the backyard is used as garden or storage place. These surface and their materials are the main factors of calculating the water storage capacity. (Fig. 179) The result shows that grassland could intercept 3% of rain water, while asphalt or other pavement not. Therefore if 90mm of sudden heavy rain shower would occur, the gutter might not have fast enough drainage speed, and this type of blocks might have a flooding issue.

169 Daily precipitation amount in Flevopolders (1991-2016) Data Source: KNMI

170 Habitat water storage capacity (Sudden heavy rain shower) 202

Selected neighbourhood

171 Runoff coefficients in Almere Source: Quantitative Analysis of Urban Pluvial Flood Alleviation by Open Surface Water Systems in New Towns: Comparing Almere and Tianjin Eco-City

172 Satellite image of the selected street block Source: Google Map

Gutter

173 Street view of the row house; Front yard of the housing as one of the main improving areas Source: Google Map CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 203

16.2.3 Adaptivity II: Through-scale water hubs To further increase the water storage in Flevopolders, two options could be considered.

1. Increase the water storage capacity in the existing cultural landscape through installing external storage system, permeable pavement and urban greenery.

Based on these two options, a strategy of systematic water hubs is proposed. The strategy ranges from building, street block, city and finally to the whole Flevopolders. Through the process of adding new water storage, other functions and values are generated and integrated. Finally these hubs form a network of ecological and social spaces that is based on water.

2. Gradually transform other agricultural field or underused urban spaces into wetlands or develop wetland agriculture.

Urban wetland

Natural wetland

Underground water storage

204

City centre

Water square

Underground water tank 174 Collage of various water hubs

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 205

Building and block water hub Buildings and land parcels are the smallest units in the proposed water hub system. Through transforming the units, ecological and social values could be accumulated and reveal great effectiveness.

1. Individual housing water storage: Water barrels could be installed on the side of the walls or underground. Supplement like rooftop drainage system should also be installed for rainwater to be collected into the barrel.

More than one barrel could be attached to each other to increase the total amount of storage, an underground tank could also be installed to save the space on the ground. At the end, the stored could be pumped back to the house for multiple usage such as toilet flushing, gardening, car-washing, etc. Overall, 80% of the rainwater on a catchment area could be collected. (Rain Barrel Guide, 2017) 2. Community water storage: The individual storage barrels could be connected to a bigger underground tank for collective usage of the whole community.

3. Permeable pavement The clay soil in Flevopolders makes rainwater almost impossible to infiltrate, therefore a permeable pavement could be installed in urbanized areas to help water reach underground. A permeable pavement consists of layers of porous materials for water to pass, and be collected into a drainage pipe that transport the water into underground storage tank. The pavement is proposed in both the front yard and the backyard of the housing to maximize the efficiency of rain harvest.

175 Diagram of individual housing water storage (Rooftop drainage + rain barrel and underground storage tank)

176 Diagram of community housing water storage

177 Diagram of permeable pavement and underground drainage

4. Promote urban greenery Vegetations are helpful for collecting rainwater through interception and provide other ecosystem services as well, such as soil, water and air purification. The aesthetics also enhances mental wellness and community attachment. Therefore plantation is encouraged in private gardens.

178 Promote urban greenery 206

Current block design

Proposed block design

179 Street block water hub

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 207

City water hub Besides the transformation in building and blocks, other spaces in the city - especially open spaces - have the potential to be transformed as well. Almere is used as a case study to demonstrate how the open space clusters could form a network of multifunctional water storage. Three design principles are proposed for different types of open spaces, including squares / sports field, underused grassland and parking lot.

(Fig. 180 & 181) 1. Water square: The reference project “Benthemplein” in Rotterdam provided a good example for blending in water storage with cultural function. (Fig. 183) In dry moment, the square functions as other ordinary squares, but in wet moment the square floods and provides another type of scenery and water activity opportunity. The design is suitable for public squares and some of the sports areas.

2. Grassland transformation: Another project in Rotterdam “Aquaflow“ showed the integration of underground storage and above ground multifunctionality.

(Fig. 182) The design could be adjusted and applied in the underused grassland in Almere, to rewet the ground and develop urban wetlands that include recreational function.

