"Faster, Higher, Stronger" Re-assigning Olympic complexes

“FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER”

RE-ASSIGNING OLYMPIC COMPLEXES With reference to urban developments and legacies of London 2012 and Rio 2016

Bc Lucie Linderova, BATCoM 2017-2018 Manchester School of Architecture, MA Architecture and Urbanism 2015 - 2017 Bachelor at VIA Horsens, Architectural Technology and Construction Management 2012 - 2017 Bachelor at CTU in Prague, Architecture and Civil Engineering DELF B1 CAE

French language English language

STUDENT ORGANISATIONS BEST (Board of European Students of Technology) is a constantly growing non-profit international student organisation. Since 1989 we provide communication, cooperation and exchange possibilities for students all over Europe.

I became member in local group in Prague in June 2013. I was working for year in PR group mostly as Press Ambassador and then I was elected to Vice President for Human Recourses. We are providing connection between students, universities and companies. We mainly organize educational courses for european students, engineering competitions and some workshops and trainings for our members. With BEST I had lots of opportunities to improve my soft skills and work in international environment. I have become alumni member in 2017.

ISC ( International Student Club) is creating an international community at CTU in Prague. The goal is to integrate exchange students into life in the Czech Republic and into events at the university. We create surroundings where different cultures meet and has oportunity to cooperate among nations in the Europe.

I was part of Buddy programme where you take care of individual Erasmus student coming to your country.

FIGURE 0.1 ‘Abandoned Olympic complexes’ Mirror news, 20161 ‘Abandoned Olympic complexes’ https://www.mirror.co.uk/ sport/other-sports/athletics/gallery/abandoned-olympic-venues-around-globe-8566994 1

“FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER”

RE-ASSIGNING OLYMPIC COMPLEXES With reference to urban developments and legacies of London 2012 and Rio 2016

Lucie Linderova Manchester School of Architecture 2018

“Overall, the negative side of accommodating spectacle sees Olympics venues described as costly ‘white elephants’, creating ‘islands of gentrification’ and ‘rich ghettos’ funded by the private sector.”

Coaffee, J. and Johnson, L. (2007) Accommodating the Spectacle, In Olympic Cities, (Eds Gold and Gold)

1. INTRODUCTION 2. WHY OLYMPIC GAMES: CITY AND NATION BRANDING

CONTENT

3.

URBAN DEVELOPMENT BEHIND THE GREAT OLYMIC GAMES 3.1. Sustainable London 2012 3.2. Rio 2016, City in crisis

4.

EXPERIENCE OF AFTER USE

5. CONCLUSION 6.

LITERATURE

RESEARCH QUESTIONS How does hosting Olympic Games effects the city?

What happens with Olympic complexes after Olympic Games?

Why have modern Olympic Games been renewed?

What are the urban design strategies for positive legacy of Olympic Games?

How to plan the Olympic development as a tool to improve the city?

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank all the supportive tutors of Manchester School of Architecture who were guiding us through whole process and empowering us to evolve our initial ideas and explore further solutions. I would like to especially thank to Eamonn Canniffe and David Chandler for showed interest in chosen topic and plenty of interesting suggestions.

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

PREFACE

This is final dissertation of MA Architecture and Urbanism programme taught as a joint degree by Manchester Metropolitan University and University of Manchester. As international class with students coming from all over the world we are empowered to consider global issues and their influence on contemporary cities with approach to create better and more sustainable developments in the future. And what is more global event than Olympic Games, representation of union of five continents? I have chosen this topic because it relates to everyone, no matter your origin, age, profession nor social class. And as much as this event is monitored, there is one point of view which interests me the most and hasn’t been getting much of attention. As young urbanist I would like to explore its relation to the city, what Olympic Games does to the city, how it may change the city and how they can generate benefits to the city.

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

1.

INTRODUCTION

The Olympic Games are fascinating by their volume, greatness and world significance which makes it compelling attraction to investors and sponsors. In a 4 year cycle, huge Olympic parks and villages are being developed with enormous stadia, arenas and halls with one use only; to host the greatest Olympic Games. For such a hugely viewed event the only concern is what happens within those few weeks of staging Games. It brings my question, what happens with those Olympic complexes after the Olympic Games? How is it possible that the place which is under constant watch by the whole world for weeks has no general attention once the Games are over. What is happening with all those newly raised venues, housing and massive infrastructure which caused huge investment and we are doing it all over again and again each 4 years in different cities around the world.

The motto of the Olympic Games says – Faster, Higher, Stronger – but apart from the sport performances, is the event itself behaving accordingly? Is there something better and stronger left behind for the host city? The event itself is extensive with venues too large in scale and rapid in construction so that common planning policies does not apply. Olympic development is changing whole districts and having impact to the whole city.

Ancient Greece and Rome: Where the Games began Especially Olympic stadiums are main concern in re-assigning its use in Post-Event mode. The fossils from Ancient Olympic Games have shaped the cities around them. In Italy some of the ancient arenas got new forms of amphitheatres and piazzas like Piazza dell’ Anfiteatro in Lucca in Tuscany or Piazza Navona and Circus Maximus in Rome. Those places used to be stage of gladiator’s or other competitive games originally thousands of years ago. They survived centuries untouched because

shape the city and the city spread around them. But they have found new use just recently compared to their life span. And some of the places have never found another use. The Olympia, the cradle of Olympic Games, was not only the sport center but also political and religious sanctuary. For its universal significance bearing the testimony to the ancient civilization it has become the world heritage but the place itself has not been occupied since nor has found another function.2 Now the places are popular among tourists to visit and walk through where gladiators used to fight. But if we do not want to wait thousands of years to re-assign the modern Olympic venues, we have to do things differently than Ancient Greeks and Romans.

FIGURE 1.1 ‘New life in Lucca amphitheatre’ Develup di Lorenzo Luci,20103 FIGURE 1.2 ‘Concert at Circus Maximus in Rome’ South China Morning Post, 20144

FIGURE 1.3 ‘Aerial view of Olympia’ Lazaros Kolonas Photography, 20185

Shouldn’t we then make sure that we are not repeating the same mistakes each 4 year cycle in such a huge scale as the Olympic Games?

There is no better way how to improve the future than learning from the past. Everything what we are struggling with now has already happened in another place or in some alternation before and we can see the consequences of that decision made then. So, we can learn from it to not repeat the same mistakes.

I will use recent past Olympic Games as case studies for my research and explore their requirements for spatial and urban development and their effects on the city. I have chosen the cities of London 2012 and Rio 2016 to demonstrate similarities and differences in staging the Games and its legacies. In London we can examine the reaction of the city to the Games with some distance and in Rio we can detect the direct Post-Games legacy. For my research

Centre, U. (2018). Archaeological Site of Olympia. [online] Whc.unesco.org. Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/ list/517 [Accessed 11 Aug. 2018].

2 ‘New life in Lucca amphitheatre’ http://www.dovealucca.it/da-vedere/curiosita-storiche/25-piazza-dell-anfiteatro-lucca 4 ‘Concert at Circus Maximus in Rome’ http://www.scmp. com/news/world/article/1450967/heritage-fears-over-rolling-stones-show-romes-circus-maximus 5 Centre, U. (2018). Archaeological Site of Olympia. [online] Whc.unesco.org. Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/ list/517 [Accessed 11 Aug. 2018].

