Lindsay Aquilina HND Graphics Yr. 2 Unit:6: Critical Study
According to Livingston and Livingston (2003), in the book The Thames and Hudson Dictionary of Graphic Design and Designers, Graphic design is a term first used in 1922 by William Addison Dwiggins, a book designer and typographer to describe his job in the mass media production. Graphic design and communication walk hand in hand in everyday life. Graphic design is everywhere, literally. In the street, there are shops with colourful signs, and inside these shops there are products, packed in fancy packaging, aimed to encourage the consumer to buy it. At home, one has a coffee table with a cluster of magazines containing a mixture of visuals and text so as to tell the person what the magazine is all about in an attractive manner. These are just two, very obvious examples. What I am trying to say here is that, in order for an inanimate object to grab the attention of a passer-by, the object has to be aesthetically pleasing. Aesthetics are crucial in order to grab the attention of the crowd. Clarity is a close second. This is where graphic design comes in. Briefly, a graphic designer’s job is to communicate with the general public through pretty and practical visuals. However, the meaning of terms like ‘aesthetics’, ‘pretty’, ‘beautiful’, and ‘sensible’ varied greatly over time and the same meanings were very much affected by the current affairs of the time. This led to very divergent opinions, which resulted in the formation of many design groups, more often known as movements. All graphic design principles are set by influences of these movements in the first half of the 20th century. Collectively, these are called ‘Modern movements’. With that mentioned, one has to also point out that as much as there were rules as to what is ‘Good Design’ which was set by Modernists, there were designers who challenged these rules. In the mid-60s, the ‘Postmodern Movement’ was a movement that dared to do such a thing. Modernism and Postmodernism are two movements that even if their goal was ultimately the same , that is, to pass on a message, their approaches differed greatly.
Art Nouveau was a dominant artistic influence in the beginning of the 20th century (Refer to Figure 1). However, there were individuals who believed that people should be looking forward in terms of design. Livingston and Livingston (2003), describe Modernism as 'a diverse range of art movements and ideas that emerged during the first half of the 20th century and profoundly influenced the subsequent development of art, […] and design. Reacting particularly to the declining standards of craftsmanship in the late 19th century […] many practitioners and critics recognized the need for a new approach that would enable the production of well-made artefacts for mass production.' In A History of Graphic Design, Meggs (1998) says that the first twenty years of the 20th century were years of fundamental alterations, which caused a change both in a person's lifestyle and also in a person's thoughts. Numerous revolutions took place in various parts in Europe which changed how an actual country was run. Technology leaped forward. Artists experienced such turbulence in the world of creativity too. The 'Modernists' questioned the aesthetic importance, the organization of content and space and the purpose of that work of art in society. Modern art also influenced the 'Modern Graphic Design'. Cubist painter, Pablo Picasso defied the Renaissance norm of visual art. In his paintings, he applied angular edges to his subjects and so did Paul Cézanne (Refer to Figure 2). Paul Cézanne wanted to “treat nature by the cylinder, the sphere, the cone, everything in perspective” (Meggs, 1998). Futurists looked forward. Marinetti's fascination of speed made him write the 'Manifesto of Futurism'. Speed was the new beauty for Futurists. Marinetti's followers were then producing what is now described as 'text art'. The content was distributed in such a way that the text could be understood easily without having to read it. Marinetti's Montagne + Vallate + Strade x Joffre (Refer to Figure 3) and Lewis Carroll's interpretation of Alice's Adventure in Wonderland (Refer to Figure 4) are a two examples. Futurists sought expression and dynamics in their work. The Dada, however, reacted negatively to its surroundings. Dadaists were very much against the chaos that the technological advancements brought and were against the hostility of war. Dada was 'anti-art'. They set out to debase well established values and beliefs. They sought anarchical freedom in their work and knows no structure or order (Refer to Figure 5). Dada's purpose was to ridicule the renaissance tradition, like the Futurists. These movements were very important in the formation of the 'Modernist' approach in Graphic Design as they made other artists and designers choose the path they want to explore. In Russia1, a new idea was being promoted, that of building a 'New Russia'. So much so that the Russian designers referred to themselves as 'design engineers'. This movement favoured the idea of functional design rather than 'art for art's sake'. If one looks at the Constructivists' works, they look like as if they are 'built' rather than 'made', hence the title 'design engineers' Refer to Figure 6). Constructivists also used sans serif typefaces. Believing that their work was not meant to look pretty but to have a purpose, serifs may have been perceived as extra decoration. In their work, one can also see the beginning of a typical hierarchy, which is a fundamental element in Graphic Design. Figure 1. This is a typical Art Nouveau poster. Alphonse Mucha, Biéres de la Meuse, poster, 1897
1. Russia was a country underwent a lot of change and the Monarchy was forced to step down and was replaced by a civilian government.
