TEXTILE DYEING IS THE MOST
POLLUTING AND ENERGY-INTENSIVE PROCESS IN MAKING CLOTHES (REGAN, 2020).
IS DYEING WITH BACTERIA A SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION TO ACHIEVE COLOURFUL DYED TEXTILES?
AMFI GRADUATION RESEARCH PAPER 2022 LINDSAY AZZOPARDI
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Figure 1. Bacteria dyeing textiles in bags (own photo).
INDEX
Introduction.........................................................................5 The Fashion Dyeing Problem................................................6 Biodesigning - Working with Nature......................................8 Dyeing Textiles with Bacteria..................................................8 Microorganisms that Produces Pigment...............................10 Hoe is Bacteria Dye Explored Commercially?........................13 . Current limitations and future perspective..............................20 Conclusion........................................................................23 References.........................................................................24
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Figure 2. Petri dishes 1 (own photo).
INTRODUCTION “The fashion industry is one of the major polluting industries in the world” (Wicker, 2022). The United Nations Environment Programme (2021) claims that the fashion industry produces between 2-8% of all global carbon emissions. All different aspects in relation to garment production: starting from the cultivation and distribution of the crops, dyeing textiles, production and shipping of garments, all contribute to different forms of environmental pollution. Water, air, and soil are all negatively affected by the production of fashion, making textile dyeing the second largest polluter of water globally. Textile dyeing causes approximately one-fifth of all industrial water pollution (Wicker, 2022). In the dyeing process, vast amounts of water are consumed since water is required in various processing steps, such as during pretreatment, dyeing, printing, and finishing. Polluted water is eventually discarded back into streams and rivers (Samanta et al., 2019). Due to the unsustainable ways products are being made, designers are experiencing an urgency to alter the current way of working and are reprioritising their goals to address the accelerating deterioration of the environment and preserve it for future generations (Myers, 2018). “Biotechnological advancements have the potential to greatly improve the overuse of land, water and environmental degradation overall. Reducing livestock farming, waste, and the use of toxic chemicals can lead to significant cuts in our global carbon footprint” (Espinoza, 2021). Designers are beginning to go beyond the mechanisation of functions, alternatively,
they are observing the living world. Throughout the 20th century, designers relied on physics and chemistry (mechanisation of functions), but now designers are turning towards biologists for their expertise and guidance (Myers, 2018). The interest in using biology in processes is also being explored in the textiles dyeing industry. In the last few years, researchers have been exploring bacteria as a dyeing agent for textiles. Bacterial dyes are 100% natural and free of hazardous chemicals. Colours are achieved by cultivating naturally occurring bacteria for their pigments. Using bacteria to brew dyes in the lab instead of resorting to petrochemicals has proved to be an environmentally friendly and resource-saving way to produce colour, cut down on carbon emissions, and elude expensive mixtures and substances like crude oil (Bellotto, 2021). This desk research will explore whether dyeing with bacteria is a sustainable alternative solution to achieve colourful dyed textiles and how it is currently being explored in the industry. This personal interest in bacterial dyes started in 2021 while doing the Makers Lab minor at the Hogeschool van Amsterdam. Having the opportunity to dye textiles with Janthinobacterium lividum on silk has generated curiosity to better understand the potential behind bacterial dyes on textiles. Additionally, inspired by this research, a bacteria dyed fashion collection will be developed to show the dyed textiles in wearable and functional garments. 5
THE FASHION DYEING PROBLEM
Colour impacts the eye and enhances sales success within the fashion industry. This is because it is the first thing a consumer notices about a garment before feeling the fabric and trying it on for size (Ranson, 2019). Dyed fabrics have been found dating back to ancient Egyptian times, 2,500 BC using berries and fruit, prior to the discovery of synthetic dyes by W.H. Perkin in 1856. Eventually, the first synthetic dyes were used alongside natural dyes until the latter was entirely replaced by the broadening range of easily applied synthetic dyes (Ingamells, 1993). 70% of the fibres in garment production come from fossil fuels, and the dyes used are sourced from fossil carbon. This results in plastic microfibres that are being introduced into rivers and oceans as a consequence of washing synthetic clothing. This leads to contamination in our drinking water (Burgess & White, 2019). It has been found that the post-production water after dyeing textiles contains residual dye, mordants, chemicals, and micro-fibres that are expelled into water streams untreated. These chemicals do not break down as they enter rivers, making their way to the oceans and eventually around the world (Ranson, 2019). The finishing of textiles (when chemicals or treatments are applied to the fabric to give it the desired look or 6
