Managing Carbon in Design & Construction Strategies & Resources by LS3P

Managing Carbon in Design & Construction Strategies & Resources DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS

an essential part of life on earth

Carbon: A Building Block for Life Carbon, an essential part of life on Earth, is the fourth most common element in the universe (behind hydrogen, helium, and oxygen). Humans are carbon-based life forms; so are all the other living things on the planet. Though the total (and substantial) amount of carbon remains constant, its location varies due to a natural process known as the carbon cycle.i The carbon stored in living things and in the Earth’s materials is gradually and continuously released into the atmosphere, where it becomes carbon dioxide (CO2). This atmospheric carbon is eventually reabsorbed into carbon sinks such as oceans and forests. This cycle occurs over geological time frames, meaning that over thousands of years the earth may gradually cool and warm as the carbon balance shifts.

Shifting the Balance These natural rhythms have involved a gradual give-and-take over the eons, aside from occasional volcanic eruption or other geologic events. The Industrial Revolution, however, was a profound and sudden disruptor. The accelerating consumption of fossil fuels for industry, transportation, construction, agriculture, and other uses over the last century has been a very effective mechanism for extracting carbon from the earth and releasing it rapidly into the atmosphere. Human activities have dramatically shifted the carbon cycle in one direction, and the amount of carbon being released into the atmosphere now far outpaces the earth’s ability to reabsorb carbon and store it in carbon sinks. This disruption to the carbon cycle has massive impacts on the Earth’s climate. Because carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, the recent shift in the carbon cycle is quickly warming the Earth. Over the last 60 years, the rate of carbon entering the atmosphere has been approximately 100 times faster than natural processes.ii According to NASA, the Earth’s temperature has risen 1.9 degrees Fahrenheit since pre-industrial times, with most of the warming occurring since 1975.iii Rising global temperatures are already causing devastating consequences in the form of natural disasters such as stronger storms, hotter and more frequent wildfires, extreme droughts, heat waves, and flooding. A rapidly changing climate is less predictable, and its effects will be measured not only in rising temperatures, but in costs to human life and safety, losses in biodiversity and habitat, damages to infrastructure, rebuilding or relocation expenses, disaster relief, and many others.

Reversing the Cycle Understanding the role of carbon in our changing climate is the first step towards mitigating the long-term impacts, and the architecture and construction industries have the opportunity to drive positive change. Our built environment is responsible for 40% of annual global CO2 emissions, 27% from building operations and 13% from materials and construction.iv In his book The New

Carbon Architecture: Building to Cool the Climate,v structural engineer Bruce King anticipates that two trillion SF of new construction will be needed globally by 2050 – the equivalent of building a new New York City each month for 35 years. The US share of that construction will be 170 billion SF.vi If that new construction can both reduce and sequester carbon, the positive impacts could be transformative. Pathways to reach a zero-carbon economy do exist, though they will require significant changes to our energy grid, electrification of our transit systems, and overhauling design and construction for zero-carbon buildings. These transitions will require significant investment and collaboration, but the costs of inaction are becoming evident in the rising costs of disaster recovery. In 2022 alone, 18 natural disasters in the US led to $165 billion in damages. In a warming climate, the frequency of natural disasters is also increasing; in the 1980s, the average time between billion-dollar disasters was 82 days. Today’s average is 18 days.vii Mitigating further damage will require immediate action, but getting to zero carbon in our buildings is an achievable goal with far-reaching impacts.

Achieving carbon neutrality will require both a significant reduction in CO2 generating activities, and strategies to sequester carbon. US energy-related CO2 emissions have, on average, been falling since their peak in 2007.viii Much more work is needed, however, to address CO2 emissions in construction, industry, transportation, and other sectors. In the building sector specifically, getting to net zero carbon begins with reducing both the operational carbon and the embodied carbon involved in construction. Operational carbon includes all the emissions used to power a building over its lifespan, from lighting to heating and air conditioning to plug loads. Embodied carbon includes the emissions required to construct the built environment – extraction and transportation of materials, plus energy used to power construction equipment – resulting in a staggering 11% of human-caused carbon emissions. ix Fortunately, the steps to designing and constructing a zero-carbon building are straightforward: integrate best practices for passive solar design, select materials to minimize embodied carbon, electrify all systems, and provide renewable energy sources to power the building. The process is achievable, but not easy. However, low embodied energy materials, electric building systems, and renewable energy options are becoming more common; are required by code in some districts, regions, and states; and are becoming more affordable with widespread adoption.

Our built environment is responsible for 40% of annual global CO2 emissions, 27% from building operations and 13% from materials and construction. iv

Designing for Net Zero Operational Carbon Beginning the design process with an understanding of future predicted weather patterns and a focus on passive design strategies such as optimal building orientation, natural ventilation, and daylighting is a no-cost, high-impact strategy for reducing the amount of power needed to operate a building over its lifetime. When the building’s footprint, orientation, and form are determined, the design team can right-size and select the active systems best suited for heating, air conditioning, lighting, and other resilient response and functions.

Passive Strategies Passive design strategies (also known as bioclimatic design strategies) minimize energy consumption without requiring an active source of energy to operate. In the Southeast, common strategies might include: 1. Building orientation with the long axis running east/west 2. Carefully placed high-performance windows to minimize solar heat gain in summer, harvest sunlight in the fall and winter, and maximize daylighting year-round 3. Adding strategic shading devices and xeriscape site responses 4. Designing for natural light and ventilation

Recommended established certification programs for passive design include Passive House Institute (PHI) or Passive House Institute US (Phius). While a project does not necessarily need to obtain Passive House certification to obtain the full benefits of the program, certification is recommended. These standards are becoming more widely adopted: the city of Brussels has required all new construction to meet passive house standards since 2015x and Phius standards have been incorporated into energy codes in Colorado, Massachusetts, New York, and Washington.xi Passive House requirements include:xii 1. Superinsulated envelopes 2. Airtight construction 3. High performance glazing 4. Thermal bridge-free detailing 5. Heat recovery ventilation Passive design strategies can be extremely effective at reducing the energy required to operate a building; PHI reports that passive house principles can reduce energy use by 90% as compared to existing building stock and 75% as compared to average new construction.xiii

Active Strategies If passive design can reduce a building’s operational energy requirements to 10-25% of those of existing or standard buildings, then this amount of energy can readily be supplied by onsite renewable energy through active strategies. Active strategies directly engage with a building’s electrical needs. Examples include solar panels, energy recovery units, and heat pumps. Full building electrification is a key component in reducing operational carbon; natural gas stoves and other natural gas appliances are not recommended and can negatively impact both indoor air quality and carbon emissions. Some certification programs (such as International Living Future Institute, Living Buildings, and PHIUS Zero) will also not allow projects using fossil fuels in any capacity to participate.