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

I will take into consideration several factors regarding Olympic Games such as the urban development, transformation of the city, possible redevelopment, benefits and disadvantages of hosting mega event and also the economic, social and cultural changes after delivering the event itself. By analysing urban development during and after the Games of previous years, I would like to set the main repeating principles of planning the mega event for successful after use. Unlike developers I do not want to focus only to host the great worldwide event but also bring better life into the city as an Olympic legacy. In the end the Olympics stand for unity, pride and dedication and this is what its legacy should embody.

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

2.

WHY OLYMPIC GAMES: CITY AND NATION BRANDING FIGURE 2.1 ‘Doves burn alive during opening ceremony in Seoul’ The Telegraph news7

Why do we even have Olympic Games? And what does it give the city that it is worth to host that mega event which costs billions of pounds and takes seven years of preparations? With Olympic Games comes publicity and the world’s attention. That can change the profile of the city and open new possibilities to its development. City branding has become since 1990s a key factor in urban development. The image of the city now does not even come from direct experience. As a philosopher Jean Baudrillard said: “We are living in a cultural era populated by simulacra, which are images of things living on their own, apparently without a direct relation to their direct referent in reality.” We can get to know cities we have not even visited, everyone knows places such as Havana Old Town or Piccadilly Circus in London although not everyone has been there. If the city wants to become the destination either in eyes of inhabitants or potential tourists, investors, users and consumers it needs to take actions to enter the market. Branding takes a whole complex of representation policies, visibility of spaces and modifying problems and benefits such as showing regeneration initiatives.6 Hosting the Olympic Games is the most expensive branding strategy. But it is the opportunity to promote the city with international profile and secure global capital and resources. Olympic Games represent unity, pride, elite, performance and peace around the globe so hosting this event gives the city equivalent status and can reinforce or alter perception of the city.

London was known even before the Games as world’s top city in business and culture. The Games should help to consolidate its position and rise the city above competition. It served like reminder of the city’s strengths and reimaged its identity and attraction as a sustainable city.

The opening ceremony is perfect opportunity for city and nation representation and its political agenda. Seoul 1988 composed the opening ceremony to impress the world, so the world will recognize the city afterwards. Even that the ceremony turned not the way it was planned, everyone will remember the burning doves and the city of Seoul.

FIGURE 2.2 ‘Opening Ceremony in Barcelona 1992’ Google images

City Branding The Ghostly politics of representation in globalising cities, Alberto Vanolo, 2017 7 ‘Doves burn alive during opening ceremony in Seoul’ https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/worldnews/2523192/Olympic-opening-ceremonies-through-the-years.html?image=10 6

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

Barcelona in 1992 set the high opening ceremony expectation for future generations. It has been announced as the most glorious memory in sporting history thanks to the bilingual Olympic anthem celebrating newly formed reunion between Spain and Catalonia and iconic performance of Paralympic archer wh lit the Olympic torch by flaming arrow for the first time.8 It is not just about what representation the city creates; the Olympic games are under the watch of journalists and experts whose opinion counts maybe even more. The accessibility of travelling to attend those Games made them not just the greatest sport and cultural event but also tool for economic development, cultural integration and social regeneration. The publicity of Games represents business of global marketing, sponsorship, hospitality and much more. Games are attracting the global business leaders who wants to find the place to invest so the Games are now getting perceived as potential to economic growth. Therefore, it is unique opportunity for city’s long term urban development.9 There is always risk for hosting cities in spending large investments into short-lived event especially concerning the price for infrastructure and security. Therefore, the long-term strategy is a key point in planning the Games. The overall success for city hosting the mega event is in its legacy which is not visible until long after the Games has been finished. Legacy can use the new infrastructure to help with social integration, technical progress and better productivity of the city itself but also can create so-called “white elephants” – large scale abandoned places which were once famous, but no one would recognise them now. There are many deserted Olympic venues around the world including stadiums and swimming pools for Athens 2004, arenas and kayaking competition for Beijing 2008 or athletes’ village in Berlin 1936.10

Jessop, T. (2018). The Best Moments Of The 1992 Olympics. [online] Culture Trip. Available at: https://theculturetrip. com/europe/spain/articles/the-8-best-moments-of-the1992-olympics/ [Accessed 11 Aug. 2018].

9 Aperian Global. (2018). Cultural Impacts of Hosting the Olympics - Aperian Global. [online] Available at: http:// www.aperianglobal.com/social-cultural-impacts-hosting-olympic-games/ [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

10 Centre, U. (2018). Archaeological Site of Olympia. [online] Whc.unesco.org. Available at: https://whc.unesco. org/en/list/517 [Accessed 11 Aug. 2018].

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

BEFORE

FIGURE 2.3 ‘Softball stadium during Olympic Games in Athens’ Google images FIGURE 2.4 ‘Deserted softball stadium in Athens’ Mirror news, 201611

AFTER

‘Deserted softball stadium in Athens’ https://www.mirror. co.uk/sport/other-sports/athletics/gallery/abandonedolympic-venues-around-globe-8566994 11

BEFORE

FIGURE 2.5 ‘Kayak center at Olympic Games in Beijing’ Google images FIGURE 2.6 ‘Abandoned kayak center in Beijing’ Mirror news, 201612

AFTER

‘Abandoned kayak center in Beijing’ https://www.mirror. co.uk/sport/other-sports/athletics/gallery/abandonedolympic-venues-around-globe-8566994 12

AFTER

FIGURE 2.7 ‘Abandoned athletes’ village in Berlin’ Business Insider Daily Mail, 201813 FIGURE 2.8 ‘Abandoned athletes’ village in Berlin’ Business Insider Daily Mail, 201813

AFTER

‘Abandoned athletes’ village in Berlin’ https://www. businessinsider.com/photos-of-olympic-village-abandoned-in-berlin-2016-8/5/?IR=T&r=MY/#in-1931-berlin-wonthe-right-to-host-the-1936-summer-games-the-city-threwall-available-resources-behind-an-extravagant-village-with145-buildings-and-a-120000-seat-stadium-1 13

The Olympic Games for athletes ends with the winning medals but for the city it is just the beginning.

The planning of legacy after the Games is crucial to justify the city’s involvement and investment and prevent the deserted venues to ever appear again.

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

3.

URBAN DEVELOPMENT BEHIND THE GREAT OLYMIC GAMES

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

3.1.

EAST END OF LONDON The Olympic Games in London 2012 were held in Stratford in the East End of the city. The East End was historically the city’ s port with dock and shipping industry. That was accompanied with working class neighbourhoods and service zones like Stratford. Stratford was an industrial zone known for building locomotives, coaches and good wagons with significant railway infrastructure which brought a lot of employees into the area. The East End of London suffered from high unemployment rates, crime and lack of local prospects. On the other hand, Stratford ‘s potential was the large area of publicly owned land which could offer new development relatively closed to the city center. Up to 3,000 new businesses and 4,000 new homes were estimated to be able to fit in Stratford and thus improve the situation of whole London locals.14 STRATFORD CITY PROJECT

SUSTAINABLE LONDON 2012

The Olympic Games were supposed to change this situation once and for all. The main reason for London bidding for the Games were to revitalise this area with billions of pounds from government to clean the soil, put new infrastructure and build houses. But what most people do not know is that the revitalisation would happen anyway. The Stratford City Project was launched before London was even bidding for the Games. From 1990s the project was planning the 1.2million sq. meters redevelopment which was the largest single planning application ever in UK. It started with the high-speed rail development of the Channel Tunnel Rail link and regeneration of Westfield Stratford City. The benefit from hosting the Olympic Games was that everything happened much faster and the publicity brought commercial interest into that area.15 BIDDING

East London History, Facts About The East End. (2018).