Figure 3. Filippo Marinetti, Montagne + Vallate + Strade x Joffre, poem interpretation, 1915
Figure 4. Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, text interpretation, 1866
Figure 2. Picasso’s figure painting is particularly angular and there is no perspective in the painting. Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, oil on canvas, 1907
Figure 5. The chaotic ideology of Dada reflected in their work. Hannah Höch, Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany, 1919
Figure 7. This may be one of the amin inspiration of today’s typographic grid. Piet Mondrain, Composition with Red, Yellow, Blue and Black, 1921
Figure 6. Diagonal lines were often used and this created height and depth in the posters. Georgy and Vladimir Stenberg, The Man with the Movie Camera, film poster, 1929
The De Stijl2 movement in the Netherlands and the elegant Art Deco were leaving there mark in the creative world around that time too. The De Stijl movement was very much reminiscent of Malevich’s Suprematism in its style, except it was more stylised (Refer to Figure 7). It was very geometric and grid-like, and prioritised the primary colours. Art Deco, on the other hand, reduced the excessive décor of Art Nouveau, yet maintained the same elegance. This movement is perhaps the only movement from the Modernists that prioritised the overall look and not just the purpose of the artwork. The Bauhaus was also very influential. This German design school sought to unite the artistic aspects of design with the industrial aspect. The Bauhaus is very important in Graphic Design, particularly because of their printed material they published. The look was very consistent. Typography was given a lot of importance. Moholy-Nagy wrote: ‘Typography is a tool of communication [...] in its most intense form’ (Meggs 1998). In fact, during his time teaching there, along with Herbert Bayer, gave the Bauhaus’ journals and books their distinctive look (Refer to Figure 8). Van der Rohe’s ‘Less is More’ is also an iconic phrase that is still used by some designers today. The Bauhaus was one of the pillars of Modern graphic design, but it was not a stand-alone. Exploration took place in the first twenty years of the 20th century, but Jan Tschihold sought a new approach altogether. He was very much inspired by the Bauhaus as well as Constructivism. However, Tschihold wanted to be straight-forward in the most efficient way. To that, he detached himself from decoration and focused on function and dynamics (Refer to Figure 9). Here is where the type hierarchy as we know it emerged and all this paved the way to the International Typographic Style. This style is the spine of Modernism (Refer to Figure 10 and Figure 11). as it gathers various elements from its preceding movements and presents information in a holistic manner. The typographic grid was a key element,, as well as the iconic sans serif typefaces. The designers that followed such a style, like Josef Müller-Brockmann, Emil Ruder and Armin Hoffmann, took pride in their work, so much so that they labelled their design approaches as the ‘Good Design’ method3. 2. The name was coined by the De Stijl magazine, published by the style founder, Theo Van Doesberg in 1917.
Figure 8. Lazlo Moholy-Nagy and Herbert Bayer, A Selection of Bauhaus books and Journals, book cover design, 1924-30
3. The ‘Good Design’ method comprised of certain ‘rules’ that included strict layouts, left-alignment and very clear and legible typefaces. This method is considered a fundamental principle of Modern Graphic Design.