feel) uses large amounts of water and chemicals to ensure vivid colours bind to the fabric and do not fade or wash out. As an effect of this, in China, over 70% of the rivers are polluted due to textile dyeing, and 1.4 billion people cannot access uncontaminated water, making wells unsafe for collecting water for domestic consumption (Williams & McIlvride, 2016). This is also an occurring problem in Bangladesh as the rivers and canals that run through Dhaka have turned into a “pitch-black colour” due to the sludge and sewage produced by textile dyeing and processing factories (Regan, 2020). Apart from the toxicity caused within nature, the main consequence of these synthetic additives in dyes is that they can cause damage to the cells due to oxidation, which can lead to immunosuppression in human beings that can ultimately result in carcinogenesis (Celedón & Díaz, 2021).
Figure 3. What is Causing Water Pollution? (University of Exeter).
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BIODESIGNING
WORKING WITH NATURE Wahl & Baxter (2008) describe the prevailing environmental situation as “the current crisis of our unsustainable civilisation”. As Myers (2018) discussed, the transition towards sustainability is about co-creating a human civilisation that flourishes within the ecological limits of the planetary life support system. Designers are now looking at biologists for their design processes. Biodesign is an emerging, radical approach towards design that uses research from life sciences and incorporates living materials into structures, objects and processes. With this collaboration between the designer and the biologist, new forms of designs and functions are arising. Biodesign is the “incorporation of living organisms or ecosystems as essential components, enhancing the function of the finished work” (Myers, 2018).
DYEING TEXTILES WITH BACTERIA
In the recent years, natural pigments have attracted the attention of the industry due to an increasing interest in the creation of new safe, easily degradable, ecologically friendly products with no adverse effects (Celedón & Díaz, 2021), such as non-toxic, non-carcinogenic and biodegradable in nature alternatives to what is currently taking place in the dyeing industry (Usman et al., 2017). Articles published about “natural pigment” doubled during the last ten years. Natural pigments contributing to the increased amount of research articles through these years include microorganisms like bacteria, yeasts, and fungi (Celedón & Díaz, 2021). The interest in dyeing with bacteria 8
has also grasped the attention of the fashion giant H&M since they are investing in Colorifix, a biotech startup that is seeking sustainable dyeing using microorganisms via DNA sequencing (Chan, 2020). This indicates that profitable, commercial brands like H&M see potential in bacteria dye as an alternative way of dyeing textiles. Bacteria is defined as “any of a group of microscopic single-celled organisms that live in enormous numbers in almost every environment on Earth, from deep-sea vents to deep below Earth’s surface to the digestive tracts of humans” (Rogers, 2020). Microorganisms are influenced
by their environmental factors, resulting in a variety of pigments with unique characteristics mainly related to the connection between the microorganism and the ecosystem (Celedón & Díaz, 2021). Some of these bacteria produce pigments for multiple reasons, such as UV absorption or antibiotic properties against other living organisms (Bhawsar, 2011). Although bacteria produce pigments due to factors in their environment, cultivating bacteria on textiles for their pigments is a sustainable and resource-saving dyeing method that does not require harmful chemicals. The bacterial strains multiply in a very small space and do not require large areas of land, the use of pesticides or high amounts of water resources (Arts Electronica, 2021). Microorganisms are abundant, unlike higher organisms, and they are an easily renewable resource that give rise to production with a potentially greater yield (Azman et al., 2018). Additionally, studies show that these natural pigments have a variety of beneficial properties such as anticancer activity, pro-vitamin
A, and other characteristics such as high photostability and thermal stability. Dyeing with microorganisms contributes to the preservation of biodiversity while reducing the release of harmful chemicals into the environment as a result of the production of synthetic dyes (Malik et al., 2012). Colorifix claims that their textile bacterial dyeing processes use 90% less water and up to 40% less energy than conventional dyeing, eliminating the need for synthetic chemicals (Chan, 2020). This indicates that dyeing with bacteria is indeed a possible, sustainable alternative solution for dyeing textiles.