East London History - East End People and Places. [online] Available at: http://www.eastlondonhistory.co.uk/ [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

15 The London Olympics and Urban Development: The Mega-Event City; Gavin Poynter, Valerie Viehoff, Yang Li; 2016 14

Urban development plays one of the main roles in prospective host cities. Since modern Olympic Games started the obligations associated with hosting the Olympic Games multiplied. The number of sports increased from 9 in Athens 1896 to 28 in London 2012. And as the number of participating countries expanded, the number of athletes increased from 241 to 10,500. With this naturally the number of coached, referees, committees and associations multiplied as well. This all increased the requirements and needed change in infrastructure for the Olympic sprawl. Now the host city needs to accommodate not just a single stadium but large complexes for several venues, housing for thousands of athletes and members of the media, ceremonial parks, broadcast and press center and everything connected by transportation facilities capable of moving hundreds of thousands of people each day.

Therefore, the footprint of Olympic Games is now estimated to be 3.400 hectares. For that purpose, the abandoned large brownfield area on the outskirt of the city with old railway connections was an ideal place.

London was bidding twice before for Olympic Games in 2000 and for 2002 Commonwealth Games which they lost to Manchester. But the application was in both cases refused mainly for lack of strategic authority and poor transport services. It was no surprise then that not many people believed in winning the bid for Olympic Games 2012. It was mainly the high-profile emphasise and sustainable agenda which brought the attention for those directly involved with the Games. The possible winning

aspect was to promote the sustainable approach and influence people to adapt to more sustainable life styles.

URBAN DEVELOPMENT The approach of Olympic Games in London 2012 was regeneration and legacy. London wanted to prove with its design of the Olympic Park that the mega-event can be done differently with aspiration to long term use. The East End of London was chosen to host this event to narrow the large difference in economy between west and east end after closing the docks. The aim was to transform the devastated East End to create new green lungs of London providing recreational space with employment center, affordable housing and community facilities. The difference from past Olympic Games was that London didn’t want to invest mainly into iconic architecture, the existing venues were exploited to minimise the need for new buildings and new buildings were erected just when they could be retained with permanent use, the rest was accomplished by temporary structures.

The new sustainable urban quarter was about to be built with an ecological park in the center and supported with new walking and cycling lines as well as new residential and infrastructure linked to the public transport.

To be able to achieve it each venue had its environmental manager.

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

MASTERPLAN It took 7 years of preparation and 5 new neighbourhood were created around the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park. The overall masterplan apart from architecture incorporated also the protection and reuse of existing features and enhancement of the natural environment.

The river and canal network were a central element of the masterplan. The Park around those waterways created the link between Lee Valley Regional Park to the Thames. So, the 26km long Greenways has been connected along elevated sewer banks which have served as informal cycle and walking path for decades. Within the Park the water recycling plant and local energy generation was designed as part of a sustainable strategy and new residential blocks were placed within walking distance to public transport and local schools. The Park was planned to accommodate 2,818 new homes with 1,379 falling into the affordable category and new businesses offering up to 51,000 jobs including Westfield Stratford City shopping center.

Apart from creating new employment opportunities the new masterplan offers various facilities for higher education, postgraduate study and research.

The regeneration was supposed to thus transform the unemployment rates and low level of education and skills into a prospective local economy.

FIGURE 3.1.2. ‘Connected Greenway of East London’ London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, 201217 17 ‘Connected Greenway of East London’ Hattie Hartman (2012), London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, Chichester, Wiley

FIGURE 3.1.1. ‘Masterplan of Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in Stratford, London’ London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, 201216 16 ‘Masterplan of Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in Stratford, London’ Hattie Hartman (2012), London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, Chichester, Wiley 21

FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

INFRASTRUCTURE Transport was the main issue to make the Games viable. The sustainable strategy was to empower all the spectators to use the public transport, walking or cycling. Stratford is one of the best-connected places in London. Stratford International is providing connections to St Pancras and Europe and Stratford rail station connecting Stratford to suburbs, central London and London City Airport. About £6.5 billion has been invested into more efficient stations and new high-speed overground and underground lines. With that many new connections the Olympic Park is easily reached in less than 10 min from the city center. The international trains were stopped there and then connected to the highspeed lines across the London to create an international profile of the area and provide convenient travel opportunities for new businesses.

FIGURE 3.1.3. ‘Interconnection of transport links for Olympics in London 2012’ London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, 201218

‘Interconnection of transport links for Olympics in London 2012’ Hattie Hartman (2012), London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, Chichester, Wiley 18

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

ARCHITECTURE In order to minimise the need for new developments London hosted venues all around the city. Overlay is the term used for everything connected to event-specific nature. Part of the overlay are temporary, dismantlable structures attached to the existing venues to increase the capacity for the mega event. The overlay used the most of London’s historical settings as sport venues including the Beach Volleyball stands at Horse Guards Parade, the Equestrian platform at Greenwich Park, The Mall as start and finish of marathons and cycling road races with Hampton Court Palace, Hyde Park hosted triathlon finish and 10km marathon swimming and many more. In a total 23 existing venues were adapted for Games. The amount was extensive covering the temporary venues with London views, accommodation from hire market to back home installations, sponsor’s concessions, catering facilities, security infrastructure and temporary power.

FIGURE 3.1.4. ‘Olympic stadium for London 2012’ Detail magazine, 201219 FIGURE 3.1.5. ‘Expanded 3D view of Olympic stadium in London’ London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, 201220

Olympic Stadium The new development was designed with regards to its future use. Olympic stadium was built as lightweight construction in order to be able to reduce its capacity after the Games. Previous Games usually the stadiums were multi-purpose and designed to be able to accommodate another sport or multiple sports after the mega event. In London no sport team was ready to take the Stadium after the Games, so the design was based on permanent and temporary architecture which can be removed after the Games. In order to design both parts the most efficiently the permanent part was partly buried into the slope of the site and allowed to make the stadium as compact as possible. The Stadium could serve 80 000 spectators and was one of the most accessible and after Games two thirds of the capacity could be dismantled.

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‘Olympic stadium for London 2012’ https://www. detail-online.com/article/london-2012-olympic-stadium-16402/ 20 ‘Expanded 3D view of Olympic stadium in London’ Hattie Hartman (2012), London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, Chichester, Wiley 19

FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

Aquatics Center Aquatics Center is the center piece of London’ s Olympic Games providing the iconic gateway to the Park. It was design to capture the attention with its wave-like shape which should support the sustainable agenda of the Games. Zaha Hadid as the main architect was selected even before London won the bid for Olympic Games. Her proposal was twice bigger than the final project which aimed to improve the efficiency of the building and reduce size, two wings were constructed as temporary to be removed after Games.