3. Multifunctional parking lot: Even though scattering around, parking lots occupy quite a lot of space in the city. There is a potential to transform it together with the adjacent public spaces to increase water storage and facilitate the enhancement of social function.

Overall, these water storage hubs represent a potential concentration of activities that involves social interaction, and connects to nearby ecological structure. These advantages may even create superb condition for future economic development.

180 Principles for adding multifunctional water storage to different types of open spaces 208

181 City water hub (Almere)

182 Rotterdam underground water storage

183 Rotterdam water square

Source: www.nationalmallunderground.org

Source: www.ngenespanol.com CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 209

Region water hub Reflecting the water storage issue on a regional scale, the focal point is turned to identifying potential space for developing ecological structures that contains high capacity, and, to seek for multifunctionality among cultural and natural landscape.

Considering the fact that a large part of the territory of Flevopolders is designed as ecological backbone that already contains high water capacity, and another large part as future urbanization, which as already discussed in the previous section, has the potential to combine the water storage function with ecological and social function , the only part remained undetermined is the agricultural field.

In the chapter Multifunctionality , a scheme for agriculture was designed. Among, “wetland agriculture” or “wetland farming“ that corresponds to the new water management plan and ecological structure is promoted in many areas. That is, in these areas the traditional mechanized agriculture would be altered.

New types of crops, cultivation process and management would be introduced and experimented. Accordingly, the space would be transformed to fit the new requirement. This type of agriculture, as explained in its name, is a combination of wetland and crop cultivation. Wetland could benefit crop cultivation in several aspects, but most importantly the purification of surroundings and the protection from flooding.

(Melvin & Jones, 2008) (Fig. 184)

Area with the implementation of wetland agriculture has the potential to become the water hub in a regional scale. On one hand, it supports the growth of natural habitat, on the other hand it produces food and water storage for human. Moreover, it could allow leisure activities to take place. Located mostly in the central part of the territory, these areas are protected by the pure wetlands on the border. (Fig. 185) Future transitional connections could be formed from natural landscape on the edge to the half natural wetland agriculture hubs in the inner part to guide the territorial development.

All in all, the water hubs in all scales form a network that help Flevopolders to sustain through extreme climate change and at the same time enhance ecological, social and economic values through multifunctionality.

184 Diagram of wetland farming Source: Wetlands: A Component of an Integrated Farming Operation 210

185 Region water hub

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 211

16.3 Adaptivity III: Urbanization According to the statistic assumption, 132,800 of extra population would inhabit in Flevopolders in the extreme growth situation, which is 67% of the current Almere city population.

While 96,280 of population decrease would happen in a reverse situation, which is around half of the current Almere city.

(Fig. 186) In order to reflect these numbers on the amount of housing, the trend of preference housing type is identified. It is a global trend that more and more people prefer to live in a single house, an apartment or multi-family house instead of a traditional big family house. (BBVA, 2016) As a result, in the positive growth situation, these types of housing could be used to determine the local density. While in the negative growth situation, the housing that does not belong to the category could be reused for other functions.

Relating the change of population and housing to the issue of climate change, figure 188 shows the impression of how population growth would influence the structure of ecological backbone. The population growth is exaggerated to stress on the tendency of the change of structure. In general, the ecological backbone has the tendency to expand in extreme climate change and shrinking urbanization but in different form, while housing distribution pattern differs in each scenario according to the structure of ecological backbone.

Among the four scenarios, the scenario of extreme climate change and intense urbanization is elaborated as the adjustment of the overall operative structure. If the landscape infrastructure could sustain this scenario, then it has a high chance to sustain most of the uncertain conditions under these two major driving forces.

+ 132,000 (40%) = 2/3 Almere city

- 96,000 (29%) = 1/2 Almere city

186 Existing urbanization and the possible growth (Almere as a comparison)

212

Before

After Future urban area (High density ) Future urban area (Low density ) Existing urban area

Urban landuse Agriculture landuse Forest Wetland Elevated ground Wetland development 187 Before and after comparison: Overall urbanization density and Almere Hout structure

To accommodate the intense urbanization, The area of Almere Hout assumes a great responsibility. The proportion set for Almere Hout and its southern part has the capacity to accommodate all the extra population, however it would form a dense fabric. Taking into the consideration of the climate change factor, if the population could be distribute in a more disperse pattern and allow more development in Lelystad, the ecology would have more space to develop locally and produce more ecosystem service for its surroundings, Lelystad would

have a more balanced status in the whole territory. Therefore, the landuse proportion is adjusted to accommodate slightly less population. (Fig. 187) Moreover, more urban wetland could be proposed to complement the released space and perform as water hubs, and the characteristic of Almere Hout would be close to Almere Pampus in this sense.