A recent McKinsey & Company report estimates that up to 50% of a building’s carbon emissions occur during the construction phase.

Designing for Low Embodied Carbon Designing for net zero operational carbon is a critical step, but designers must also consider the carbon generated in constructing a building. A recent McKinsey & Company report estimates that up to 50% of a building’s carbon emissions occur during the construction phase. While operational carbon can be lowered over the life of the building, the embodied carbon is locked in once the building is complete. It is critical that lowering embodied carbon is an upfront project goal and not an afterthought.xiv Repurposing an existing building can yield substantial carbon savings. Before undertaking a new construction project, clients and designers should consider whether an existing space can be retrofitted or updated for a new use. Adaptive reuse capitalizes on the embodied carbon already invested in the original structure and minimizes the energy involved in demolition, new materials, and transportation. According to the AIA’s “10 Steps to Reducing Embodied Carbon,” adaptive reuse saves 50-75% embodied carbon compared to new construction, most of which resides in the structure.xv

Adaptive reuse isn’t just beneficial from an environmental standpoint; this strategy can also preserve the beauty, history, and culture inherent in existing structures and materials. People love to inhabit spaces that feel authentic and tell a story, and a wise design strategy from a carbon perspective may boost a building’s appeal – and economic value – as well.xvi When new construction is the most viable option, a detailed life cycle assessment (LCA) will help to determine materials with the lowest embodied carbon which are suitable for the project. The highest carbon impact comes from three primary materials: insulation, concrete, and steel/meta. Deploying these materials strategically can greatly reduce impacts. Carbon sequestering materials such as dense-pack cellulose, mass timber, and bamboo also store carbon for added project benefits. The American Institute of Architects (AIA) recommends these 10 strategies to reduce embodied carbon:xvii 1. Choose adaptive reuse over new construction. The carbon emitted in new construction can equal years, if not decades, of operational carbon emissions; reusing an existing space is likely to be a lower carbon choice. 2. Specify low-carbon concrete mixes. Concrete is heavy, and the amount used in many projects yields a significant amount of carbon emissions. Adding structurally appropriate materials to the mix can help reduce impacts.

3. Limit carbon-intensive materials. Where carbon-intensive materials are critical, employ them strategically. 4. Select lower carbon options for the structure, cladding, and finishes. 5. Select materials that sequester carbon onsite. Wood and other natural materials perform this function, along with many materials currently being developed and tested for this purpose. 6. Opt for salvaged materials where possible. Reuse of existing materials not only recycles their embodied carbon, but also eliminates the carbon emissions required to create new materials for the same purpose. 7. Choose high recycled content when selecting materials, particularly with steel. 8. Design for structural efficiency to minimize waste and use of excess materials. 9. Minimize finish materials; one strategy is to design structure that doubles as finished surfaces. 10. Reduce construction waste by working with standard dimensions.

Balancing Project Needs for Materials Selection Every material choice comes with pros and cons, and making the right choice for each project will require careful consideration and a balance of priorities. Designers must consider the impacts of each choice on embodied carbon, energy efficiency (which will impact operational carbon), function, human comfort, budget, schedule, and aesthetics. Glass, for example, comes with a higher embodied carbon than many other materials, and specifying higher performance glazing systems for energy efficiency can add more materials and therefore more carbon. However, a connection to the outdoors in the form of natural light, views, and fresh air is essential to human comfort and wellness, so strategically placed windows are essential to the design of a building that will both serve its purpose and endure.

Supply chains may also influence material selections. Cross laminated timber may be an ideal fit for a project, but may not yet be available locally in the quantities required to complete a building on schedule or be harvested in a Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified manner. Emerging materials may also be more expensive to source and install as manufacturers scale up production. It is crucial to involve the general contractor and other stakeholders early in the process to discuss options that best accommodate carbon, energy, budget, schedule, and design goals. Salvaged materials can be an excellent option to minimize embodied carbon, and material reuse centers may be a good resource for strategic materials. Connecting the right pieces to the right project, and at the right scale, can be challenging, but local materials reuse centers, Habitat ReStores (900 locations nationwide), and even word of mouth through social media, your project’s contractor, or neighborhood listservs are possibilities for sourcing reusable materials. Rheaply, a software company focused on transforming how to source, procure and use resources helps connect designers and architects with existing assets which are available for reuse in other workspaces, building materials, technology and even lab equipment. Brokerage and liquidation companies like Envirotech help keep unwanted furniture out of the warehouse or landfill by maximizing the value of unused furnishings through remanufacturing, resale/repurpose, donation or recycling. The national community organization Build Reuse is dedicated to building material reuse and empowering communities to turn construction and demolition waste into local resources, making reuse the norm, and enacting legislation for funding and incentives for doing so. Slowly the existing resource pool is growing thanks to these efforts and many others.

case study

refurbished storage palettes as a ceiling treatment

Bitty & Beau’s Charleston, SC

salvaged architectural trim in the point-of-sale counter

case study

thrifted pool cues became artwork

Two Keys Pub Summerville, SC

salvaged wood and reclaimed windows form the back bar and accent walls

To facilitate ease of reuse for future projects, architects should design for future disassembly whenever possible. Something as simple as specifying materials joined by mechanical fasteners, rather than adhesives, make the product ready to disassemble and reuse in the future. AIA’s practice guide, Design for Adaptability, Deconstruction,

and Reusexviii looks at strategies for designing in this way including the environmental, health and economic benefits of using these strategies, pitfalls to watch out for and how to handle them, as well as case studies that demonstrate how flexible design can be beautiful design.

To facilitate ease of reuse for future projects, architects should design for future disassembly whenever possible.