Figure 9. Jan Tschichold, Film poster for ‘Napoleon, 1927
Figure 10. These type of posters are still influential today Armin Hofmann, Theatre poster for ‘Giselle’, 1959
The Modernist approach to Graphic Design is rather minimal and favours the function over decoration.
Modernism detaches itself from the “external representation of reality through experimentation and in a struggle to define what should be considered modern” (Harris and Ambrose, 2008). A Modernist approach is a structured approach, similar to of the Constructivists’. White space also plays an important role as it balances out the content on the page, considering that all embellishment is eliminated. White space also helps in creating harmony on the page, and thanks to the type hierarchy and grid structure, it makes everything easier for the viewer to have a look at the artwork bit by bit. The beauty of Modern graphic design is in its structure. Modernism was favoured for many generations to come, but being only human, many Graphic Designers were feeling ‘caged’ by the modular grid that was constantly used in Graphic Design. Graphic Designers wanted more room for expression. In the late 60s, art historian and critic, Nikolaus Pevsner, and design critic Corin Hughes-Stanton described these new ‘free-wheeling tendencies’ as ‘post modern’. This new term described an approach in design that was ‘more aesthetically adventurous and [one that] sees a dawning integration of pleasure-giving and ergonomic factors’(Poynor, 2003). Figure 11. Josef Müller-Brockmann, Beethoven, 1955
The second half of the 20th century was the development half. The changes in the
beginning of the century were well rooted by then, but certain elements, continued to grow and flourish.4 Such advances in science and technology influenced the Graphic Design world very much. As society had much more sources to get to know what was going on around them, the aesthetic element of design was becoming increasingly important, as now, an object had to stand out from the others. The aesthetics were becoming the function. Graphic Designers were looking more at expression in their artwork (Refer to figure 12). The art of Deconstruction was the focal point of this new movement (Refer to Figure 13). This meant the stripping off any dogma that was set through the course of history from the work and make room for fresh ideas. During this time, both designers, and nondesigners were producing ‘graphic design’. Being ignorant from the rules, the ‘non-designers’ worked by trusting their instincts, which made the artwork more expressive and unpredictable. In the early 70s, Certain Swiss designers, were defying the system that other Swiss designers set. Wolfgang Weingart (Refer to Figure 14), an active member of this movement, was spreading his influence beyond the European continent, and with his rejection of the Swiss dogma, designers like Karl Gertsner and Emil Ruder were favouring this new idea, and their work was creating controversial opinions as to what is the real good design. The development of the desktop computer a very important invention. The digital era had begun, and it was second nature for a creative mind to explore the unknown. Graphic Designers were experimenting with various functions and pushed the limits as much as possible. Computers were very much idolised during the time, as it made so much things easier to produce. If one looks at the artworks produced during this time, one can easily tell when more or less the computer was being used as a tool by designers. As a movement, Postmodernism is a very loose movement. Unlike modernism, where everything was controlled, Postmodernism was left running free to express itself. Postmodernism was “a reaction to the [...] Modernist movement, postmodernism returned to earlier ideas of adornment and decoration, celebrating expression and personal intuition rather than formula and structure. Postmodernism continues to be the dominant force in creative thinking where the preference is for complexity, contradiction, diversity and ambiguity rather than the rational order and simplicity that characterised modernism.” (Harris, 2008) Postmodernism should not be confused with Dada though. Even though at first glance they may look quite alike, as both movements favoured randomness, their idea behind their work differed greatly. Postmodernism was more inclined towards the idea of making the viewer more hyped-up and energetic. The dynamics and colour schemes of Postmodernists works convey speed, movement and positive mood. 4 Many households had a television, a medium that not only reached the ones that were interested, but a medium that actually walked in the house of everyone else and made itself comfortable. Moreover, this was the time were the first man landed on the moon. And it was the time when the first desktop computer was developed.
Postmodernism was often rejected.