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 213

188 Conceptual drawing of how the structure of ecological backbone and the pattern of urbanization may differ according to scenarios Existing urban area Expansion of urban area Ecological backbone

Ecological backbone * Remain essential structure but allow more urban development around it Housing * Expand as bigger patches

Intense urbanization Moderate climate change

Shrinking urbanization Moderate climate change

Ecological backbone * Expand for ecological purpose Housing * More housing could be reused

214

Ecological backbone * Expand but blend in more with urban (water hubs) Housing * New housing typology to adjust to flooding * Expand in the territory * More multi-family houses

Intense urbanization Extreme climate change

Shrinking urbanization Extreme climate change

Ecological backbone * Expand for more ecological development Housing * Remain in the safest / most convenient area. * More houses could be used for other functions such as urban farming

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 215

17 Design principles The design principles generated during the process of analysis and design phases could be categorized into principles that could be applied in general, and principles that generated especially for local context.

General design principles 1. Natural landscape design

Ground level and water level management as fundamental landscape design principles

Soil extraction to remove soil nutrient.

Use extracted soil for other purpose.

Deepen ditches to lower water level and to increase water storage.

Widen ditches to increase water storage.

Use existing ditches to rewet certain plot for wetland development.

Make use of the existing ditch structure to create an open water structure suitable for ecological development.

216

Ground elevation could be applied for plantation when soil is saturated.

Ground elevation could be applied for plantation when soil is saturated.

The shape of elevated ground could be designed to form animal passage.

Make use of soil type to design the vegetation growth.

Ecological succession and ecotone could be initiated to recover / enhance natural dynamics.

Make use of the existing corridors to form the landscape infrastructure.

Thick edges should be constructed along forest areas to create edge effect,

Underused grassland should be redesigned with multi-functionality. (e.g. rain garden or underground tank for water storage)

Deepen ditches to lower water level and to increase water storage.

Links should be strengthened between important soil spaces through public transportation

Make use of grazing or mowing to maintain or create certain habitats.

2. Cultural landscape design For the newly developed urban areas, urban greenery should be developed first, and other cultural function later.

A strong connection should be established between city and surrounding natural landscape.

Organic agriculture should be promoted to decrease the usage of fertilizer.

Cyclable facilities could be designed to facilitate temporary function and contribute to resource preservation.

External water storage could be installed on the buildings or underground.

Community water storage could be installed for collective usage.

Urban wetland could be designed to collect excess rainwater.

Increase urban greenery for extra ecosystem services.

Recreational / educational function could be included in the urban wetland area.

Constructed wetland could be connected to form a series of water filter system.

Install permeable pavement that connects to underground water tank to increase water storage.

Public space could be re-design for water storage (e.g. water square)

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 217

Local design principles

Make use of the quality of groundwater seepage to recover special type of natural habitat.

Ground elevation could be used for animal shelter during extreme flooding.

Dyke could be replaced with sand dune to reach multifunctionality.

New urbanization should firstly take place in elevated ground for safety reason.

218

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 219

18 Reflection

This section concludes the overall process and product of the thesis.

The completeness of the thesis is examined through (1) elaborating the design process and how it contributed to the research, (2) comparing the end product to the initial objectives, and (3) reacting on important notions that have significant meaning in the urbanism discipline and the body of knowledge.

220

18.1 Research by design The thesis included both processes “Design by research“ and “Research by design“. The design process was initiated with ”design by research”, which was used in deriving the first set of principles through analysing the existing situation. However when implementing the principles in the design phases, the method trial and error provided an opportunity to re-examine the feasibility of the principle, which carried out the adjusted version that could be applied in the local context. Since then the “research by design“ took over the design process.