For building interiors, Metropolis suggests an array of strategies to reduce carbon over the life of the spacexix: • Dematerialize: choose quantities carefully, and prioritize fewer, less complex materials and components • Decarbonize: specify carbon-neutral products where possible • Reuse/Recycle: set ambitious goals for reused/recycled products, and choose vendors with take-back programs when new items are required • Plan utilities for flexibility: ensure that utilities can serve multiple zones and uses over time • Avoid trends: choose timeless aesthetics for items meant to endure • Plan to refresh: choose items that can be reupholstered or refinished instead of replaced • Choose flexibility: prioritize furnishings over permanent fixtures to delineate spaces • Design for deconstruction: deconstructable materials are preferable to demountable materials. Making it facile to update or reconfigure the interiors means that a space can easily adapt to new uses, new users, or evolving trends with a lower carbon impact (and can save the owners time and money as well). The embodied carbon savings from these efforts impact health, sustainability, and a more circular lifecycle.

Best Practices by Material Type Environmental product declarations (EPDs) are an important tool for comparing embodied carbon across construction materials. EPDs are standardized, independently verified documents which contain valuable data about the environmental impacts of a product over its lifecycle. Comprehensive databases comparing various options remain sparse, but the Inflation Reduction Act earmarks $350 million to make it easier to choose lower carbon materials in construction, including grants and technical assistance for improving EPDs and carbon labeling for common products.xx Designers should encourage vendors and suppliers to provide EPDs for all products introduced so that teams can specify only products having complete comparative knowledge of materials options.

Resources such as Architecture 2030’s Carbon Smart Materials Palette will help designers and their clients reduce embodied carbon through data on a variety of common materials.xxi The Carbon Leadership Forum’s Material Baselines for North America document also provides a comparison of typical building materials according to global warming potential (GWP).

Insulation Avoid traditional extruded polystyrene (XPS) foam, which is responsible for substantially more carbon emissions than other options. Mineral fiber/wool insulation is a much lower carbon option. Where rigid insulation is required, choose expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam, and stick to an HFO blowing agent. HFC is high embodied carbon and a a harmful greenhouse gas. Several insulation options have negative embodied carbon, meaning that they sequester carbon to reduce total carbon impacts of a project. These include denim batt, wool, dense pack cellulose, cork, hempcrete and straw bale.xxii

Concrete As one of the most common building materials, concrete is responsible for 6-10% of human-caused carbon emissions. This impact is partly due to fossil fuels burned in production (40%), and partly due to chemical reactions during processing. Many strategies, however, can lower the carbon impacts. Designers should aim for 30-40% fly ash/slag concrete if possible, reducing carbon-causing material without compromising compressive strength. Evaluating strength at 56 (or more) days could reduce the overall amount of material required, and less material translates directly to less carbon. In the manufacturing process, dry kilns use less energy than wet kilns. Some companies are creating innovative technologies to sequester carbon from the manufacturing process; for example, CarbonCure has a CO2 injection process that removes carbon from the atmosphere and increases concrete strength.xxiv

Steel Steel is an easily recycled material and does not lose any of its structural strength when melted and re-forged. Steel with a high recycled content contains up to five times less embodied carbon than virgin steel, and is more likely to be produced in a more efficient electric arc furnace (EAF) than a traditional basic oxygen furnace (BOF).xxv Designers should also work with engineers and fabricators to identify the lightest, most efficient design that is appropriate for the project. Braced steel is typically lighter than moment joints, and joists/trusses may be more efficient than rolled shapes.

Wood Mass timber products such as glulam and cross laminated timber (CLT) are gaining in popularity, both for aesthetic and environmental reasons. Wood sequesters carbon for the life of the materials; it is also easy to salvage and reuse. The structural properties of CLT, along with changing codes, are making it easier to select wood instead of steel and concrete for increasingly taller buildings. Using wood as a lower carbon material also means delivering a lighter building using less material overall, so the benefits compound.

Mass timber products such as glulam and cross laminated timber (CLT) are gaining in popularity, both for aesthetic and environmental reasons.

Sustainably harvested wood has a lower embodied carbon than traditional harvesting methods, and sourcing local products (typically defined as within a 500-mile radius) reduces the carbon involved with transportation. Because carbon is released into the atmosphere when wood burns or decays, reusing wood from project to project (for example, repurposing wood structural members as flooring or furnishings) will sequester carbon as long as possible. Using mechanical fasteners instead of adhesives will make salvage and reuse easier, and designing with standard dimensions in mind will help to minimize waste from cut-offs.

Building Facade Materials Wood-based materials offer a low carbon option for cladding, with the added benefit of carbon sequestration onsite. Avoid aluminum composite metal (ACM) panels; aluminum requires (and wastes) a significant amount of energy in the extraction and production process.xxvi Steel is a lower carbon choice for metal panels, but steel panels may require additional structure due to the additional weight. Phenolic composites have lower impact than ACM; select composites that do not require raw material extraction and have high recycled content. Low carbon precast panels are preferable to aluminum/ACM, and ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) composite panels may offer the lowest embodied carbon product for both cladding and shading.xxvii

Glass Glazing is necessary for occupant comfort and wellness and should be designed strategically to minimize solar heat gain and materials use. Targeting a 30-40% window to wall ratio (WWR) will help to balance the needs of the occupants, the embodied carbon of the façade, and the operational energy performance.

Interior Finish Materials & Furniture Interior designers and interior architects should be aware of the top “hotspots” in lowering carbon for commercial projects, including cubicles, furniture, flooring, ceiling panel suspension systems, and walls.xxviii Understanding which product categories will have the greatest impact (which may vary according to design phase) will help designers focus on and research the most effective strategies. Designers should also focus on timeless palettes and finishes, and select materials that double as both structure and finish where possible. Red List free, carbon-neutral materials are preferred.xxix Adoption and following the intent of the AIA Materials Pledgexxx is recommended; additional resources include the Mindful Materials Databasexxxi and the International Living Future Institute (ILFI) Living Building Challenge Red List. xxxii

A detailed LCA including finishes and furniture will be instrumental in selecting low carbon materials for the building’s interior. EPDs for each proposed project will inform this process. Designers should consider products designed for disassembly for

adaptability and eventual reuse or recycling; these products are typically joined with mechanical fasteners rather than adhesives. Avoid hybrid products made from unrelated materials that are joined with adhesives, as these non-recyclable composites are difficult to reuse. Salvaged finish materials and furniture may be a viable option that reduces embodied carbon and preserves project budget. Before buying new items, designers should check for stock and inventory from the contractor, local architectural salvage store, or a local FF&E dealer with gently used stock. These items can often add character and texture to an interior in addition to being wise environmental choices. Many manufacturers also offer take-back and recycling programs, so designers can prioritize those vendors with realistic programs with a proven track record of success. Gypsum board is a common finish material with a high embodied carbon. To use gyp board as efficiently as possible, designers should specify the thinnest product appropriate for the location, design with standard dimensions to minimize waste, and select lightweight gyp board where possible.xxxiii

