The global fashion supply chain and the future of garment manufacture Amy Blackett and Tanith Roberts Word Count -2920 (excluding quotes, appendices etc.)
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Contents
1. Introduction
Page 3
2. The main stages of the current global supply chain used for developing knitted apparel products
Page 4 (AB)
3. An explanation of the reasons behind movement from locally to off shore manufacturing in the late 1990’s
Page 7 (AB)
4. An explanation of where different types of knitted fashion product are currently sourced and produced
Page 9 (TR)
5. A consideration of where knitted garments will be produced in the future and what factors will impact on this
Page 11 (TR)
6. Conclusion
Page 13
7. Appendices
Page 

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Introduction The aim of this report is to identify and comprehend the main stages of the global supply chain involved in the production of clothing, specifically knitted apparel. “At the onset of the 21st century, the trend toward global manufacturing is continuing at an increasing rate, driven largely by the forces of efficiency and competition, and developments in information and communication technology (ICT)” (Cresswell, 2001, pg 131). A large percentage of the European garment industry is designed in the retailers parent country, however production is sourced offshore, often in the Asia and North Africa, where labour costs are traditionally significantly lower (Cresswell, 2001, pg 131). However, over recent years the country of origin for knitted apparel has moved, due to changing ethical policies, increases in garment worker’s wages and a desire for reduced lead times. This report contains research, analysis and an evaluation in relation to the reasons behind the movement from locally to offshore manufacture in the 1990’s, where knitted garments are sourced and produced today and a consideration of where this may move in the future and what implications may impact this.
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2.Current Global Supply Chain of Knitted Apparel ‘A supply chain is a set of firms that make and distribute goods and services to consumers.’ (Shaw, D. & Koumbis, D. 2014, page 76) The fashion supply chain begins with the sourcing of the fibre, whether that be wool, acrylic, viscose, nylon, bamboo etc. Wool is a primary fibre used in the production of knitted garments due to it’s insulation properties and can be sourced in a variety of countries, such as Australia, China, New Zealand, Argentina, Turkey and Great Britain. It is part of the buyer’s job role to source the fibre from an ethical company and if necessary arrange for it to be transported to the factory where it is spun into a yarn and possibly dyed. Dyeing can take place before or after the spinning process or after the yarn has been knitting into a fabric. The yarn is then knitted into a fabric ‘….by means of a series of interlinked loops.’ (Hallett, C. & Johnston, A. 2010, page 22) A knitted fabric can be constructed as either a weft knit or a warp knit. Weft knitting is the movement of needles to create the loops and warp knitting is the movement of the yarn to produce the loops.
Figure 3.0 - Weft & Warp Knitting
The two constructions have a different physical appearance and different properties. Both weft and warp knits can be produced with different gauges, depending on the intended purpose. For instance, a basic Primark cardigan may have a fine gauge, whereas a knitted jumper from Jack Wills may have a thicker gauge for aesthetic properties. In mass production knitting can be produced on either circular machines or flat bed machines.
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Figure 3.1 - Circular Knitting Machine There are three different methods in which a knitted garment can be produced; fully fashioned, cut stitched shape wear or whole garment. Fully fashioned refers to the method of where the garment pieces are knitted individually to the required shape. This involves little cutting and little wastage, which are two major advantages to this method of knitting. Another advantage is that the fabric pieces do not fray as the selvedge is preserved. In order to shape the knitted fabric for the garment less loops are knitted to decrease the width of the fabric and more loops are knitted in order to increase the width of the fabric. Fully fashioned knitwear is popularly produced in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and China. Cut stitch shape knitwear garments are produced by cutting the pattern pieces from the fabric and stitching them together at the seams. This is a similar process in which most woven garments are produced. Unlike the other two methods of knitting cut stitch shape wear produces waste material in a similar way as woven garments. This is a disadvantage to the retailer as it increases the cost of the fabric. Whole garment is the system of producing a garment all in one process. Whole garments are made using circular machines and the sleeves are knitted to the bodice at the same time. All seams are integral and there is very little waste. If garments are not quality control checked throughout the production process, quality control checks are completed at the end of production. If the garment has not already been dyed and requires whole garment dyeing or finishing the garments may be shipped to another factory unless the factory has the facilities for this. Most finishes can be applied to the garments under the same roof although, â€˜â€Śsome specialist finishes may require the fabric to be sent out to a specific finishing plant.’ (Hallett, C. & Johnston, A. 2010, page 43) Finishing processes may include; waterproofing treatments- although this is uncommon in knitwear, especially because wool is hydrophobic- enhancing treatments and additive treatments, such as fire-retardancy.