Many designers were favouring expression over structure, but there were many critics who saw this as a mockery of the proper practice. In 1991, modernist designer Massimo Vignelli described the magazine Emigre5 as a ‘factory of garbage and an ‘aberration of culture’. Reasons as to why such movement was rejected differ from one critic to the other. For Paul Rand, a very influential graphic designer, the ‘design’s problem was twofold: its lack of humility and originality, and its obsession with matters of superficial style’ (Poynor, 2003). The Postmodernist approach to Graphic Design would be ambitious and instinctive. The ‘theory’ of the ‘Good Design’ is put to the side and type hierarchy is ignored. A Postmodernist was very much influenced by the surroundings of the being. Therefore, a Postmodernist would link the work to the outside world in some way or the other. The current affairs were usually reflected in the work. Experimentation with quirky typefaces and bright and contrasting colour schemes would take place to make is more unpredictable. Ambiguity was a key element for this movement. Sometimes, foul language and provocative imagery is used to make the artwork stand out even more, and people are forced to look at it. Due to these unconventional approaches, Postmodernism was often misunderstood and many time criticised heavily due to that misconception. Modernism and Postmodernism are two very different movements. Whereas one focused on function and clarity, the other thought only of the life and soul of an artwork. Being very different, it is very unlikely that anyone would try to take elements from each of these movements and make the best out of two worlds. In a typical Postmodernist work, one can see a mixture of graphic design elements which include photography, quirky typography and also oblique geometrical shapes. Unusual colour schemes are also a very common element in Postmodernism. Modernist works, on the other hand, are blander. Modernist graphic design is very much dominated by white space and importance is given to alignment. Geometrical elements are also used, but are limited to the square and the circle, two very uniform shapes. These shapes are not used very often though, as the squares and circles needed to have a purpose in the artwork. Typography was also designed in a very simple manner. Most typefaces are based on the square and circle, like the Bayer Schrift, De Stijl and the iconic Helvetica. (Refer to Figure 15). It is not easy to compare such two different movements. There is very little resemblance. A common trait in these two movements is the use of geometry. Although it is applied in very different ways, the use is still there. Another interesting common element is certain use of typography. One can easily look at some of Neville Brody’s work and can easily compare it to the Futurists’ and Dada collages. Again, the purpose was mostly aesthetical whereas the others’ work had a deeper meaning. 5 Emigre was a magazine that rejected the general rule of design and was designed as such.
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Figure 12. Barney Bubbles, ‘Armed forces’ album cover, 1979
Figure 13. Studio Dumbar, Holland Festival Poster, 1987
Figure 14. Weingart rejected the ‘Good Design’ method and favoured expression in his works Wolfgang Weingart, ‘Swirl’, c.1960
Figure 15. [From top] Herbert Bayer, ‘Bayer Schrift’, 1925
Theo van Doesberg, ‘De Stijl’, 1922 Max Meidinger and Eduard Hoffmann, ‘Helvetica’, 1957
Dan Friedman,
an American Graphic Designer is known for his attempt at uniting the structure of the Modern style and the expression of the Postmodern. Friedman was very much influenced by the American New Wave, but he ‘attempted to challenge […] the functionalism, underpinning the Swiss typographic tradition (Livingston and Livingston, 2003). He also favoured what he described as ‘radical insights’ and ‘multiple realities’ that Postmodernism had. His works often reflect such a thing. (Refer to Figure 16 and Figure 17). He followed the grid in his works, particularly when there is a bulk of text, and he also applied certain embellishment to add some movement to an otherwise static artwork. Friedman’s way of thinking was very particular. In fact, he gave a new title for this new way of thinking a name too – ‘Radical Modernism’. He described this term as ‘a reaffirmation of the idealistic roots of our modernity, adjusted to include more of our diverse culture, history, research and fantasy.’ (Friedman, 1994)However, as much as he experimented to merge these two very diverse movements, most of his works always had a dominant part. Being a designer in the 90s, Friedman frequently showed an inclination towards Postmodernism.As Dan Friedman tried to merge these two movements in the 80s and 90s, there were designers who sided completely with one movement.