Designers can choose from a variety of strategies to reduce carbon in the flooring materials. Structural material can often double as finish material, as in the case of polished concrete, and salvage wood can be repurposed as hardwood floors. Where carpet is required, designers should consult EPDs to select a lower carbon product with a high recycled content, and should specify carpet tiles instead of broadloom to minimize waste and facilitate easy repairs.xxxiv If a resilient flooring finish is required, natural flooring materials like wood, bamboo, linoleum and rubber are preferred over luxury vinyl tile or VCT, due to the natural material’s ability to decompose in the future, not to mention its benefits to indoor air quality. To assist owners in future renovations, repairs, or replacements, designers should prepare a comprehensive set of close-out documents detailing the products and materials, take-back programs, and potential for demolition/reuse/refinishing. This information could become part of the O+M manual. Building users and owners may change over time, but educating all stakeholders on the lifestyle of materials used in a project will encourage wise stewardship of the building through various iterations of its useful life.xxxv

Interior designers and interior architects should be aware of the top “hotspots” in lowering carbon for commercial projects, including cubicles, furniture, flooring, ceiling panel suspension systems, and walls.xxviii

Site, Hardscape & Landscape Embodied carbon should be evaluated with site and landscape design. Designing to minimize cut and fill reduces the energy required to power construction equipment while sequestering carbon in the soil. Where hardscape is required, low carbon pavement with high permeability reduces embodied carbon while assisting with rainwater management. Project teams should consider site material reuse when designing hardscape, which can provide many unique opportunities. Strategies include: Installing green roofs: Green roofs offer myriad benefits including reducing heat and absorbing CO2 – up to almost four pounds per square meter annually - from the air. Planting trees: Aside from being beautiful, trees absorb C02, reduce heat through shade and evaporative cooling, and provide both wildlife habitat and biophilic benefits. Designing for Low impact Development (LID): Best practices for LID include installing rain gardens, bioswales, and permeable pavers; protecting existing habitat; and using native plants. Designing resilient landscapes: Resilient landscapes work with, not against, the site’s natural features to accommodate established site hydraulics, wind patterns, and biodiversity. Using sustainable materials. Using recycled and locally sourced landscape and hardscape materials lowers a project’s embodied carbon by reducing the need for new materials and vehicle miles traveled (VMT). Advocating for sustainable environments: Designers can use their unique skill sets to raise public awareness through education, demonstration, policy, and proactive activism

Innovative Materials in Development A growing understanding of the role of embodied carbon in climate change and emerging code requirements are driving innovation across the industry, including developing and testing emerging materials.

Examples

include

carbon-negative

bioplastic, mycelium bricks made with mushrooms, laminated bamboo, microalgae-based bioconcrete, hempcrete, recycled rubber roofing, and denim insulation. Successful new products which can be manufactured at scale have the potential to provide attractive, durable solutions which both minimize and sequester carbon.

Many strategies for reducing carbon are low- to no-cost; a Rocky Mountain Institute study found that a 1% cost premium yields carbon savings of between 19% and 40%.xxxvii

Making the Business Case for Carbon Neutral Design Achieving carbon neutral design is imperative in mitigating the effects of climate change, and will have far-reaching impacts on quality of life for humans and for the environment. It’s also good business; an investment in high performance design pays dividends over the life of the building. Many strategies for reducing carbon are low- to no-cost; a Rocky Mountain Institute study found that a 1% cost premium yields carbon savings of between 19% and 40%.xxxvii For building owners, carbon neutral buildings are a smart move for minimizing energy costs over decades. A building which generates all the energy it needs to operate will yield massive out-of-pocket savings, and is far more economically resilient in the face of changing conditions such as spikes in fuel prices. Those long-term savings can be reinvested in more impactful ways than paying the power bill.

Carbon neutral design can also minimize downtime in emergencies such as prolonged power outages in the wake of a disaster, allowing a building to remain safe and operational while the power grid is compromised. This is particularly important for critical infrastructure such as hospitals, public safety facilities, and buildings (such as K-12 schools or community centers) which double as emergency shelters. For the public, net zero carbon buildings support long-term community wellness along with fiscal responsibility. Developers, too, benefit from the increasing market value of sustainable design, as tenants increasingly demand more responsible buildings. A recent report found that buildings with a LEED certification, for example, command 21.4% more revenue per square foot than comparable buildings which are less sustainable.xxxviii The market for sustainable construction is growing, and evolving tenants expect and demand this. A thorough analysis of life cycle costs and payback periods will help architects and clients determine the appropriate strategies to reduce both operational and embodied carbon in a project. Federal tax credits, rebates, and grants related to reducing carbon are also increasingly available through the Inflation Reduction Act, governmental agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and even local utility programs. These may reduce barriers to entry, and the overall cost of ownership, for systems which come at a cost premium.

Helpful Tools, Resources & Definitions Carbon Tools by Project Phase Conceptual Design The CARE (Carbon Avoided, Retrofit Estimator) Tool: This tool developed by Architecture 2030 allows designers to compare carbon estimates of adaptive reuse vs. new construction. CoveTool: Cove.tool provides a range of programs for conceptual design, load modeling, and analysis. In addition to its tools for tracking building energy use, cove.tool’s embodied carbon tool helps estimate a building’s impact to allow data-driven decision making. EPIC: This free Early Phase Integrated Carbon Assessment (EPIC) was developed by EHDD to provide a model for decision making around carbon reduction at the earliest project phases. Kaleidoscope: Payette’s Embodied Carbon Design Tool evaluates life cycle impacts of common building element including envelopes, flooring, ceilings, and partitions. Pathfinder: This Climate Positive Design tool estimates embodied and operational carbon for landscape projects.

Sefaira: This product from the makers of Sketch-Up provides an easy-to-use simulation tool for analyzing predicted energy use at the conceptual and schematic design stages. Carbon Conscience: Carbon Conscious is an open source free access tool created from an internal grant at Sasaki which is an early multiple scale assessment tool of carbon impact at multiple scales.