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Once the garments are ready to be sold to the consumer, they must be shipped from the manufacturer to the warehouse. It is the role of the buyer and merchandiser to ensure the critical path is adhered to and delivery occurs on the date original discussed during negotiation unless rectified since. Shipping can often take a couple of weeks if manufacture took place countries such as India, Bangladesh, China. Garments that are from countries such as these often arrive via ship and the garments are packed in boxes in containers which protect the garments from the elements. Shipping can take anywhere between 4-5 weeks (Jackson, T. & Shaw D. 2006) to reach a port in England and then the garments must then be transported to the warehouse via road. The stock is then distributed between stores, which is organised by the merchandiser. Importing garments from offshore takes significantly longer to reach the retailer than if the garments were produced in the United Kingdom or Europe, however lower labour costs and overhead costs are attractive to UK retailers and enable the retailer to gain a higher profit margin. Moreover, the designer, buyer and merchandiser generally plan their ranges up to a year in advance, therefore taking into consideration the freight time when planning and organising the critical path.
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3.Locally to Offshore Manufacturing During the late 1990s, the manufacturing of knitted apparel moved offshore. The main reason for the rise in offshore manufacturing was lower labour costs in countries, such as Bangladesh and India. In 1994, the minimum wage in Bangladesh was 930BDT/£8.43 per month (Rashid, M. 2013), which rose to 3,000BDT/£27.02 per month in 2010 (Rashid, M. 2013) . In 2010, the minimum wage was £5.80 per hour in the UK (Carty, M. 2009), therefore a worker would have to work a maximum of 5 hours in order to earn more than a worker in Bangladesh would earn in a month. Lower labour costs as well as lower overhead fees lead to a lower garment cost price overall; which buyers are constantly competing for. When choosing a supplier, it is essential buyers and garment technologists ensure the factory adheres to ethical policies, as this may be a reason behind the low labour costs. In some countries factory workers do not get paid a wage as such, instead they are provided with accommodation, food and healthcare (and/or similar). Factory workers in third world countries in Asia often struggle to afford what first world countries, such as England consider basics- food and water. Therefore, that form of payment is more than adequate to Asian workers, whereas it would be inadequate for a factory worker in England who would expect a certain wage per hour. As new technology is being developed everyday it is becoming easier for buyers and suppliers to communicate with one another on a regular basis through telecommunications such as Skype and email. Many UK retailers are purchasing improved teleconferencing systems in order to deal directly with far eastern buying and manufacturing offices (Jackson, T. & Shaw, D. 2001). Without the use of technology, it would prove difficult for the buyer to contact the supplier and vice versa and would result in more trips to the supplier’s country, which would lead to higher expenses. For instance, what is now considered everyday technology, emailing has allowed for instant communication with manufacturers and without the internet it would take days/weeks to send specifications to another country. Furthermore, if I problem were to arise it could have required travelling to the manufacturer to resolve the issue. There is also the concern of language barriers which have been overcome by the use of advanced technology, such as CAD/CAM.
Figure 4.0 - CAD/CAM Knitting Machines
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Fortunately as well as new technologies, ‘international business travel is becoming cheaper all the time, enabling both buyers and suppliers in the fashion industry to work easily and conveniently in any country.’ (Jackson, T. & Shaw, D. 2001, page 119). Towards the end of the 20TH century fast fashion became increasingly popular and the demand for fashion increased. In countries such as Bangladesh, large factory complexes allow for the mass production of fast fashion and specialist knitting machinery.
Figure 4.1 - Knitting Factory in Bangladesh
A disadvantage to using offshore suppliers is the lead times of goods. Lead times can be anywhere between a few weeks to six months or even longer depending on the fabric and garment construction (Shaw, D. & Koumbis, D. 2014).