Wim Crouwel
is a designer that was very much influenced by the International Typographic Style and carried this out in his work in the 70s and 80s, in the time were Postmodernism was working its way into society’s lifestyle. Wim Crouwel is a Dutch graphic designer and educator and one of the founders of Total Design6. Crouwel was very much committed to the International Typographic Style and gave a lot of importance to the grid and used a lot of sans serif typefaces. As a young man, he found such typefaces so inspiring that ‘[he] bought Swiss magazines and newspapers and cut these typefaces out and glued them on to make up the lettering for posters.’ (Purcell, 2011). Most of his works are made up of type and block colours, very different from Friedman’s. One interesting factor is Crouwel’s work is the experimentation with shapes and lines. Many works consist of half concealed type and this creates very interesting shapes and motifs, but always with strict adherence to the grid. (Refer to Figure 18 and Figure 19). 6 Total design was a multidisciplinary design group that was formed in the 60s by Wim Crouwel, Benno Wissing and Friso Kramer.
This inclination towards one movement or the other could be a result of such different attributes of the two movements. Being very different, it makes it less likely to combine the two because there is no common ground to work with except for the fine lines mentioned earlier in the essay. There are a lot of varied opinions about these two movements because of such differences.
Figure 16. Dan Friedman, ‘Cultural Geometry’, catalogue cover, 1988
Figure 17. Dan Friedman, ‘ntitled, c. 1985
Figure 19. Wim Crouwel, ‘Academy’, calendar, c.1985 Figure 18. Wim Crouwel, ‘Permanent Collections’, poster, c1980
Figure 20. Logos are being simplified more and more over time. Even though it may not always be the right thing to do. [Clockwise from left:] Ebay, (1995); Ebay (2012) Chrome (2008), Chrome 92011) Gap (986), Gap (2010). Gap went back to the old logo after negatvie reactions
Figure 21. Icons are very much in vogue today.
As technology is constantly evolving, the world is becoming a global village where people are constantly interacting and influencing each other. Because of that, it is becoming more difficult to pin point a particular style nowadays, as there are similar, yet different. As it was discussed in the Digital Arts’ article ‘Trend report 2013’ (Richardson Taylor 2013), technology has a major role in today’s graphic designer’s life. Rachel Smith, a creative partner at ‘& Smith’ design studio tells Digital Arts that the company is taking on various projects so that they can learn more about newly launched digital platforms. Moreover, she says that it is important to put thought on budget as well as ideas, and be able to exploit cost-effective solutions that would produce high quality results just as well. On a more stylistic note, a blog on the Oxygen Graphic Design Studio website says that trends include the ‘Less is More’ element with bold colours and simple iconography and simple logo design (Refer to figure 20 and Figure 21).. Another trend is the vector illustration. Illustration was always popular with graphic designers, and vectors are permitting to make design even simpler and just as effective (Refer to FIgure 23). This article also points out that ‘uniqueness’ is quite important in today’s design industry. “Hand drawn typography looks excellent […] and goes perfectly with […] other trends of 2013. [‘Hand drawn type] is instantly more interesting then your bog standard typefaces.’ (Fowle, 2013) (Refer to Figure 22). These are some trends that are being discussed by experts in the field and they are expecting these trends to evolve as the year unfolds. Being very current, critics are not discussing this ‘current’ style as it has not yet matured to a be recognised as a new movement. What I have noticed though, particularly in certain magazines is a return in the eclecticism of the Postmodernism and yet there is still the same structure of the Modern. The grid structure is still there and there is also the use of white space, but there is that expressive element. Font choices are being more experimental, and many designers are using the ‘under-line’ style as opposed to the usual ‘bold’ and ‘italic’ styles. I also have noticed that bold coloured text boxes are being used as opposed to the modular columns that are filled with text. Being a niche style, no one knows exactly where this may be heading; whether it is the ever-revolving cycle of design or something innovative. (Refer to Figures 24, 25 and 26 overleaf).