Schematic Design Athena Sustainable Materials Institute: Athena’s LCA tools include the Athena Impact Estimator for Buildings and the Athena EcoCalculator for Assemblies, among others. Beacon: This free, open-source Revit plug-in focuses on tracking and manage the carbon impact of structural assemblies. Insight 360: This Autodesk tool is designed to measure and analyze a building’s predicted energy use; the company is also previewing an add-in for embodied carbon tracking. Pathfinder: This Climate Positive Design tool estimates embodied and operational carbon for landscape projects. Sefaira: This product from the makers of Sketch-Up provides an easy-to-use simulation tool for analyzing predicted energy use at the conceptual and schematic design stages. Carbon Conscience: Carbon Conscious is an open source free access tool created from an internal grant at Sasaki which is an early multiple scale assessment tool of carbon impact at multiple scales.

Design Development BEAM: The Building Emissions Accounting for Materials (BEAM) tool allows users to compare the carbon footprint of various materials and assemblies quickly and easily. Beacon: This free, open-source Revit plug-in focuses on tracking and manage the carbon impact of structural assemblies. Climate Studio: This Rhinoceros 3D plugin is designed to simulate and analyze building energy use in the design stage to inform decisions as the project progresses. Once-Click LCA: This Revit plugin creates whole-building lifecycle assessments from BIM. Pathfinder: This Climate Positive Design tool estimates embodied and operational carbon for landscape projects. Tally: Originally developed by Kiern Timberlake affiliate KT Innovations, Tally works within Revit to provide whole-building lifecycle analysis to help design teams lower embodied carbon.

CDs ZGF Concrete Calculator: This LCA calculator developed by ZGF works with Tally to evaluate the carbon impacts of various concrete mixes and designs. BHoM: The Buildings and Habitats object Model is a free and open-source tool works across software platforms to measure and reduce the embodied carbon in common construction materials. Pathfinder: This Climate Positive Design tool estimates embodied and operational carbon for landscape projects.

Construction & Post Occupancy EC3: Developed by the Carbon Leadership Forum with over 50 industry partners, EC3 is a free cloud-based tool to help designers benchmark and analyze options for reducing embodied carbon.

Additional Carbon Resources 10 Steps to Reduce Embodied Carbon: This AIA article by architect Larry Strain, FAIA, provides actionable steps to lower embodied carbon in buildings. Climate Toolkit for Interior Design: Metropolis developed this resource specifically for interior designers, stating that “by 2050, the interior design industry will have influence over almost one-tenth the world’s carbon emissions.” Embodied Carbon Toolkit for Architects: Developed by the American Institute for Architects (AIA) and Carbon Leadership Forum (CLF), this three-part resource provides an introduction to embodied carbon, methods for measuring embodied carbon, and strategies for reducing embodied carbon. Standard Method of Evaluating Zero Net Energy & Zero Net Carbon Building Performance: This document details ASHRAE standard 228, which provides a tool for evaluating zero net carbon and zero net energy. Integrated Systems Packages: Commercial Building System: These free resources were developed by Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory to assist with carbon reduction in retrofit projects.

Material Databases & Resources AIA Materials Pledge: Encourages healthier material choices by focusing on transparency, red list chemical elimination, and reduction of VOCs. Ecomedes: Can be searched by impact, rating system, and category Living Building Challenge Red List: by ILFI - Identifies the most harmful materials, chemicals, and elements to human health and ecosystems Mindful Materials: Can be searched by impact, category, brand, or certification Origin: by Reset Cloud: Searchable by category, brand or certification type Sustainable Minds Transparency Catalog: HPDs and EPDs with MasterFormat filtering (North America)

Professional Organizations & Education American Institute for Architects (AIA): Founded in 1857, the AIA provides educational tools (including strategies to achieve zero carbon) and advocacy for its 96,000 members in 200 chapters worldwide.

Architecture 2030: Architecture 2030 was founded by Ed Mazria, FAIA to address the role of the built environment in the climate crisis and serves as a driver of positive change in the industry, and provides a variety of tools for sustainable design and reducing carbon. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE): ASHRAE provides technical standards and guidelines related to ventilation, energy efficiency, design, and construction. Carbon Leadership Forum (CLF): CLF, operating as an organization at the University of Washington, has a mission “to eliminate embodied carbon of buildings, materials, and infrastructure to create a just and thriving future.” CLF conducts carbon-related research and provides education on policy, data & tools, materials, and lifecycle assessments. Climate Positive Design: Climate Positive Design developed the Pathfinder carbon impact tool and administers the 2030 Climate Positive Challenge. International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA): IFLA works globally to develop policy and disseminate expertise related to best practices for landscape architecture. International Living Future Institute (ILFI): ILFI’s vision is to design a world that is “socially just, culturally rich, and ecologically restorative.” ILFI administers building, product, and community certification programs including Living Building Challenge, Just, and Declare. US Green Building Council (USGBC): USGBC has long been a leader in sustainable design through Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) accreditation and building certification. New programs target net zero goals as well. Woodworks: IFLA works globally to develop policy and disseminate expertise related to best practices f Salvaged Materials Sourcing: Building product ecosystem map. A growing network of resources for procuring salvaged materials from commercial and residential-scale projects. Rheaply: Resource for sourcing and procurement.