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4. knitted fashion product: Where is it currently sourced When exploring the country of origin of knitwear in UK high street retailers, it is rare to find countries outside of the known giants - China, Bangladesh and Turkey. China currently holds a 38% share of the global clothing manufacture industry, although this is facing challenges. Zhao Hong, director of international trade of the China National Textile and Apparel Council, says “China’s overall economic situation is changing, and stricter environmental regulations and higher land and labour costs have all had their effects”. The minimum wage in China is increasing 10% year on year, and as low cost, highly skilled labour was China’s main asset to retailer’s, their exports are decreasing, by 11.5% in 2014 and a further 12% in 2015 (Kastner, 2015). Ashesh Amin, COO of Adrianna Pappell, a US based apparel brand offering a number of jersey garments as part of their range, says “lead times for supplying orders by Chinese factories have increased by 10%-20%, and their prices have gone up by 6-8%”. The manager of Ningbo Aoqi Technological Knitting Co. says “Factories (in Bangladesh) offer as low as 300 yuan a month for textile workers, which is much lower than 4000 yuan in China, as they don’t have rigid regulations” (Zhu Jing, 2015). This is making Amin and many others turn to countries such as Bangladesh and India, where lower labour costs means lower manufacturing costs. Previously, China has been favoured for it’s highly skilled labour force, although workers are now beginning to explore other industries offering better working conditions, meaning factory owners are loosing their edge. Turkey and Bangladesh meanwhile are spending vast amounts of money to improve factory conditions and train staff to a higher level, hoping to pick up the share of the market lost by China.
Whilst researching in-store the country of origin of high street knitwear, Turkey was a popular choice for brands such as Next, Mint Velvet and Jigsaw. According to www.knittingindustry.com, Turkey’s clothing exports grew by 9% in 2014, following an 8% growth in 2013. If this is to continue, Turkey will overtake India as the third biggest exporter of knitwear product in the next 5 years.
The garment industry employs 1.5 billion people in Bangladesh, and contributes 40% of the countries exports (The Financial Post, 2016). The Bangladesh Garment Manufactures and Exports Association has released plans to catch up to clothing export leaders by investing heavily in sustainable factories and training to match China’s association with highly skilled labour, intending to double their clothing exports to $50billion by 2021. They reported a promising 9% growth in the first 6 months of the 2015/16 financial year. To achieve this, a number of factories have applied for green certificates in an attempt to lure buyers. Retailers are increasingly recognising the importance of sustainable fashion, not only for the benefit of the planet but also as a marketing ploy in an increasingly ethically aware society. A number of manufacturers globally, but particularly in Bangladesh, are renovating their factories in order to meet internationally recognised standards such as LEED (Leadership in Energy and
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Environmental Design). Since 2010, the Boston Consulting Group has been researching how organisations industry-wide have dealt with sustainability issues, and believe that as many as 50% of businesses have altered their business models in response to demand for sustainable fashion, an increase of 20% on last year (Just-style.com, 2016).The BGMEA have noticed this trend, and as of December 2015, 14 factories have received LEED certification according to BGMEA, and are cashing in on this, as retailers particularly in the EU are under pressure to choose sustainable sources, even if this means higher costs. This has opened up a number of opportunities. Plummy Fashions, a newly refurbished knitted garment manufacturer in Bangladesh, recently broke the record for the highest LEED score (Plummyfashions.com, 2016). This title as the ‘Greenest Knitwear Manufacturer in the World’ has attracted attention from British retailers M&S and Espirit, both of which are in talks about sourcing large quantities of their knitwear garments here in the future. This would greatly assist the BGMEA’s goal to double Bangladesh’s garment industry in the next 5 years.