FIGURE 3.1.6. ‘Iconic Aquatics Center of Zaha Hadid in London’ Detail magazine, 201221 FIGURE 3.1.7. ‘Aquatics Center from the riverside’ Photograph: Lucie Linderova, 2018

FIGURE 3.1.8. ‘Cross section of Aquatics Center in London’ London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, 201222

‘Iconic Aquatic Center of Zaha Hadid in London’ https:// www.detail-online.com/article/hadids-wings-clipped-reopening-of-londons-olympic-aquatics-centre-16672/ 22 ‘Cross section of Aquatics Center in London’ Hattie Hartman (2012), London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, Chichester, Wiley 21

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

Velodrome Velodrome is another icon of London 2012. This venue was designed to be fully permanent and promote the good sustainable design. The double curved external shell and roof is design to minimise the internal volume and in combination with carefully placed rooflight and natural ventilation reducing the energy loads. The cycling track has strict requirements for temperatures which should be between 26-28°C to allow them to cut few milliseconds of their times due to lower air density. The heating strategy was in that case main interest. The double curvature of the form creates natural stack effect bringing fresh air through louvres in cladding and extracting by vents based under the upper tier of seats. The track with underfloor heating supplies the warm temperature to cyclist and comfort temperature to seating. The mechanical ventilation plant is located on same place as vents so in winter it provides rapid heating response. In summer the space can be managed just by natural ventilation.

FIGURE 3.1.9. ‘Sustainable strategies of London’s Velodrome’ London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, 201223 FIGURE 3.1.10. ‘London Velodrome by Hopkins Architects’ Photograph: Lucie Linderova, 2018

‘Sustainable strategies of London’s Velodrome’ Hattie Hartman (2012), London 2012 Sustainable Design, Delivering a Games Legacy, Chichester, Wiley 23

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

LEGACY

FIGURE 3.1.11. ‘Masterplans for staging games and for its legacy mode’ Journal of Urban Design, 201824

The Legacy of Olympic Games should raise the area and bring the economic and social improvement. The Games were expecting to attract new international businesses and institutions of arts, culture and education to invest in the area and provide new employment opportunities and housing needs. This was perceived as an opportunity for local people to develop here a new dynamic center driving innovation and growth for whole London.

But the money released for the Games did not just speed things up, it also brought the pressure to build what Olympic authority thought was needed for the Games. It included the cuts in number of affordable housing as well as new school or health center budgets. In the end the investment was made for the Games not the legacy. The Games had a bad influence also to former tenants. Due to the publicity of such kind of event the crowds of people were expected to come in the area and many tenants therefore moved out in effort to avoid that 3 weeks restless chaos. Also local traditional craft businesses were forced to close or relocate before Olympic Games to create space for the redevelopment of the area. And the ones that stayed then struggled to survive as new demand for office spaces and residential buildings increased the local rental prices.25

‘Masterplans for staging games and for its legacy mode’ Renata Latuf de Oliveira Sanchez & Stephen Essex (2018) The challenge of urban design in securing post-event legacies of Olympic Parks, Journal of Urban Design 25 Burrows, T. (2018). Legacy, what legacy? Five years on the London Olympic park battle still rages. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/ cities/2017/jul/27/london-olympic-park-success-five-yearsdepends [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

3.2.

CITY IN CRISIS As the first South American nation hosting Olympic Games Brazil supposed to be shown to the world as modern, sophisticated and responsible country celebrating three decades of democracy and economic development. Rio de Janeiro won the bid in 2009 to host Olympic Games in 2016 but the country had several challenges ahead to be solved before The Games could start.

Pollution

RIO 2016, CITY IN CRISIS

One of them was pollution in Guanabara bay, the largest bay in the world borders the east coast of Rio de Janeiro where sailing and windsurfing events were to be placed. An oil gas terminal is located in the bay which is target for many oil tankers sailing through the bay. It processes more than 5 billion m3 of liquefied natural gas each year. Early in the year 2000 three oil spill accidents together with cities pouring raw sewage into the bay’s waters caused continuing pollution with long lasting problems for plants and animals living there. The untreated litter in each corner of the bay remained the biggest issue and caused also problems with water flow from 55 rivers coming to the bay. Cleaning at least 80% of pollution in Guanabara bay was a key promise in Rio’s bid for the Olympic Games. To keep that promise several new water treatment plants were planned but not long before Olympics were about to start, city’s mayor announced the pollution treatment is likely not to be completed in time and just 49% was reached from promised cleaning goal. Scientists examining the water discovered presence of superbacteria in waters possibly causing gastrointestinal infections and other diseases not even mentioning big pieces of litter which could hurt athlete falling into water. Despite that authorities kept declaring that water in bay does not pose any health risk to athletes. There were discussions saying the state have enough resources to reach the promised clean-up of Guanabara bay, but politicians were not interested to make it a priority.

FIGURE 3.2.1. ‘Litter pollution in Guanabara Bay’ Bloomberg Businessweek, 201626

‘Litter pollution in Guanabara Bay’ https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2016-unsolved-murder-in-rio/ 26

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

Economy crisis Another crisis to challenge for Rio was the economy. 70% of energy income for Brazil is hydropower and Brazil was suffering the worst drought in 40 years. If the water levels dipped even below the principal hydroelectric plant would be closed. For World Cup in 2014 Brazil had to spent $5 billion in fossil fuels to make up for lost of hydroelectric power and it threatened to be repeated again for Olympic Games 2016. This energy and economy crisis came together with social tension. Although that hosting mega event may be a tool for economic growth and infrastructure development, Rio needed investment in other areas like education, health and security. And especially after hosting World Cup in 2014, residents felt that Rio was not ready to make another huge investment in hosting Olympics.27 The city had huge differences between informal settlements on north side where people were dying from shortage of basic medical tools and having serious problems with violent drug gangs. Meanwhile the south of Rio was busy with revitalisation projects to attract more tourists and international media.

Before the Olympics were announced the state was interested in improving the living conditions in the most vulnerable communities in informal settlements. They were significant part of city’ s culture, identity and economy with many businesses generating income. But once Rio had won the bid for Olympic Games, authorities started to be obsessed with creating a wonderful image of new global city and started to hide inappropriate situation of poor informal settlements. In informal settlements inhabitants were forced to abandon their homes to make space for new construction commonly not without police violence.

Favela Bairro project Favelas are so-called informal settlements mainly located on north side of Rio de Janeiro.

Those informal settlements are illegal housing forming randomly without any infrastructure and growing fast reaching tremendous number of almost third of city’s population living there.

Usually informal settlements are located on the boundary of the city but because Rio’s unique topography of mountains and sea they are spread within the city on top of each other covering steep hillsides. Because they were formed without any structure nor planning the living conditions are impoverishing with lack of basic sanitation, electricity, with no interconnection and limited access convenient for crime spreading across dangerous disorienting clusters. In mid 90s government could not ignore the growing problems in informal settlements anymore and they launched the program Favela Bairro also known as “Slum to Neighbourhood”. The goal was to reintegrate informal settlements back to the formal city, to provide infrastructure into existing clusters improving orientation and control needed to diminish crime. In collaboration with architects and engaging community many projects were introduced improving living standard within minimum intervention to existing housing. In between them award winning project by

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FIGURE 3.2.2. ‘informal settlements climbing the hills in Rio’ Nucleo Engenharia Consultiva28

Kweifio-Okai, C. (2018). Rio Olympics: benefit or burden for poor communities in Brazil?. [online] the Guardian.

Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jul/01/rio-olympics-benefit-or-burden-poor-communities-brazil [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

28 ‘Informal settlements climbing the hills in Rio’ http://www. nucleoengenharia.com.br/urbanismo1.php 27

FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

Jorge Mario Jáuregui Architects of colourful functional modernist design provided rare basic services.

The program allowed 10 new informal settlements neighbourhood to be rebuild with newly integrated power lines, streets to be seen for first time, communal centres, day care centres, laundries encouraging community to self-improvement.