Glossary Glossary excerpts from: International Organization for Standardization (ISO), United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), The Materials & Embodied Carbon Leaders’ Alliance (MECLA), Carbon Leadership Forum (CLF), International Living Future Institute (ILFI), United States Green Building Council (USGBC), World Green Building Council (WorldGBC), and other sources cited. Absolute Zero Carbon: The achievement of zero GHG emissions without the use of any carbon offsets or other compensation mechanisms expressed on a whole-of-life basis or another clearly defined boundary. (The Institution of Structural Engineers, 2021) Adaptive Reuse: Reusing an existing building for a new purpose as an alternative to new construction. (Guida, 2020) AIA 2030 Commitment: Buildings are responsible for nearly 40% of greenhouse gas emissions globally. And we’re running out of time to mitigate this. To dramatically reduce emissions from the built environment, the AIA 2030 Commitment program empowers firms to track and measure progress toward net zero carbon with transparency and accountability. Temperatures are already up 1.2°C from before the Industrial Revolution, and the world is currently on track to hit a 3.0°C increase, which is well above the 1.5°C threshold that the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement established. Since 2009, signatories of the 2030 Commitment have reported the predicted energy performance of all projects in their portfolio each year. The data, input via the Design Data Exchange (DDx), includes a project’s baseline, its target, and its progress toward the target. Beyond these core metrics to track operational energy, the program expanded in 2020 to optionally track energy by fuel source, renewable energy, post-occupancy energy use, and embodied carbon. (AIA) Attributable emissions: GHG emissions from services, materials and energy flows that become the product, make the product, and carry the product or service through its life cycle. (Climate Active, Technical guidance Manual, 2021) Biodiesel: A liquid fuel derived from vegetable oils or animal fats. Biodiesel has physical properties similar to those of petroleum diesel, but it is a cleaner-burning renewable alternative. Biodiesel can be blended and used in many different concentrations, from B5, which is 95% petroleum diesel and 5% biodiesel, all the way up to B100, which is pure biodiesel. (U.S. Energy Information Administration)(EIA) Bioethanol: An alcohol used as a blending agent with gasoline to increase octane and cut down emissions. The lifecycle emissions reduction potential of bioethanol is reported to be lower than biodiesel. Bioethanol is generally considered suitable for petrol spark ignition engines used for passenger cars or light-duty applications. (U.S. Energy Information Administration) (EIA) Biofuel: An alternative fuel that is developed from biological, natural, and renewable sources. Biofuels are an attractive option due to their high energy density and convenient handling and storage properties. Biofuels can be used on their own (with some precautions or restrictions) or blended with petroleum fuels. (U.S. Energy Information Administration) (EIA) Biogenic Carbon: Carbon removals associated with Carbon Sequestration into biomass, including natural building materials (e.g. timber) as well as any emissions associated with this Carbon Sequestration. (The Alliance for Sustainable Building Products, 2021) Building Energy Modeling (BEM): The basis for a number of building energy-efficiency activities including energy-efficiency standards. BEM is a versatile, multipurpose tool that is used in new building and retrofit design, code compliance, green certification, qualification for tax credits and utility incentives, and even real-time building control. BEM is also used in large-scale analyses to develop building energy-efficiency codes and inform policy decisions. (ASHRAE Standard 140)(U.S. Department of Energy)

Burden Shifting: Occurs when improvements in one part of the life cycle result in counteracting or negative impacts elsewhere, for example, across different product or service life cycle stages or between countries. (Jackson & Brander, 2019) Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Capture, transport and storage of Greenhouse Gases from industrial processes such as fossil fuel power stations, energy-intensive industries, and gas fields by injecting the captured Greenhouse Gases back into the ground for permanent storage. (Climate Council, 2021) Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU): The conversion of Greenhouse Gases captured from emissions sources or the atmosphere into valuable lower or zero-emission products. (CSIRO, 2021) Carbon Footprint: The total set of GHG emissions and their impacts caused by an organization, event or product in a given time frame.(Carbon Trust, 2009) Carbon Handprint: For an organization, it is the reduction of the Carbon Footprint of the organization’s customer or customers, achieved by the provision of the organization’s products or services. It contrasts with the organization’s own Carbon Footprint in providing that product or service.(International Living Future Institute, 2018) Carbon Intensity: The amount of CO2-e emitted as a unit of production or output e.g. per $ revenue, full-time equivalent or sf floor area. Refer also to Greenhouse Gas Intensity (Baumert, Herzog, & Pershing, 2005) Carbon Inventory: A measure of the GHG emissions that are attributable to an activity. A carbon inventory can relate to the emissions of an individual, household, organization, product, service, event, building or community/zone. This can also be known as a carbon footprint or carbon account. (Climate Active, Technical guidance Manual, 2021) Carbon Leakage: A policy gap that allows one region to reduce the GHG emissions which it accounts for by outsourcing manufacturing emissions to another region with less stringent GHG emissions monitoring and reduction policies. (Carbon Leadership forum, 2020) Carbon Mineralization: The process by which CO2 becomes a solid mineral, such as a carbonate. It is a chemical reaction that happens when certain rocks are exposed to CO2. (USGS, 2019) Carbon Negative: A city, development, building, or product that goes beyond being Carbon Neutral to intentionally remove CO2-e from the atmosphere and turns it into useful forms. Also referred to as Carbon Positive. (Bernoville, 2021)

Carbon Neutral: Having a balance between emitting greenhouse gases and absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in carbon sinks. (Europa, 2021) Carbon Neutral Certified: Awarded to organizations, products, services, events, buildings, or precincts that have reached a state of being Carbon Neutral in accordance with a recognized standard. An example of Carbon Neutral Certification is the Australian Government’s Climate Active Carbon Neutral Certification program. (Climate Neutral, 2021) Carbon Offsets: An action intended to compensate for the emission of CO2-e into the atmosphere as a result of industrial or other human activity, especially when quantified and traded as part of a commercial scheme. (MIT Climate Portal) Carbon Reduction Plan / Framework: A government or organization’s plan or framework for achieving the GHG emissions reductions it has committed to, including actions and milestones. (UK Government, 2013) Carbon Positive: See Carbon Negative. Carbon Sequestration: The process of removal and storage of CO2 from the atmosphere in carbon sinks (such as forests, woody plants, algae, kelp, mangroves or soils) or through carbon mineralization. (US EPA) Circular Economy: Circular Economy is based on three principles: design out waste and pollution, keep products and materials in use through refurbishment, reuse and design for adaptation or deconstruction, and regenerate natural systems. The concept of retaining materials at their highest value normally means that embodied carbon invested is also retained and low carbon outcomes are more likely. However, this is not always the case, and it is important to design for outcomes that are both low carbon and circular. (Ellen Macarthur, 2022) Climate Positive: Climate positive projects provide net positive climate outcomes. They also provide environmental, social, cultural, and economic co-benefits. Over a cradle-to-cradle life cycle assessment they sequester more greenhouse gases than they emit. (The Australian Institute of Landscape Architects (AILA), 2022) Climate Positive Development: A development that reduces the emissions it creates and offsets the remainder by removing emissions from adjacent communities. Also referred to as a climate positive outcome. Program developed by the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, in partnership with the Clinton Climate Initiative (CCI), and the U.S. Green Building Council. (CLIMATE+) Cradle to Cradle: In respect of LCA, the boundary for a full LCA, when a product is completely reused and/or recycled at the end of life. In respect of design, a circular design concept that requires a product to be made in a way that allows for end-of-life reuse and/or recycling. (M. Braungart and W. McDonough) Cradle to Gate: The scope of measurement of impacts in an LCA or carbon footprint from raw material acquisition to a finished product at the exit gate of the manufacturing facility. (U.S .Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy)