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5. knitted fashion product: a consideration of where it may be sourced in the future Julie Wilkins, head designer of Future Classics, a specialist knitwear label, says that “knitwear production is very labour intensive and specialised… it is hard to find factories willing to work with you and produce complex pieces” (2014). Therefore it is likely that knitwear production will continue to be produced predominantly in the countries that already have established themselves as large exporters of knitted product. Predictions suggest that Turkey will continue to thrive in the future, despite production costs being 30-40% higher than countries such as China or India (Just-style.com, 2014), but in a world of fast fashion, Turkey’s ability to offer short runs and 4 week turnarounds is more beneficial to retailers. In particular, knitwear production in Turkey grew by 10% in 2014, which allows for further growth in this areas as manufacturers purchase more specialised equipment. The structure of the Turkish garment industry is changing to accommodate this rise in demand. Mustafa Balkur, chairman of the TRISAD (Turkish Knitwear Industrialists Association) says “There were previously many smaller companies in Turkey”, however increased demand and a desire from retailers for prices competitive with the Far East has caused restructuring. “Many companies have chosen to share production facilities or merge…this means there are more and more big companies. Productivity is improving, which means that a more competitive price can be achieved” (Just-style.com, 2014). Gunhan Kildrain, co-owner of Gün Örme, a knitwear factory in Instanbul, says that increased demand has put pressure on companies to invest in research and development and new technologies. With improved equipment and lower prices, it can be expected for Turkey’s garment industry to continue to go from strength to strength.
In the last 10 years, Cambodia has gained 0.7% market share of the clothing exports industry, taking it 1.8% in 2015 (Gmac-cambodia.org, 2016). The garment industry already accounts for around 80% of Cambodia’s exports, employing around 600,000 people (Cambodian Garment and Footwear Sector Bulletin, 2015). Cambodia is still primarily thought of as a producer of basic CutMake-Trim garments, making up 60% of the garment industry there, predominantly due to very low labour costs, which, of course, is a benefit for retailers sourcing there, however this means that most workers are of a lower skill level. Nonetheless, a number of large UK high street retailers source from Cambodia, such as Next, the Inditex group, H&M and Gap. Because of this, and the slow lead times caused by Cambodia’s geographic location, over 40% of the countries clothing exports are basic jersey items, and another 40% made up of jeans, which require simple manufacturing processes, and are not reliant on fast-fashion turnaround times. However, Cambodia reported a growth of 6.7% in 2015 (Cambodian Garment and Footwear Sector Bulletin, 2016), and are predicted to continue this upward curve as China’s growing costs force buyers to search for emerging countries to sources.
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Although the wool industry is an important part of British textile heritage, the UK has not been at the forefront of knitted garment manufacture for a number years. Recently, the demand for apparel produced in the UK has grown, particularly knitwear, perhaps in part due to the 2010 Campaign for Wool, a worldwide campaign launched in the UK to promote the global manufacture of woollen garments. Environmental issues have also caused designers to source closer to home, to reduce the company’s carbon footprint. This not only benefits the planet, but has a positive impact on the way a brand is perceived. The National Marketing Institute estimates that 80% of consumers are engaged by what is known as ‘Green Marketing’ - marketing that specifically emanates the idea that the product/brand is environmentally friendly, and 17% of consumers would be more likely to make a purchase if the item was environmentally friendly (Marketing-schools.org, 2016). The British luxury market has already begun to source its knitwear manufacture internally, and Londonbased designer Lucas Nascimento says “Environmental impact affects everything around me and I try to implement it as much as possible. I am trying to get most of my production done in the UK, using factories in London and Leicester” (Udale, 2014). The ‘Made in Britain’ label is know seen as a badge of quality, and many high street retailers are producing ranges manufactured here. In 2015 Marks and Spencer’s launched their Best of British range, including a number of jersey garments knitted in the UK, and this is set to continue. Colin Henry, chief executive of Jaeger, has revealed plans to produce 10-15% of its range, which includes a number of knitted garments, in the UK by 2016 (Dyson, 2015). Henry also plans to move 40% of its manufacture from China to Europe, particularly Portugal and Turkey.
An increase in digitally assisted design, particularly within the high end market (Udale, 2014) may mean knitwear production migrating to far eastern Asia. A spokesman from Onward Kashiyama Co. says that over the next year they will shift around 10% of its knitwear production from China to Japan, due to advancements in automated production systems which are less labour intensive. China’s main advantages in terms of sourcing are low cost and highly skilled labour, but with theses new technological advances, other factors are more prominent (Wall Street Journal, 2014).