The only problem was that the budget by government ran out quickly. Some of housing had to be demolished in the process of implementing infrastructure, but tenants were offered relocation or replacement. Unfortunately, sometimes the replacements or refurbished housing became too expensive for locals to maintain.29

FIGURE 3.2.3. ‘Regeneration project in Favela Bairro’ Favela Bairro Project30

Crime

Vieira, M. (2018). Jorge Mario Jauregui. [online] Jauregui.arq.br. Available at: http://www.jauregui.arq.br/ [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

30 ‘Regeneration project in Favela Bairro’ www.jauregui.arq. br/Favela_Bairro.pdf 31 Watts, J. (2018). What the Olympics means for the people of Rio. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https:// www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/19/2016-olympics-rio-de-janeiro-brazil-destruction [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

29

Another city’s issue linked with segregation of people was increased street crime. Crime was highly concentrated in informal settlements where the violent eviction did not help the situation. Police there came heavily armed, shooting was on everyday basis and almost every three days a police officer was killed there.31 Just one year before Olympiad crime spread and Rio’s commuters were confronted with several mass armed robberies in public spaces and public transport. Although the police started to prepare to Olympics with increasing public security in strategic points and teaching local policemen English to be able to deal with foreigners. There was never any expected danger on the side of foreigners and south of the city which was compared to the north quiet and safe. On the contrary thanks to investment into the Olympic Games Rio was supposed to improve infrastructure which could help to lighten the social tension and lower the crime. But those forced evictions led to protests to which city responded by building 200km security fencing around the sites.

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND ARCHITECTURE To be able to reuse existing venues in Rio, Olympic Games were not concentrated in one place but dispersed across whole city. There were 4 main Olympic zones with different venues: Barra, Copacabana, Deodoro, and Maracanã.

FIGURE 3.2.4. ‘Barra Olympic park masterplan’ e-architect journal, 201632

BARRA OLYMPIC PARK The main Olympic site was located in Barra, the west zone of Rio. Surprisingly this chosen site with its refined residential and commercial complexes was not the problematic area in need of total regeneration besides many other districts in Rio which would appreciate this redevelopment. The district was developed in 1960’s for motorsport circuit hosting Formula One Brazilian Grand Prix. A new masterplan for Olympic Park in Barra proposed mixed use urban quarter with integrated sport venues into residential, commercial, retail and leisure complexes placed within 80 square kilometres covering 10% of city’s land. It was supposed to form attractive high-price new rising neighbourhood.33 Barra Olympic 31

‘Barra Olympic park masterplan’ https://www.e-architect. co.uk/brazil/rio-2016-olympic-park-masterplan 33 Renata Latuf de Oliveira Sanchez & Stephen Essex (2018) The challenge of urban design in securing post-event legacies of Olympic Parks, Journal of Urban Design, 23:2, 278-297, DOI: 10.1080/13574809.2017.1395690 32

FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

Park hosted nine venues connected with sinuous pedestrian path which symbolized the Copacabana sidewalks where another Olympic zone took place. All venues were newly built as the existing site was demolished and its residents were forcefully moved out to make space for new construction.

ARCHITECTURE IN BARRA Olympic Aquatics Center

FIGURE 3.2.5. ‘Nearly not finished in time Barra’s Aquatics center’ Web Urbanist journal, 201634

Some of the venues became local landmarks like Olympic aquatics center by GMP architects. This venue should be temporary building creating entrance to the park but then was relocated more into core of the park to make other permanent venues more visible. Center was built to host swimming and aquatics polo competition within 18 000 seats arena. The temporary structure was designed to be easy to dismantle and transport and the plan after the Games was to reuse the structure and build four different schools to create business and educational campus.35 FIGURE 3.2.6. ‘Olympic Velodrome half a year before start of the Games’ Cycling Tips journal, January 201636

‘Nearly not finished in time Barra’s Aquatics center’ https://weburbanist.com/2017/02/26/amazon-calm-rios-deteriorating-olympic-games-venues/2/ 35 Lomholt, I., Welch, A., Welch, A. and Lomholt, I. (2018).

Aquatics Stadium for Rio 2016 Olympic Park - e-architect. [online] e-architect. Available at: https://www.e-architect. co.uk/brazil/aquatics-stadium-for-rio-2016-olympic-park [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

36 ‘Olympic Velodrome half a year before start of the Games’ https://cyclingtips.com/2016/01/rio-2016-pushback-test-event-after-velodrome-delays/ 34

Olympic Velodrome was built as replacement for the velodrome for Pan American Games in 2013. The existing just three years old velodrome did not fulfil Olympic guidelines and adapting the building would cost the same as to build new venue, so it is how Olympic velodrome was rebuilt by Shuermann architects specializing in velodromes’ design. Problems were following this venues from its beginning with construction delays, poor working conditions and strict timelines and cost overrun during last year of realisation causing organisers worry that the venue would not be ready for the Games and Olympic cycling program were in question with no backup plans. In the end the venue was ready for actual Games. It took almost a year to reopen the overpriced building for trainings unfortunately just couple months after that the building was closed again for repairs after the accidental fire what made already alert public quite angry.

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

Athletes’ villages Ilha Pura Most of the venues were developed by private sector including athletes’ villages which are considered as largest complex in Olympic history taking place of 820 000 square meters. Just quarter of total of 3,604 apartments in 31 high rise buildings would be enough to accommodate 18 000 participants of Olympic Games. But developers wanted to create desirable prestigious new neighbourhood apart from residential complex also other commercial facilities and services for future residents accompanied with public places like parks and leisure areas were also joined to the masterplan.

Sadly, the built environment did not respond to its expectations. Instead of creating a sustainable community with vibrant street life with commercial units spread and on ground floors instead of all retail was segregated to shopping mall with residential towers reminding more of a concrete barrier around “public” park which ended up with gated access. No schools, hospitals nor day cares were part of the project.

Contractors went into huge debts due to this projects which may never be repaid and the construction itself was delayed for several months and was completed just couple of weeks before Games started.38

FIGURE 3.2.7. ‘Nearly not finished in time Barra’s Aquatics center’ Web Urbanist journal, 201637

‘Nearly not finished in time Barra’s Aquatics center’ https://weburbanist.com/2017/02/26/amazon-calm-rios-deteriorating-olympic-games-venues/2/ 38 RIO 2016 OLYMPIC MYTHS, HARD REALITIES, ANDREW ZIMBALIST, Brookings Institution Press 2017 37

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

Maracanã stadium FIGURE 3.2.8. ‘Ceremony at Maracanã stadium’ Web Urbanist journal39

Maracanã was another Olympic zone located on north side of the city known for the largest stadium of all Olympics venues. Maracanã Stadium was built in 50s to be the biggest stadium in the world and then undertook massive redevelopment of reducing seats and improving health and safety to host World Cup in 2014. With almost 75 000 seating capacity, easily accessible by metro and train made good host for opening and closing ceremony of 2016 Olympic Games highlighting Brazilian history and carnival culture and appealing to environmental conservation and global warming prevention. In contrast to environmental warning from ceremony’s theme, the Maracanã zone is the one to compare with Guanabara bay water polluting putting all water sport venues in risk.40

‘Ceremony at Maracanã stadium’ https://weburbanist. com/2017/02/26/amazon-calm-rios-deteriorating-olympic-games-venues/ 40 Stadiumguide.com. (2018). Maracana - Rio de Janeiro - The Stadium Guide. [online] Available at: http://www. stadiumguide.com/maracana/ [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

FIGURE 3.2.9. ‘Deodoro Masterplan’ Dezeen journal, 201641

DEODORO OLYMPIC PARK Deodoro Olympic Park designed by Vigliecca and Associates hosted 11 Olympic venues in the west zone of the city spread among 2 million square meters becoming the largest Olympic area at all. Deodoro Olympic Park was delivered in 2007 when it hosted Pan American Games and the biggest challenge was adapting existing venues to Olympic standard and integrating them into new urban complex. The Park was design on vast land with steep terrain, a railway, two roads and river crossing and was supposed to be the greatest legacy of Rio 2016. The masterplan divided the park in two sections, one for more extreme sports with circle for canoeing and biking, elevated running and walking tracks with skate park, picnic area and some multipurpose rooms and it was planned to become not only another sport training facility but public recreational park for up to 1.5 million people from 10 neighbourhoods and 3 cities expecting to support social and sporting development in local young community. This park with 60% of green space is expressing the importance of preserving existing vegetation and connecting people with natural environment especially in the city.