Cradle to Grave: The scope of measurement of impacts in an LCA or carbon footprint across the entire lifespan of the product, from raw material acquisition through to final disposal, reuse or recycling. (U.S. Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy) Demolition Carbon: The GHG emissions necessary to demolish and dispose of a building at the end of its life. (UCL Engineering) Embodied Carbon: GHG emissions associated with materials and construction processes throughout the whole life cycle of a building or infrastructure being the sum of upfront embodied carbon, in-use embodied carbon, and end-of life embodied carbon, measured by CO2-e. (World Green Building Council, 2019) Embodied In-Use Carbon: The emissions caused by embodied emissions of a building or infrastructure, through in-use / operational life cycle phase. (World Green Building Council, 2019) Embodied Emissions: See Embodied Carbon Embodied Energy: The total energy necessary for an entire product life cycle including raw material extraction, transport, manufacture, assembly, installation, maintenance, repair, disassembly, replacement, deconstruction and/or decomposition. This includes renewable and non-renewable energy. Embodied energy does not correlate to embodied carbon. (World Green Building Council, 2019) Embodied Upfront Carbon: The emissions caused in the materials production and construction phases of the lifecycle before the building or infrastructure begins to be used. These emissions have already been released into the atmosphere before the building is occupied or the infrastructure begins operation. (World Green Building Council, 2019) Emission Factors: Emission factors are used to convert a unit of activity into its GHG emissions equivalent. (e.g.. a factor that specifies the kilograms of GHG emissions per unit of activity). (Climate Active, Technical guidance Manual, 2021) Emissions Boundary: All the emission sources included and excluded in a carbon account, either at a product, site, organization, building, zone, infrastructure or city scale. (ISO 14040, 2006) Energy Use Intensity (EUI): EUI stands for Energy Use Intensity, which is a measure of a building’s energy efficiency. It is calculated by dividing the total energy consumed by the building in a year by the building’s total floor area. EUI is used to convert operational energy to operational carbon emissions. (American Institute of Architects) (ASHRAE)

End of Life Carbon: The GHG emissions associated with the End of Life of a building, infrastructure, product, or material. See Demolition Carbon (World Green Building Council, 2019) End of Life Processes: Deconstruction or demolition, transport from site, waste processing and disposal phases of a building, infrastructure product or material’s lifecycle which occur after it has ceased to be used. (Designing Buildings, 2022) Environment Product Declaration (EPD): An independently verified and registered document that communicates transparent and comparable information about the life-cycle environmental impact of products and services in a credible way. An EPD is compliant with the standard ISO 14025 and is known as a Type III environmental declaration. Many compliant EPD schemes exist globally. See Carbon Footprint (EPD International, 2022) GHG Emissions: All emissions of greenhouse gases. (World Green Building Council, 2019) Greenhouse Gases (GHG): Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, from both natural and anthropogenic sources, which contribute to the greenhouse effect. GHG emissions are often referred to as “carbon emissions” in general usage. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) Greenhouse Gas Intensity: For a product, the total GHG emissions released in energy consumption for production and overhead, GHG emissions released by transport used for business travel and additional GHG emissions from the production process divided by the value of the product (i.e. the total factory gate price). Refer also to Carbon Intensity. (OECD, 2022) Initial Embodied Energy: The energy, whether derived from fossil fuel or renewable sources, required to initially produce the building or infrastructure including the energy used for the abstraction, processing, manufacture, transport, and assembly of the materials of the building or infrastructure. It is different from the embodied energy of the building or infrastructure.(McAlinden, 2015) Life Cycle Assessment: An analysis of the environmental and/or social impacts of a product, process, or a service for its entire life cycle. It looks at the raw material extraction, production, manufacture, distribution, use and disposal of a product. Also known as Life Cycle Analysis. (ISO 14044, 2006) Life Cycle Engineering: Sustainability-oriented engineering methodology that takes into account the comprehensive technical, environmental, and economic impacts of decisions within the product life cycle. (Hauschild M. , 2018)

Life Cycle Inventory: An inventory of input and output flows for a product system over its entire life cycle. (ISO 14044, 2006) Life Cycle Stages: Defined stages throughout the life cycle of a building or infrastructure including the product stage, construction process stage, use stage, end of life stage and benefits and loads beyond the building or infrastructure life cycle. (The Alliance for Sustainable Building Products, 2021) Low Carbon Materials: Materials that have been produced with a low embodied carbon content across life cycle relative to their equivalents in the market. Also known as low emission building materials. (Oxford Academic) Low Emission Building Materials: See low carbon materials. Net Zero Carbon: A calculated result of zero GHG emissions, via netting of inward and outward flows of GHG emissions and carbon offsets or other compensation mechanisms. Expressed on a whole-of-life basis or otherwise by reference to clearly expressed boundaries. A net zero definition can be applied across any defined boundary, including a whole life cycle of an asset or product, upfront embodied carbon, operational emissions, etc. (The Alliance for Sustainable Building Products, 2021) (ILFI) Operational Carbon: The GHG emissions associated with energy used to operate the building or infrastructure.(World Green Building Council, 2019) Product Category Rule: The requirements for developing Type III EPDs for a group of products that fulfill an equivalent function. The ISO 14025 standard for Type III Environmental Product Declarations is a set of rules and requirements that govern how EPDs must be prepared, submitted, and verified. PCRs are often developed by industry groups or experts and then approved by third-party certification bodies. (ISO 14025, 2006) Product Life Cycle: The consecutive and interlinked stages of a product system, from raw material acquisition or generation from natural resources to final disposal. Comprehensive life cycle analysis considers both upstream and downstream processes. Upstream processes include the extraction and production of raw materials and manufacturing. Downstream processes include product disposal (such as recycling or sending waste to landfill). (ISO 14040, 2006) Recurring Embodied Carbon: CO2-e needed to refurbish and maintain the building over its lifetime as distinct from Operational Carbon (eTool Global, 2022) Renewable Diesel: A biofuel with similar chemical composition to petroleum diesel, which allows the fuel to be used as a “drop-in” replacement for fossil diesel without the need for blending. (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2020)

Works Cited i. National Ocean Service/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. n.d. “What is the Carbon Cycle?” Accessed July 5, 2023. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/carbon-cycle.html#transcript

Lyndsey, Rebecca. May 12, 2023. “Climate Change: Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide.” https://www.climate.gov/news-features/ understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide

iii NASA Earth Observatory. n.d. “World of Change: Global Temperatures.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ world-of-change/global-temperatures