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Conclusion To conclude, over the past few decades the global supply chain of knitted apparel has evolved dramatically. Manufacture has moved from local to offshore to compete with cost prices. Due to the rise in technology and teleconferencing systems, communication between buyers and suppliers has developed. These advances allow for garments to be tracked as they cross the world and follow the critical path. Knitwear production is predominantly still done offshore today, due to much lower labour costs greatly reducing manufacturing prices and allowing for much higher profit margins for retailers. Although China has lead for a number of years, Bangladesh and Turkey each have their own advantages for buyers now, which may overshadow China’s reputation. Turkey is much more effective for fast fashion retailers, who offer short runs with quick turnarounds, and manufacturing costs are beginning to compete with the Far East. Predictions show Bangladesh will succeed to increase its market share as facilities improve, attracting retailers. ‘Made in Britain’ garments are also set to continue to be successful, as survey results show over 70% of consumers would prefer to purchase locally produced knitwear garments (see appendices), potentially meaning an increase in UK knitwear production.
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7. Appendices 7.1 References Cambodian Garment and Footwear Sector Bulletin | Issue 2 (English) | Better Factories Cambodia. (2015). [online] Betterfactories.org. Available at: http://betterfactories.org/?p=10557 [Accessed 8 Mar. 2016]. CARTY, M. 2009. National minimum wage 2009/2010: 1.2% increase to £5.80 per hour announced for October 2009. (Online) Xpert HR. Available at: http://www.xperthr.co.uk/blogs/ employment-intelligence/2009/05/national-minimum-wage-20092010-3/ Date assessed: 7 March 2016 Dyson, J. (2015). Sourcing shifts: Is reshoring really happening?. [online] Just-style.com. Available at: http://www.just-style.com/management-briefing/is-reshoring-really-happening_id125316.aspx [Accessed 17 Mar. 2016]. Gmac-cambodia.org, (2016). Garment Manufacturers Association in Cambodia-GMAC. [online] Available at: http://www.gmac-cambodia.org/imp-exp/garment.php [Accessed 1 Mar. 2016]. Hallett, C. & Johnston A. Fabric For Fashion. London, Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2010. Hammond, L. and Anjum, M. (2015). Will green growth bolster Bangladesh garment exports?. [online] Just-style.com. Available at: http://www.just-style.com/analysis/will-green-growth-bolsterbangladesh-garment-exports_id126674.aspx [Accessed 2 Mar. 2016]. Jackson, T. & Shaw, D. Fashion Buying & Merchandising Management. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 Just-style.com, (2016). Bangladesh H1 garment exports up over 9%. [online] Available at: http:// www.just-style.com/news/bangladesh-h1-garment-exports-up-over-9_id126941.aspx [Accessed 1 Mar. 2016]. Kastner, J. (2015). Sourcing shifts: Is garment production really moving out of China?. [online] Just-style.com. Available at: http://www.just-style.com/management-briefing/is-garmentproduction-really-moving-out-of-china_id125312.aspx [Accessed 7 Mar. 2016]. Marketing-schools.org, (2016). Green Marketing | What is Green Marketing?. [online] Available at: http://www.marketing-schools.org/types-of-marketing/green-marketing.html [Accessed 1 Mar. 2016]. Plummyfashions.com, (2016). plummyfashions – Greenest knitwear factory in the world. [online] Available at: http://plummyfashions.com [Accessed 3 Mar. 2016]. RASHID, M. 2013. Wages in the RMG industry. (Online) Dhaka Tribune. Available at: http:// www.dhakatribune.com/op-ed/2013/sep/26/wages-rmg-industry Date assessed: 2 March 2016 The Financial Post, (2016). Main content area Bangladesh gears up for knitwear export boom. Turkey looks to strong clothing export growth in 2014. [online] Just-style.com. Available at: http:// www.just-style.com/analysis/turkey-looks-to-strong-clothing-export-growth-in-2014_id120621.aspx [Accessed 1 Mar. 2016]. Udale, J. (2014). Fashion knitwear. Laurence King Shaw, D. & Koumbis, D. Fashion Buying From Trend Forecasting to Shop Floor. London, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014.