Figure 22. Hand-drawn typography is favoured by many clients this year.
Figure 23. Vector illustration is used very much as it is simpler, yet more versatile than raster illustraion.
Figure 24. Photography is juxtaposed and not always following the grid. ‘i-D’, pages 64, 65, 258 and 259))
Figure 25. Magazine a taking a rather unusual turn in design. The grid is still there, but there is a lot of experimental fonts that are used. Colour-filled text boxes is also a common element in many magazines I came across. ‘Company High-Street Edit’, pages 28 19, 122 and 123).
Figure 26. ‘White space is still given importance in certain designs, still. Vamp Magazine’,, pages 22, 23), 66 and 67
I think that Modernism and Postmodernism are two very diverse movements that have elements that can be used effectively if used wisely. In 1963, John Lewis, a British graphic designer, stated that rules are made to be broken and in order to break the rules, one first has to know what they are. Then, it is up to that individual to choose to break them deliberately and criticise the rules.. However, he also adds that practicality should also be kept in mind as he says that in book design, the author and designer should not interfere with each other’s work and that ‘the book page is not a medium of self expression’. (Poynor, 2003)
With that said, and the various graphic design trends and experimentation taking place, can these two movements be merged and result in a unique movement after all? Or will history keep on repeating itself?
Reference List Books
Amrose, G., Harris, P., 2008. The Fundamentals of Graphic Design, Switzerland, AVA Publishing. Friedman, D., 1994. Dan Friedman: Radical Modernism, New Haven CT, Yale Univeristy Press. Livingston, A., Livingston I., 2003. The Thames and Hudson Dictionary of Graphic Design and Designerss. 2nd Edition. New York. Thames and Hudson Inc. Meggs, P. B., 1998, A History of Graphic Deisgn, 3rd Edition. New York. John Wiley and Sons Inc. Poynor, R., 2003. No More Rules: Graphic Design and Postmodernism, New Haven CT, Yale University Press.
Articles Purcell. K. W., 2011. Modern Method, Eye Magazine, [online] Available at: <http://www.eyemagazine.com/feature/article/modern-method> [Accessed 28th April 2013] Rae. P., 1994. Reputations: Dan Friedman, Eye Magazine, [online] Available at: <http://www.eyemagazine.com/feature/article/repuationsdan-friedman> [Accessed 20th March 2013] Richa Taylor.A., 2013. Trends report 2013. Graphic Design and Branding, Digital Art:Inspiration for Digital Creatures, [online] Available at: <http://www.digitalartsonline.co.uk/features/creative-business/how-stand-out-in-graphic-design-branding> [Accessed 5th May 2013]
Blogs Fowle. E., 2013. Graphic Design Trends 2013. Oxygen Creative: [online] Available at: <http://www.oxygencreative.co.uk/uncategorized/ graphic-design-trends/
Bibliography Books Fiell, C., Fiell, P., 2007. Contemporary Graphic Design. Kรถln, Taschen. Gomez-Palacio, B., Vit, A., 2012. Graphic Design Referenced. Beverly MA, Rockport Publishers Rivers, C., 2007. Maximalism. Hove, Rotovision.
Essays Hong, D.S., 200?. A Study on the Deconstructionist Representation in Graphic Design [pdf]. Ph.D. Tongmyong University of Information Technology. Available at: <http://www.idemployee.id.tue.nl/g.w.m.rauterberg/conferences/cd_donotopen/adc/final_paper/551.pdf> [Accessed 20th April 2013]
Articles Dock, E., 2011, Postmodernism is Dead, Prospect, [online] Available at: <http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/postmodernism-isdead-va-exhibition-age-of-authentication/#UZ_tvUCSA5> [Accessed 18th April 2013]
Can these 2 movements be merged and result in a u n iq ue movement after all? Or will history keep on repeating itself?