Figure 4. Petri dishes 2 (own photo).
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MICROORGANISMS
THAT PRODUCE PIGMENT Bacteria, yeasts, and fungi are the main microorganisms capable of producing natural pigments (Celedón & Díaz, 2021). In the case of fungi, multiple pigments have been described and have been used for years as taxonomic identifiers. Some of them are commercially available for cell staining and protein detection as well as being used as replacements for the production of synthetic dyes in the textile industry. The benefits of using bacteria for pigment production over other natural dyes such as fungi are that bacteria have a short life cycle and ease of genetic modification. The problem with bacterial dyes is that most bacterial pigments are still at the research and development stages, unlike fungal dyes. Like fungi, bacteria produce pigments such as violacein (purple), melanin (dark brown), carotenoids (orange), prodigiosin (red), and pyocyanin (blue) (Narsing Rao et al., 2017). Bacteria produce pigments for multiple reasons, mainly due to morphological characteristics, cellular activities, pathogenesis, protection
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and survival. Some of the bacteria that produce green pigments, such as autotrophic cyanobacteria, have chlorophyll (similar to plants), which is needed to carry out photosynthesis. Other pigments are produced by bacteria to absorb UV radiation or to quench oxygen free radicals. In some cases, bacterial pigment is needed for cell protection. Other pigments serve as antibiotics against phytopathogenic fungi, other bacteria and yeasts, or heavy metals resistance. Pigments may also maintain cell membrane integrity and stability (Bhawsar, 2011). This shows that the pigment occurs naturally by the bacteria for its own functions within its environment. Table 1 shows a list of all bacterial pigments, their biological activities and reported genera of pigment producers. The reported producers with an * at the end are currently being explored in the lab to obtain their pigments on textiles for the fashion collection mentioned in the introduction.
Table 1. List of all bacterial pigments reviewed, their biological activities, and reported genera of pigment producers. PIGMENT
Violacein
Indigoidine
Melanin
Carotenoids
Prodigiosin
COLOUR
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
REPORTED PRODUCERS
Purple
Antibiotic Antiparasitic Antiviral Antitumoral Anticancer
Chromobacterium Janthinobacterium* Alteromonas Collimonas Duganella Pseudoalteromonas Iodobacter
Indigo
Antioxidant Signaling Antibiotic
Arthrobacter* Erwinia Corynebacterium Clavibacter Vogesella* Phaeobacter Photorhabdus Dickeya Streptomyces*
Dark Brown
Photoprotection Antioxidant Anticancer
Rhizobium Bacillus Pseudomonas Klebsiella Modestobacter Streptomyces
Red/Orange
Antibiotic Antioxidant Cytotoxic activity
Erwinia Flavobacterium Brevibacterium Paracoccus Pantibacter
Deep red
Biocontrol Antibiotic Algaecidal Anti-inflammatory Anticancer Antimalarial Antidiabetic Immune system modulator
Serratia* Janthinobacterium Streptomyces Vibrio Hahella Zooshikella Pseudoalteromonas
Rhodopsins
Light Pink
Active transport Signaling Cell behavior modulator (cell reprogramming)
Halobacterium (Archaea) Halloterrigena (Archaea) Halorubrum (Archaea) Natromonas (Archaea) Anabaena (Eubacteria) Gloeobacter (Eubacteria) Magnetospirillum (Eubacteria) 𝛾𝛾-Proteobacteria (Eubacteria)
Pyoverdine
Yellowish green
Bioluminescence Virulence factor Iron uptake
Pseudomonas
Pyocyanin
Greenish-blue
Virulence factor Iron uptake Cytotoxic activity Antibacterial activity
Pseudomonas
Note. Adapted from Natural Pigments of Bacterial Origin and Their Possible Biomedical Applications, by N. S. Celedón & L. B. Díaz, 2021.