From the point of view of the author, through designing, thoughts are stimulated consciously and unconsciously. The former brings up the practical questions and actions such as “what could be done“, “Something needs to be confirmed“ to help the design to move forward, while the latter serves as a background processing machine, which stores the obtained information and automatically organizes, transforms, matches these information to generate new thought, or as generally named, inspiration. It is absolutely possible to be inspired also through the process of “design by research“, however the other way around provides more chance to develop critical thoughts.

As previously addressed, design gets forward the designer to go back and forth either to observe, to confirm, to reassure, or to test out the proposal. Each time the process provides a little bit more insight to the circumstances and more inspiration to what could possibly be done. These insight and inspiration could therefore contribute to the body of knowledge after being organized and elaborated. *Figure 189 shows an empirical study of how the author design the structure plan of the case study Almere Pampus.

189 Design process of Almere Pampus

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 221

18.2 Reflect on the objective 18.2.1 Objective: To explore what spatial transformation would be required in Flevopolders to condition a sustainable landscape infrastructure that involves both natural and cultural processes, enhances ecological and social values, and adapts to changes.

The results of this research have met the objective through developing the answers for the research questions: 1. How does the existing ecological system and urban system perform in Flevopolders?

The systems were analysed through the concept of space and flow. The result shows that a linkage could be found in between the systems through various ecosystem services.

2. What design principle could be introduced to create conditions for the formation of the landscape infrastructure?

Design principles that could be applied in general and could be only applied under local context were generated.

3. What is the overall spatial development framework for Flevopolders derived from the landscape infrastructure?

The structure plan demonstrates the essential operations to transform the territory, and the main function of a certain area with certain element typology. The connection between natural landscape and cultural landscape could be observed through the context.

4. What are the ecological and social values that would possibly be generated from the landscape infrastructure?

In general, the ecological value includes the restoration of natural dynamics, the enhancement of environmental quality, habitat diversity and biodiversity. The social values include ecosystem services such as the enhancement of health, better living quality, various recreation.

5. What spatial adjustment could be made for the landscape infrastructure to be adaptive to main future uncertainties?

Strategy and design for creating extra water storage for the region, the cities, and the neighbourhood / buildings were 222

proposed to react on the climate change issue. Regarding the uncertain urbanization, the proportion of landuse in Almere Hout and Lelystad is re-arranged.

To respond to the objective In a word, the required spatial transformation includes the overall ground level adjustment, groundwater level management and programming. These three fundamental operations were adjusted according to the regional and local context in order to enhance the variety of landscape function and value.

18.2.2 Sustainability: A human – ecosystem equilibrium that improves the quality of human life while living within an adaptive supporting ecosystem that holds the ability to restore its natural dynamics in any condition.

The design proposal for the landscape infrastructure indeed introduces a new relationship between human and nature, and facilitates the harmony within. It guides the development of Flevopolders to approach sustainability through several aspects, such as restoring natural dynamics, preserving natural resources, developing ecological-based built environment, and forming adaptivity to adjust to all uncertain condition. However the framework is not holistic, there are other important aspects that should be taken into account. (See section 18.2.4) 18.2.3 Feasibility: To implement the plan in reality, practical issues need to be tackled with. Two significant ones are financial issue and governance issue. The proposal of landscape infrastructure involves in the overall change of the ground condition, which could influence a large part of the current inhabitants. Land expropriation or other methods would need to be applied for the government to obtain the land, while the construction that takes place on top requires another investment. Especially in the soil extraction work in the eastern Flevopolders, the construction would very likely cost a huge amount of public

money, and from several precedents in the Netherlands, soil extraction was usually not implemented due to the lack of financial resource. Nevertheless, the government should not consider it as merely a costly construction but a long term investment for the safety of living environment. A sustainable landscape infrastructure would allow less reinforcement needed for the hard infrastructure, which would be a great save in terms of time, money and effort.

Governance, on the other hand, plays an important role of reaching a consensus among stakeholders. Large amount of stakeholders are involved in the change of Flevopolders, including government in different level and region, independent authorities that tackle with certain issues, NGOs, enterprises and individuals. Since all the issues regarding the territorial transformation are interconnected, there is a necessity to clarify the accountability of each stakeholder, and generate a platform for collaboration and information exchange. Both the vertical collaboration and horizontal collaboration are important:

of generating the overall structure plan in order to provide guidelines to the downstream authorities.