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‘Deodoro Masterplan’ https://www.dezeen. com/2016/07/26/deodoro-olympic-park-host-multiplesporting-events-during-rio-2016-games/ 41

FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

The second part was made from arenas, centres and outdoor pitches for hockey, basketball, modern pentathlon and equestrian which should serve after Games as educational and training facilities for Brazilian athletes. By linking city public transport system with the one already available on site, this urban park in one of the most underprivileged area of Rio grew into public space of metropolitan importance. Shifts of population are expected to come to the newly refurbished place.42 INFRASTRUCTURE Rio de Janeiro has been transformed by a decade of hosting mega events with Pan American Games in 2007, FIFA World Cup in 2014 and ending the set with Olympics in 2016. A significant part of the legacy promise was upgrade and expansion of transport system. Transport in Rio needed some enhancement, the existing infrastructure was overcrowded and during rush hours it could take several hours to travel from one to another zone of the city. Therefore, investments to mobility of Olympic Games looked like a good opportunity to create better infrastructure for whole city. There were three major projects created thanks to hosting those events. One of them was a metro line connecting famous South zone of the city with Copacabana beach with new wealthy neighbourhood of Barra, the center of Olympic Games. Even though this line was going through wealthy neighbourhoods it was supposed to enhance also informal settlements communities in between them and improve mobility for up to 70 000 residents and relieve the traffic worth up to 2,000 cars from roads.

Another launched project was busy rapid transit where buses have their own exclusive lanes and can transport large numbers of passengers. They were expanded to link with new metro line, Barra, Deodoro Park, airport and city center stopping though many neighbourhood on its way.

The third project was new light rail system in city center coming to business district helping to reduce traffic from problematic congestion. It was planned to connect business center with central bus station, domestic airport and integrated the new metro line to offer more comfortable travel through the busy central district.

Anyhow, there were certain issues with construction of those projects. The metro line struggled with many delays and missing deadlines and in order to be ready for summer Olympics the construction was compromised on delivered quality. Part of the lane was destroyed by wave later on because wave risk was not considered during construction even though the route went directly next to the sea side. Because of using cheaper materials new rapid bus lanes occurred to have bumps on it so buses could not go faster and sometimes were having problem to take the weight of crowded bus and caused injuries to its passengers. That put 20% of buses out of use those new “rapid” lanes.43 Porto Maravilha ArchDaily. (2018). Deodoro Olympic Park Rio 2016 / Vigliecca & Associados. [online] Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/792725/deodoro-olympic-park-rio-2016-vigliecca-and-associados [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

43 Rio 2016 and urban mobility, Adam Talbot, Debora Zukeran, www.ciltuk.org.uk 42

Porto Maravilha (meaning Marvellous Harbour) is urban revitalisation project covering Rio’s waterfront in its oldest areas which were degraded after years of decay. Those waterfronts had always been strategic location for social and economic development. Porto Maravilha urban operation planned to reintegrate the historically important port area with the city center with sustainable development 36

FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

providing better interconnection and social inclusion to the city. Project works were focusing on several topics like urban and traffic infrastructure and historical preservation. New urban standards were implemented into more than 70 streets with new underground infrastructure for public lighting, power distribution and telecommunications, networks of water, sewer and drainage. Up to 650 000 square meters of sidewalks and cycling paths were created with 15 000 newly planted trees. This urban project was elite in providing different actions, establishing infrastructure, communication, rediscovering archaeological treasures and by restoring importance of 5 million square meters area practically rebuilding the whole city.44 SUSTAINABILITY Rio was different from other host cities thanks to its integrated legacy strategies into initial phase of construction planning. “All the planning carried out in precedent phases have as reference the goal of creating positive, enduring transformations, maximizing the social, economic, sports and environmental benefit of the Games.”45 Newly build venues were divided a priori into temporary and permanent structure with its future reuse and reassigned functions. There were masterplans designed for Olympic Games and then its adaptation for after use.

Megaevent was hosted in 4 zones not only to reuse existing venues and infrastructure but also to spread the urban revitalisation from Olympic Games across the city. The urban revitalisation accompanying Olympic development was planned carefully with a huge area of concern providing massive new infrastructure into the city and serving as a good example of sustainable development for local people.

Resultados, A. (2018). Porto Maravilha. [online] Portomaravilha.com.br. Available at: http://portomaravilha.com.br/ [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

45 Plano de Gestão da Sustentabilidade dos Jogos Rio 2016, March 2013, version 1, p. 9.

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

Museum of Tomorrow Most of the newly built architecture in Rio was modest compared to other host cities. However the Museum of Tomorrow designed by “starchitect” Santiago Calatrava on the bank of renovated harbour.

This building demonstrates sustainable afford of harbour revitalisation trying to explore the relationship between city and nature. It is 5 000 square meters of temporary and permanent exhibition space attached to large plaza which extends along docks all within 18 meters limited height to protect view from bay to Sao Bento Monastery which belongs to UNESCO world heritage. Sustainable design of the building approached using natural energy sources with adjustable solar panels, incorporating natural light and water treatment strategy. The building is surrounded by reflection pools which are using water from the bay as source. This polluted bay water is filtered and returned to another end of pier which gives impression that the museum is floating. Bay water is also used to cool climate inside of the building.

“The museum is the result of a consistent dialogue. The building was built to be a museum for the future, and an educational unit,” Santiago Calatrava, architect47 FIGURE 3.2.10. ‘Museum of Tomorrow by Santiago Calatrava’ Archdaily journal, 2016, Photographer Amanda Marton Ramaciotti 46

‘Museum of Tomorrow by Santiago Calatrava’ https:// www.archdaily.com/785442/museum-of-tomorrow-santiago-calatrava 47 ArchDaily. (2018). Museum of Tomorrow / Santiago Calatrava. [online] Available at: https://www.archdaily. com/785442/museum-of-tomorrow-santiago-cala46

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

FIGURE 3.2.11 ‘Masterplans for staging games and for its legacy mode’ Journal of Urban Design, 201848

LEGACY “These were a marvellous Olympics, in a marvellous city. Over the last 16 days a united Brazil inspired the world, in difficult times for all of us, with its irresistible joy for life.”,” International Olympic Committee chief Thomas Bach.49 Despite construction issues and many delays Rio amazed the world by hosting successful Olympic Games, everyone loved the vibrant mood of Brazil, new way of life and happy culture full of dance and music.