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Currently, there are no reliable published statistics on the size of the colour market, however, according to global industry analysts, the demand for organic pigments and dyes was expected to reach almost 10 million tonnes by 2017. The carotenoids (red/ orange pigment) alone were estimated to reach $1.4 billion by 2018 (Narsing Rao et al., 2017), which shows the growth in the need for sustainable alternative dyeing options. (Narsing Rao et al., 2017)
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HOW IS BACTERIA DYE
EXPLORED COMMERCIALLY? When researching companies that are currently working and exploring bacterial dyes, there are namely six that come up on the search. These are Faber Futures, Vienna Textile Labs, Living Colour, PILI, Colorifix (Nisar, 2021) and Huue (previously known as Tinctorium) (Warren, 2021). 1) Faber Futures Faber Futures is a London-based award-winning agency operating at the intersection of nature, design, technology and society (Faber Futures, 2021). Faber Futures was launched in 2018 with the aim of helping other researchers and companies harness the power of living organisms to develop sustainable materials. Natsai Audrey Chieza, founder and CEO of Faber Futures, has been working with the bacterium Streptomyces coelicolor on textiles since 2011. This microorganism produces a pigmented compound in pink, purple, and blue hues. “It dyes textiles in a colourfast manner with barely any water and no chemicals… In many ways, that’s the definition of a natural dye.” Chieza says in an interview with WIRED Magazine (Turk, 2018). 2) Vienna Textile Labs Karin Fleck is the founder of Vienna Textile Lab. Fleck studied technical chemistry at TU Wien in Austria and later worked at several energy companies in the Netherlands and Germany. Fleck was introduced to bacteria as a textile dyeing medium when she met Cecilia Raspanti, founder of Textile Lab Amsterdam
(Suntinger, 2019). Vienna Textile Lab is currently focusing on researching how to make the dyeing process scalable to meet the needs of the fashion industry. In an interview with Lampoon Magazine, Fleck explains, “What we are doing here is trying to give an alternative, producing less toxic colours, so that workers in dyeing processes are less exposed to chemicals and hazardous substances” (Bellotto, 2021). 3) Living Colour Living Colour is a biodesign research project exploring the possibilities of natural textile dyeing with bacteria that produce pigment. The Dutch women behind this project are Laura Luchtman & Ilfa Siebenhaar (Living Colour, n.d.). Their research explored the possibilities of using sound frequencies to enhance the bacteria growth on textiles for pigments (Luchtman & Siebenhaar, 2017). They had also partnered up with Puma on a bacteria dyed sportswear collection called Design to Fade, exhibited at the biodesign exhibition at Milan Design Week. Unfortunately, none of these projects reached a commercial stage (Kukka, 2020). 13
4) PILI PILI is a French biotechnology startup founded by Jérémie Blache in 2015. PILI uses hybrid processes combining industrial fermentation and green chemistry to generate high-performance colour ranges (PILI, n.d.). They claim that their microbial fermentation process can save 100 tonnes of petroleum and 10 tonnes of toxic chemicals per tonne of product (Woollacott, 2020). PILI raised €2.5 million in 2018. The funds were obtained from business angels, existing investor SOSV, €900,000 from Fashion For Good accelerator, WISEED (equity crowdfunding) and BPI France contributed €1.6 million via the Global Innovation Challenge (PILI, 2018). In 2019 PILI managed to achieve €3.6 million in investments (PILI, 2019). A new round of funding of €15 million is underway to support the production upgrade before creating the first PILI factory in France, which shall be operational in 2025 (JiBeop.com, 2021). 5) Colorifix Colorifix is based in the UK and was founded in 2016 by Jim Ajioka and Orr Yarkoni. Both are synthetic biologists who were developing biological sensors to monitor heavy metal contamination in drinking water in rural Nepal. This made them notice the negative impacts of textile dyeing on the environment and human health, which eventually resulted in co-founding Colorifix. Colorifix aims to “minimise the environmental impact of industrial dyeing by replacing chemistry with biology at every step 14