3. Municipalities and independent authorities should follow the guideline of the structure plan, but a feedback loop should be formed to report the local issues to the province.

4. It is the responsibility of municipality to initiate the collaboration and negotiation with the enterprise and individuals, as well as to conduct public participation. Compensation might be needed for the potential land expropriation or other loss, (e.g. the job loss of the farmers) supplements and platforms would need to be generated to assist the business or individuals to relocate or finding a new career.

Horizontal collaboration: Province Flevoland

Province Utrecht

Municipalities

Noord Holland

Province Gelderland

Independent authorities

Vertical collaboration: National gov.

Provincial gov.

Municipality

Independent authorities ex. waterboard

Enterprise & individual

1. Considering the fact that Flevopolders has an significant ecological value, national government should be involved to facilitate the development of the ecological backbone towards Germany.

2. The Flevoland province should assume the responsibility

1. The provinces around IJsselmeer should be involved to set the formal orientation of Flevopolders, and to clarify its relationship with Randstad and the fast growing Amsterdam and Utrecht metropolitan.

2. Conflicts often exist between municipality and the independent authorities because of the un-integrated administrative borders and the objectives. Therefore this collaboration is extra important to be established. A suggestion could be to reorganize the governance area of the authorities to correspond with the municipality border. Regarding the collaboration, operation plan could be proposed by any authority or municipality, however each operation plan should be examined and modified by the others for safety, preservation, or other reasons. The authority could therefore propose a new version of the plan and be examined again until all stakeholders agree.

Nevertheless the procedure could be time consuming, therefore a neutral urbanism committee could be formed to help with the final judgement.

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 223

18.2.4 Next step: Regarding the improvement of the new development framework, several topics should be further addressed.

1. Infrastructure The hard technology infrastructure could be investigated even more to explore the degree of adaptivity. For instance, how could the transportation system adapt to the change of ground condition while providing services for the regional and local connection?

2. Energy Energy is an important topic regarding sustainability. In Flevopolders, 440 wind turbines were promoted by government and established by farmers. However these wind turbines are often more than 10 years old already, which is near its maximum usage capacity. Therefore either new turbines should be planted or other types of energy should be introduced to support the local energy production and the export to other region. Wind turbine has the disadvantage of noise production and potential damage to bird species, plus the fact that the new ground condition of the landscape framework may not be able to support the wind turbines everywhere. Hence it is wise to consider new energy production. Geothermal energy could be one of the further investigated subject, it has already been developed in Flevopolders and a large area is found to have high potential.

190 Wind turbine distribution Data source: Provincie Flevoland

3. Agriculture Even though a general scheme is developed for agricultural production, further research should be continued to ensure that the remain agricultural production is enough to support certain level of population. Besides, the problem of soil salination should also be tackled.

4. The proposed framework could also be tested in other regions to examine the applicability.

224

191 Geothermal potential Data source: Provincie Flevoland

18.3 Redefining nature Nature landscape A process over time that forms an environment which is not engaged mainly in human economic activity.

As noted previously, the “nature” in the Netherlands and a large part of the world is not natural anymore, and human being seemed to have jumped out of the category of nature too.

One might say that in a very broad sense, human has always been part of nature since all the resources we used came from nature. However in the cases like Flevopolders, nature dynamic was treated as an enemy. Further on, the extreme landscape transformation has allowed human to take over the natural power. In this sense, human cultural could be seen as an independent force.

The proposal of the landscape infrastructure has brought back the natural process, and used it to restore the habitats and natural dynamics. Even though it is impossible to return to the original, a new step has been made to re-establish the connection between man-made environment and nature.

Therefore, the restored landscape could be seen as a habitat for both human and nature, in this habitat, a “new nature“ is sprouting. Moreover, this new nature not only consists of the natural elements but also embraces the human culture, and a mutualism has been established in between. Human took the initiative to bring back nature and eventually, nature would grow and include human culture back to its domain again.

192 Human - nature relationship evolution

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION 225

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Cover image: Habitat embroidery ( An abstraction of Flevopolders ) Lin Wei Yun. Fountain pen and ink.

60 x 40 cm.

12 June 2017