All sustainable strategies and consistent planning management for urban revitalisation of the city provoked the assume that everything was well prepared for successful legacy of the Games. But the actual legacy turned to be disaster. The problem was with keeping up with the plans. Unfortunately for Rio the success of Olympics did not last long. Straight after the end of the Olympiad, city came into huge financial debts, the cost came out of the control and huge educational and health budgets were depleted to keep Games on track. The city suffered from environmental degradation and social 39

‘Masterplans for staging games and for its legacy mode’ Renata Latuf de Oliveira Sanchez & Stephen Essex (2018) The challenge of urban design in securing post-event legacies of Olympic Parks, Journal of Urban Design 49 BBC Sport. (2018). Rio Olympics 2016: Spectacular closing ceremony as Olympic flag goes to Tokyo. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/37150572 [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

dislocation. Social segregation of informal settlements during Olympics deepen social tension and violence in city escalated.

Corruption scandals were relieved with more and more politicians discovered as participating. During 7 years of Olympic preparations when publicly funded venues representing new modern metropolitan Brazil were recognised to serve as cover to channel millions of dollars of bribes. Six out of twelve stadiums were under investigation together with hundred of politicians, even new metro line was under suspicion. Former mayor of the city and president were accused of accepting bribes in exchange to approving contracts. And corruption cases led far beyond Olympic Games through World Cup event to affairs of former president of Brazil between 2003- 2010. Politicians and businessmen were put in the jail and it caused Brazil the worst economy decline and cost 13 million people losing their job.50 Venues had just a limited use and because city didn’t have any financial means after the Games, they were difficult even to keep maintained. Only 6 months after the Olympiad we could see abandoned stadiums and other venues which was probably the fastest degradation in history of Games.

Additional infrastructure remaining after Games may have through all issues a beneficial effect in long term, but it did not change the way of traveling for normal residents. It failed to understand the city as a future metropolis and instead of integrating poorer communities into the city again it just enhanced the segregation by investing into west where just few people lived and the north zone was in urgent need for better mobility stayed unchanged. Newly created lines had just low priority and did not enhance the life in the city at all. The state was too exhausted by creating wonderful international presentation of its own country that they stopped all needed development. Instead of Olympic legacy improving city, Rio became full of segregation, violence and temporary solutions to seem ready for Olympic Games.

the Guardian. (2018). Stadium deals, corruption and bribery: the questions at the heart of Brazil’s Olympic and World Cup ‘miracle’. [online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/apr/23/brazil-olympic-world-cup-corruption-bribery [Accessed 12 Aug. 2018].

51 ‘Museum of Tomorrow by Santiago Calatrava’ https:// www.archdaily.com/785442/museum-of-tomorrow-santiago-calatrava 50

FIGURE 3.2.12. ‘Deserted and unmaintained venues just half a year after Olympiad in Rio’ Web Urbanist journal 51 40

FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

4.

EXPERIENCE OF AFTER USE

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

I have been pleasantly surprised by lively after use of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park during my visit.

They have created the vibrant modern green neighbourhood actually seeked by citizens in their free time. I believe it is nice escape place especially in summer from overheated city center crowded with tourists. And thanks to the investment into infrastructure during the preparation for the Olympics this place is easily accessible. It took me just around 20 min to get there from the city center.

The park’s landscape is preserving the nature connected to cycle routes and East London Greenway which makes it enjoyable to walk or cycle through but also to stay and relax. The waterways create pleasant microclimate around the park. And all the infrastructure is created on different level than the pedestrian circulation which has created a truly walkable neighborhood.

In the most cases they have managed to incorporate the megastructures and large entry areas oversized for the actual Games to the Post-Event mode. The entry roads are separated by benches, flags, trees to optically divide the huge area to smaller functional elements. Some of that generous free spaces are occupied with food corners, some of them are available for seasonal cultural events.

I really liked the Fish Island neighbourhood with smaller scaled housing development and diversity of public spaces lined with picturesque waterway full of boathouses. Some of the newly raised developments are a bit too uniformed loosing the sense of individuality like East Village but overall the Stratford has been revitalised and offering a lot of diverse activities to its visitors.

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

FIGURE 4.1 ‘Site visit of Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park’ Photographer: Lucie Linderova, London 2018

5.

Hosting Olympic Games grew over past few decades into extensive constantly enlarging scale. With fast development of modern technology each individual’s reach is getting further worldwide and the world is constantly changing faster than ever. Therefore, each mega event needs to adjust to multiplying number of participants and their requirements for better mobility and faster infrastructure which are associated with larger investments. This comes with burden several times more substantial with each Olympic cycle. “the Olympics, which is also a cultural festival rather than just a sports event, have sought to foster development or regeneration to create a new global image for aspiring cities. Architecture and urban design have, as a consequence, become much more fundamental and integral to the success of the Olympic Games so that the new urban spaces fulfil their function both during and after the event.”

Andrew Zimbalist (2017)52

CONCLUSION

Olympics started to be perceived as a tool for urban planning to shape cities into global metropolis.

Since then not only success of the event itself is remaining significant. The success and justification of cost-effective investment relies on long-term legacy. Olympic legacy can provide the aspiring city with needed infrastructure and potential development to grow. But it can also leave city in debts with unadaptable facilities to every day basis in too large scale to be able to keep up with their maintenance reminding citizens not the shining moment of national parade but mistake which delivered economic crisis.

So where is the breaking point between positive and negative legacy? It is long process of seven years between legacy promises made in bidding for Olympics and the delivery of Games. And as the project develops it is necessary to make changes in order to adapt to newly recognised challenges. To create successful legacy, the legacy planning needs to be incorporated in the whole process and kept in mind through all the changes. Too event focused design would never create legacy. But on the other hand, failing in delivery of the event brings no legacy as well. There is thin line between event focus and legacy focus design and needs to be considered consistently. Hosting mega event like Olympics is huge risk for the city. There will always be discrepancy between bid commitments and the delivery outcomes. The failure of positive legacy usually comes from fear of successful delivery when city’s authorities become too concerned about the event itself and forget the long-term strategy.

INFRASTRUCTURE

Andrew Zimbalist (2017) Rio 2016 Olympic Myths Hard Realities, The Brookings Institution 52

Infrastructure and stadiums presents the biggest concern in delivering the legacy mode. It is due to its scale, the differences between beginning promises and the legacy is more substantial than among housing. Enhancing infrastructure in one of the key factors in urban renewal and between main reasons for cities’ bidding for Olympics. The successful legacy of infrastructure development has the power to enhance whole city with better interconnection, mobility, linking neighbourhood and improving then their social status. The good examples of Olympic legacy in infrastructure are Barcelona 1992 and Sydney 2000 where improved infrastructure had positive effect to whole cities and were recog50

FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

nised in international media as great precedent for future host cities. Unfortunately, the infrastructure can have devastating effect for whole city when something goes wrong which proves Montreal 1976 and Athens 2004 Olympics which became notorious for costs overrun, delays and abandoned facilities mainly in area of infrastructure and stadiums.

The situation coming with hosting the Olympic Games is that the rapid development and enhancement of one part of the city reveals the contrast and visibility of poverty on the other side. Often city authorities and developers tend to hide the poor profile of their city to create high profile area representing the country in its best and poor are evicted from high profile areas around Olympic venues.

Referencing to the previous case study of Rio 2016, those evictions of poor communities brings significant problems in long term strategies and intensify the social tension. This model of hiding the less developed side of the city leads to misplaced investment and the legacy development is determined to fail to come to people who need it the most.

There is always substantial economic pressure when it comes to staging the mega event. The scale and investments are too large to not plan with any returns. But this pressure should not turn into creating exclusive housing and high-profile areas with higher prices instead of needing affordable housing.