in the process, from the creation of the dyes to their fixation into fabrics” (Colorifix, n.d.). The process starts by selecting a colour created by an organism in nature (animal, plant, insect or microbe). Via online DNA sequencing, the genes that lead to the production of the pigment are identified and translate that part of the DNA code into a microorganism. The resulting engineered microorganism can then produce the pigment just as it is produced in nature (Colorifix, n.d.). Colorifix managed to achieve $9 million in investment (Crunchbase, 2022) and this was raised via Fashion for Good accelerator and investor partners SAGANA, Cambridge Enterprise, Primera Impact and H&M CO: LAB. Colorifix has recently also collaborated with the New York clothing company Pangaia for a bacteria-dyed tracksuit capsule (Wightman-Stone, 2021).
Figure 5. Design to fade - Living Colour x Puma (Living Colour).
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Figure 6 & 7. Pangaia Lab powered by Colorifix (Pangaia).
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6) Huue (previously known as Tinctorium) Huue is a Californian fashion biotech startup founded in 2019 by Michelle Zhu and Dr Tammy Hsu. Like Colorifix, Huue co-opts plant genes to make microbes produce colour. Huue has been genetically engineering bacteria to mirror how the Japanese indigo plant, Polygonum tinctorium, makes and holds its colour (hence the previous name Tinctorium) (Woollacott, 2020). Huue has achieved the reduction process with its biologically synthesised indigo. Via microbe engineering, Zhu and Hsu managed to mimic how an indigo plant makes green leaves turn blue when crushed (Warren, 2021). This is achieved since the engineered bacteria metabolises natural sugars into indigo dye, mimicking how enzymes in plants create colours (Baker, 2021). Their innovation caught the attention of the Diesel founder Adriano Goldschmied (known as the “godfather of denim”), who later joined the company’s advisory board in a “hands-on” role to help with the creation and implementation of denim products made with their biologically-
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engineered indigo dye (Warren, 2021). Huue has been supported by investors and institutions, including IndieBio, Fashion for Good, and Melinda Gates’ Female Founders Competition (Huue, n.d.), with a total of $2.8 million worth of investment (Crunchbase, 2022).
Figure 8. Denim by Huue (Huue).
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CURRENT LIMITATIONS
AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES As described in the previous chapter, most of the bacterial pigment production is still at the research and development stage (Azman et al., 2018). One of the most significant limitations in bacteria dye is the highcost investment required for large scale production. Additionally, there is lower stability, variations in shades due to some operational parameters, less percentage in terms of annual production, specifications in terms of bacteria capable of producing some colours and technological imperfections that all lead to delay in progress for industrial production of bacteria dyes (Usman et al., 2017). Usman et al. (2017) mention in their study that for future research, one should look further at developing easier methods for harvesting bacterial pigments to increase their industrial applications, reduce the costs and increase yields for large scale production.
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Additionally, Huue and Colorifix both work with DNA sequencing and translate that part of the DNA code into a microorganism. This makes it imperative for scientists to understand these risks and report the results in a responsible, transparent, and accurate manner since they are working with living organisms (Shamarina et al., 2017). Microbiology, specifically bacterial dye, can inspire both microbiologists as well as artists alike as they can serve vivid, aesthetic experiences that create room for curiosities and experimentation. Innovative, trans-disciplinary methodologies are required to push boundaries. However, it is critical to maintain robust ethical approaches (Fawcett & Dumitriu, 2018). Rhodes (2016) discusses that it is essential to consider the ethical issues earlier on when conducting experiments to avoid potential pitfalls by identifying any risks at an earlier stage rather than hindering disasters from occurring.