Architecture 2030. n.d. “Why the Built Environment?” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://architecture2030.org/

King, Bruce. 2017. The New Carbon Architecture. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Publishers

US Energy Information Administration. March 16, 2023. ”Annual Energy Outlook 2023.” https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/

Smith, Adam B. January 10, 2023. “2022 U.S. Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters in Historical Context.” https://www.climate. gov/news-features/blogs/2022-us-billion-dollar-weather-and-climate-disasters-historical-context#:~:text=Damages%20from%20 the%202022%20disasters,Heat%20Wave%20(%2422.1%20billion)

vii

Energy Information Administration. December 14, 2022. ”U.S. Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 2021.” https://www.eia.gov/ environment/emissions/carbon/

viii

Magwood, Chris. November 26, 2019. “What Is Embodied Carbon in Buildings?” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h1piVin01vQ

x Building Innovations Database. n.d. “Brussels Exemplary Buildings Program + Passive House Law of 2011.” Accessed September 18, 2023. https://www.buildinginnovations.org/policy/brussels-exemplary-buildings-program-passive-house-law-of-2011/

“Phius. n.d. ” Energy Codes.” Accessed September 18, 2923. https://www.phius.org/resources/policy-work/energy-codes

Passive House Institute. n.d. “Passive House Requirements.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://passivehouse.com/02_informations/02_ passive-house-requirements/02_passive-house-requirements.htm

xii

Passive House Institute. n.d. “About Passive House – What is a Passive House?” Accessed July 6, 2023. Instituthttps://passivehouse. com/02_informations/01_whatisapassivehouse/01_whatisapassivehouse.htm

xiii

xiv Cutler, Zack; Dayton, Taylor; Grant, Matthew; Mahomed, Shu‘aim; and Ojetayo, Jemilat. October 17, 2022. “Reducing Embodied Carbon in New Construction.“ https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/operations/our-insights/global-infrastructure-initiative/voices/ reducing-embodied-carbon-in-new-construction

Strain, Larry. n.d. ”10 Steps to Reducing Embodied Carbon.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://www.aia.org/ articles/70446-ten-steps-to-reducing-embodied-carbon

xvi Metropolis. n.d. ”Uncover Creative Possibilities.” Accessed July 6, 2021. https://metropolismag.com/climatetoolkit/ toolkit-uncover-creative-possibilities/

Works Cited cont. xvii Strain, Larry. n.d. ”10 Steps to Reducing Embodied Carbon.”Accessed July 6, 2023. https://www.aia.org/ articles/70446-ten-steps-to-reducing-embodied-carbon

xviii The American Institute of Architects. n.d. ”Buildings That Last: Design for Adaptability, Deconstruction, and Reuse.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://content.aia.org/sites/default/files/2020-03/ADR-Guide-final_0.pdf

Metropolis. n.d. ”Design for the Next Life.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://metropolismag.com/climatetoolkit/ toolkit-design-for-the-next-life/

xix

United States Environmental Protection Agency. Last updated June 1, 2023. ”Inflation Reduction Act Programs to Fight Climate Change by Reducing Embodied Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Construction Materials and Products.” https://www.epa.gov/ inflation-reduction-act/inflation-reduction-act-programs-fight-climate-change-reducing-embodied

xxi

Architecture 2030. n.d. “Carbon Smart Materials Palette.“ Accessed July 6, 2023. https://materialspalette.org/palette/

xxii

Department of Energy. n.d. ”Insulation Materials.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/insulation-materials

xxiii

Architecture 2030. n.d. ”Carbon Smart Materials Palette.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://materialspalette.org/concrete/

xxiv Erlich, Brent. April 3, 2023. ”Using Low-Carbon Concrete in Your Next Project.” https://www.buildinggreen.com/feature/ using-low-carbon-concrete-your-next-project?mc_cid=db1f32c5e7&mc_eid=66af9fd9fd

xxv

Architecture 2030. n.d. “Carbon Smart Materials Palette.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://materialspalette.org/steel/

xxvi Brough, Danel and Jouhara, Hussam. “ The Aluminum Industry: A Review on State-of-the-Art Technologies, Environmental Impacts adn Possibilities for Waste Heat Recovery.” International Journal of Thermofluid, Volumes 1-2, February 2020. https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666202719300072

xxvii Jain, Prateek and Hens, Isabelle. October 12, 2022. “Low Carbon Cladding and Shading.” Facade Tectonics. https://www. facadetectonics.org/papers/low-carbon-cladding-and-shading-design#:~:text=Cementitious%20composites%20like%20UHPC%20 were,both%20cladding%20and%20shading%20applications

Metropolis. n.d. ”Find the Carbon Hotspots.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://metropolismag.com/climatetoolkit/ toolkit-find-the-hotspots/

xxviii

Metropolis. n.d. ”Think Differently About Materials.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://metropolismag.com/climatetoolkit/ toolkit-think-differently-about-materials/

xxix

xxx

AIA. n.d. “Materials Pledge.” Accessed September 18, 2023. https://www.aia.org/pages/6351155-materials-pledge

xxxi

Mindful Materials. n.d. “Mindful Means…” Accessed September 18, 2023. https://www.mindfulmaterials.com/

xxxii

ILFI. n.d. “About the Red List.” Accessed September 18, 2023. https://living-future.org/red-list/

Works Cited cont. xxxiii

Architecture 2030. n.d. “Carbon Smart Materials Palette.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://materialspalette.org/gypsum-board/

xxxiv

Architecture 2030 n.d. ”Carbon Smart Materials Palette.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://materialspalette.org/carpet/

xxxv Metropolis. N.d. ”Close Out Responsibly.” Accessed July 6, 2023. https://metropolismag.com/climatetoolkit/ toolkit-close-out-responsibly/

Anderson, Mike. July 8, 2022. “How Green Roofs Can Help Cities Fight Climate Change.” graef/https://onekeyresources. milwaukeetool.com/en/green-roofs

xxxvi

Esau, Rebecca; Jungclaus, Matt; Olgyay, Vicotr; Rempher, Audrey. 2021. “Reducing Embodied Carbon in Buildings.” https://rmi.org/ insight/reducing-embodied-carbon-in-buildings/

xxxvii

Carbon Title. October 19, 2022. “The Business Case for Carbon-Neutral Buildings.” https://www.carbontitle.com/blog/ the-business-case-for-carbon-neutral-buildings

xxxviii

an essential part of life on earth