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7.2 Bibliography Printed Works Cresswell, L. Textiles at the Cutting Edge. London, Forbes Publications, 2002. Eberle, H., Hornberger, M., Kupke R., Moll, A., Hermeling, H., Kilgus, R., Menzer, D. & Ring, W. Clothing Technology. Germany, Vollmer GmbH & Co, 2008. Hallett, C. & Johnston A. Fabric For Fashion. London, Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2010. Jackson, T. & Shaw, D. Fashion Buying & Merchandising Management. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. Jackson, T. & Shaw, D. The Fashion Handbook. Oxon, Routledge, 2006. Shaw, D. & Koumbis, D. Fashion Buying From Trend Forecasting to Shop Floor. London, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014. Tortora, P. & Collier B. Understanding Textiles. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1997. Udale, J. (2014). Fashion knitwear. Laurence King Online Anjoran, R. 2009. Quality Inspection. (Online) Available at: https://qualityinspection.org/cmt-cutmake-trim/ Date assessed: 13 March 2016 CARTY, M. 2009. National minimum wage 2009/2010: 1.2% increase to £5.80 per hour announced for October 2009. (Online) Xpert HR. Available at: http://www.xperthr.co.uk/blogs/ employment-intelligence/2009/05/national-minimum-wage-20092010-3/ Date assessed: 7 March 2016 Cambodian Garment and Footwear Sector Bulletin | Issue 2 (English) | Better Factories Cambodia. (2015). [online] Betterfactories.org. Available at: http://betterfactories.org/?p=10557 [Accessed 8 Mar. 2016]. DASPAL, D. 2016. Apparel Supply Chain and it’s Variants. (Online) Fibre 2 Fashion. Available at: http://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry-article/3315/apparel-supply-chain-and-its-variants? page=2 Date assessed: 12 March 2016 Dyson, J. (2015). Sourcing shifts: Is reshoring really happening?. [online] Just-style.com. Available at: http://www.just-style.com/management-briefing/is-reshoring-really-happening_id125316.aspx [Accessed 17 Mar. 2016]. Hammond, L. and Anjum, M. (2015). Will green growth bolster Bangladesh garment exports?. [online] Just-style.com. Available at: http://www.just-style.com/analysis/will-green-growth-bolsterbangladesh-garment-exports_id126674.aspx [Accessed 2 Mar. 2016]. Just-style.com, (2016). Bangladesh H1 garment exports up over 9%. [online] Available at: http:// www.just-style.com/news/bangladesh-h1-garment-exports-up-over-9_id126941.aspx [Accessed 1 Mar. 2016]. Kastner, J. (2015). Sourcing shifts: Is garment production really moving out of China?. [online] Just-style.com. Available at: http://www.just-style.com/management-briefing/is-garmentproduction-really-moving-out-of-china_id125312.aspx [Accessed 7 Mar. 2016].
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Marketing-schools.org, (2016). Green Marketing | What is Green Marketing?. [online] Available at: http://www.marketing-schools.org/types-of-marketing/green-marketing.html [Accessed 1 Mar. 2016]. Plummyfashions.com, (2016). plummyfashions – Greenest knitwear factory in the world. [online] Available at: http://plummyfashions.com [Accessed 3 Mar. 2016]. RASHID, M. 2013. Wages in the RMG industry. (Online) Dhaka Tribune. Available at: http:// www.dhakatribune.com/op-ed/2013/sep/26/wages-rmg-industry Date assessed: 2 March 2016 The Financial Post, (2016). Main content area Bangladesh gears up for knitwear export boom. Turkey looks to strong clothing export growth in 2014. [online] Just-style.com. Available at: http:// www.just-style.com/analysis/turkey-looks-to-strong-clothing-export-growth-in-2014_id120621.aspx [Accessed 1 Mar. 2016].
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7.3 List of Figures Cover Photo - http://www.trendhunter.com/trends/stine-ladefoged-dramatic-knits 3.0 - Weft & Warp Knitting https://imac4.wordpress.com/page/2/ 3.1 - Circular Knitting Machine http://www.knittingindustry.com/santoni-develops-90-gaugelarge-diameter-circular-knitting-machine/ 4.0 - Knitting CAD/CAM Machines http://158.132.122.156/knit/shima_seiki_cad_cam.htm 4.1 - Knitting Factory in Bangladesh http://bhr.stern.nyu.edu/bangladesh/
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7.4 Survey Results
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