Figure 9. Bacteria dye (Living Colour).
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Figure 10. Petri dishes 3 (own photo).
CONCLUSION Colour in fashion has existed for centuries, and it appears that it will continue to be an important factor in the fashion industry as it enhances sales (Ranson, 2019). As discussed earlier, the way clothes are dyed (with synthetic dyes) causes considerable environmental and health problems. In recent years a lot of excitement has been growing around natural dyes due to them being nontoxic, non-carcinogenic, biodegradable, no crude oil required in the process and overall a resource-saving way to produce colour. Additionally, dyeing with bacteria has also grasped the interest of investors who see potential in this field and are funding small companies developing pigments deriving from bacteria. Pili, Colorifix and Huue are at the forefront of commercialising bacteria dyes, however, at this point, they are still in research and development stages. Additionally, ethics and transparency are imperative when conducting experiments when working with living organisms. This desk research validates the question that dyeing textiles with bacteria is a sustainable solution to achieve colourful pigments on textiles. As mentioned in the Microorganisms that Produce Pigment chapter, the fashion collection deriving from this paper, explores dyeing textiles with Janthinobacterium lividum (purple pigment), Serratia marcescens (red/pink pigment), Kocuria rhizophila (yellow pigment), Arthrobacter agilis (pink/orange pigment), Streptomyces coelicolor (purple pigment) and Vogesella indigofera (indigo pigment). However, Janthinobacterium lividum and Serratia marcescens have been the most successful at dyeing textiles in vibrant, saturated hues in the lab. As for the other bacteria, more research and experimentation need to take place in order to achieve long-lasting, saturated textile dyes.
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Suntinger, H. (2019, November 26). Start-up of the day: Vienna textile lab dyes fabrics with bacteria. Innovation Origins. https://innovationorigins.com/en/start-up-of-the-day-vienna-textile-lab-dyes-fabrics-with-bacteria/ Turk, V. (2018, October 28). This designer uses living bacteria to dye clothes without water. WIRED UK. https:// www.wired.co.uk/article/natsai-audrey-chieza-faber-futures-biodesign#:%7E:text=Designer%20Natsai%20 Audrey%20Chieza%20has,of%20pink%2C%20purple%20and%20blue United Nations Environment Programme. (2018, October 18). Putting the brakes on fast fashion. UNEP. https:// www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/putting-brakes-fast-fashion University of Exeter. (n.d.). What is causing water pollution? [Photograph]. University of Exeter. http://sites.exeter. ac.uk/s4s/are-dyes-polluting-our-water/ Usman, H. M., Abdulkadir, N., Gani, M., & Maiturare, H. M. (2017). Bacterial pigments and its significance. Bioequivalence & Bioavailability, 4(3). https://doi.org/10.15406/mojbb.2017.04.00073 Wahl, D. C., & Baxter, S. (2008). The designer’s role in facilitating sustainable solutions. Design Issues, 24(2), 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1162/desi.2008.24.2.72 Warren, L. (2021, June 17). Scientists use bacteria to make sustainable indigo dye. Sourcing Journal. https:// sourcingjournal.com/denim/denim-innovations/sustainable-indigo-dye-bacteria-korea-advance-institutescience-technology-285790/ Wicker, R. A. (2021, January 17). Fashion is not the 2nd most polluting industry after oil. But what is it? Ecocult. https://ecocult.com/now-know-fashion-5th-polluting-industry-equal-livestock/ Wightman-Stone, D. (2021, December 1). Pangaia launches apparel using biology-based dyes. FashionUnited. https://fashionunited.com/news/fashion/pangaia-launches-apparel-using-biology-baseddyes/2021120144170 Williams, R., & McIlvride, D. (Directors). (2016). Riverblue [Film]. Paddle Productions Inc. Woollacott, B. E. (2020, January 31). Making beautiful colours without toxic chemicals. BBC News. https://www. bbc.com/news/business-51007426
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