And through it, the economic factor seems to overcome everything else. For economic viability, the Olympic villages turns into exclusive look alike development inaccessible and unaffordable for majority of population. Sometimes even effort of creating affordable housing becomes too expensive due to cost overruns.

In Delhi for staging 2010 Commonwealth Games the Athletes village was planned to provide accommodation for the university in after use and 17 new build stadiums were to become legacy for future athletes. The massive cost overrun of 1600% made the development too expensive to use in its planned legacy mode and university hostel was sold as luxury apartments.53 This proves how essential it is to incorporate legacy planning and the cost of the transformation from delivery mode to legacy mode from initial phase.

AUTHENTICITY/TRANSFORMATION OF THE SPACE What is your legacy? It is the important question of each host city. To set what is expecting to gain after Games is critical point of success. And all development should be planned then accordingly with its determined after use. The temporary and permanent structures present the conflict between event delivery and long-term legacy. For Olympic legacy, the choice of use and transformation of existing venues, creating temporary venues just for staging the event and keeping permanent structure for after use is essential. Each city is unique, and the adaptability of permanent venues or inadaptability of temporary ones needs to be selected according to authenticity of the place. Although there are many guidelines on how to stage a mega event there cannot be any pattern able to duplicate each time. The transformation of the space coming with staging the Games and its re-assigning for legacy mode is each time an unique challenge which has to start from scratch by initial planning process.

Allison Stewart & Steve Rayner (2016) Planning mega-event legacies: uncomfortable knowledge for host cities, Planning Perspectives 53

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

CITIES CANCELLING BIDS Recent Olympic history is filled with examples of overpriced iconic facilities which became abandoned for inadaptability of its scale after the Games. Olympic Parks are going opposite against principles of sustainable urban design described in theories of Jane Jacobs or Kevin Lynch. The liveable spaces need to be in human scale, interact with its resident, be open to public, incorporating interesting activities on street level and create mixed use environment for viable community with good quality public spaces in walking distance. Olympic Parks are just the opposite, large, single used, facilities centred spaces designed to host major event accommodating numerous spectacles determining the facilities become monstrous in unhuman scale.

The latest cause was concerning Rome which withdraw from bidding to 2024 Olympic Games after its new mayor pronounced it would be irresponsible to take on cost of the event and that the city cannot stand for more “white elephants” – abandoned stadiums – that the city could barely afford. It refers to years of corruption, debts and unpractical infrastructure projects with which the city is struggling since last time held Olympics in 1960.54 SUSTAINABLE AGENDA 2020 “If we want our values of Olympism - the values of excellence, respect, friendship, dialogue, diversity, non-discrimination, tolerance, fair-play, solidarity, development and peace - if we want these values to remain relevant in society, the time for change is now.”

Olympic Agenda 2020 In an attempt to secure sustainable future of Olympic Movement International Olympic Committee came up with Olympic Agenda 2020. This agenda 2020 was consolidated from 40 concrete recommendations coming from 14 differently based working groups to protect uniqueness of Olympics and strengthen its social value. To be able to adapt to modern diverse society Olympic Movement must show they are living up to its values and transparency and participation are new demands of modern world. The Olympic reform sits on three pillars: sustainability, youth and credibility. New philosophy encourages the cultural diversity of each Olympic Games.

“This diversity is enrichment, because at the same time you strengthened the unity with regard to our vision and our values. So let us together use this momentum for progress through change. Let us unite behind our Olympic Agenda 2020. Let us demonstrate the true meaning of Unity in Diversity. Let us together shape an even brighter future for this magnificent, truly global Olympic Movement.”

Olympic Agenda 2020 Kirchgaessner, S. (2018). Mayor of Rome announces opposition to city’s 2024 Olympic bid. [online] the Guardian.

Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/ sep/21/virginia-raggi-mayor-of-rome-announces-opposition-city-olympic-bid [Accessed 13 Aug. 2018].

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It is part of the magic; each edition reflects the authenticity of cultural, social, environmental and economical background of the host city. To support this enchanted cultural dialogue the organisation must become more flexible. New standards have changed the bidding procedure and requires candidate cities to present comprehensive concept respecting environment and feasibility of develop52

FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

ment with long term legacy planning in order to secure positive post-event consequences. Sustainability should be included in all aspects of Olympic Games which means help potential hosts implement the sustainable strategy in all stages of their projects, train established committee to integrate sustainability within organisation and ensure positive legacy by post-Games monitoring.

Facing global sustainable challenges mainly in social and economical inequality and climate change the focus of sustainable agenda covers five main aspect. Infrastructure and natural sites, sourcing and resource management, mobility, workforce and climate are focus areas having the most significant interaction with sustainability. Infrastructure and natural sites covers sustainable design with energy efficient concept of new and refurbished facilities. Sourcing and resourcing put into consideration the life cycle in materials and services and trying to reduce energy impact and waste quantity. Mobility reduces the travel impact of Olympic Movement members and guests. Workforce focuses on equal work conditions and increasing employee diversity either in gender, culture or geographical location.

Climate relates to environmental friendly lifestyle trying to reduce emission associated with Olympic Movement activities and adapting to climate changes.55 Another pillar of reform is credibility. Election rules within the organisation has changed to provide better transparency and ethics as the organisation is taking the role model of its values. Sustainability, universality, solidarity, non-discrimination and fundamental equality for all people are values of new reform.

Because youth is our future new reform focus on integration of sport within young generation by addressing communication with them and promoting active life style and giving them better access to sport which is waning in new modern digital era.56 Due to the long-term nature of each Olympic cycle from bidding process to staging the event, the first edition fully adapted according to new Olympic Agenda 2020 is expected to be Paris 2024. However, Tokyo hosting Games in 2020 announced they will incorporate the new sustainable agenda into their program.

IOC Sustainability Strategy, Executive Summary, International Olympic Committee, 2017 56 Olympic Agenda 2020, Context and Background, International Olympic Committee 55

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

OLYMPIC GAMES AS POTENTIAL TO START IMPROVING WHOLE SOCIETY Global improvement always starts with good precedent. And this may be the future potential of Olympic Games. We must think about future with running out of non-renewable resources and dependency on energy supplies for our everyday life. The change of gaining energy is inevitable. The world has already started incorporating more sustainable and energy efficient technologies. In building industry, the use of natural renewable materials is slowly spreading across the field. But not each passive house is environmentally friendly. Sometimes the passive houses are just loaded with expensive technology which costs not just money but also energy to create and regarding the life time span of units and its maintenance it is not an energy efficient solution at all in the global scale. It may seem sometimes that we are too captured in modern technology and due to that we are complicating simple things where all they need is just a simple solution. You can design better passive housing starting not by listing which “sustainable” technologies you will fit in but starting from basics like shaping the building to catch wind to cool the internal climate and sun heat to gain energy, focusing to use local materials instead of transporting items from another end of world which has become phenomenon of modern age. This basic, simple and logical understanding of sustainability in the meaning of ecological, economic, environmental and social consideration and improvement is what modern society needs.

And the Olympic Games as a global, worldwide watched event with its need for new infrastructure and huge urban complexes and each time higher attention to its legacy has all the needed aspects to become the role model of truly sustainable design, educating with good precedents the whole society about global concerns and setting the right direction to a better future.

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FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER – re-assigning Olympic complexes Lucie Linderova

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“FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER” RE-ASSIGNING OLYMPIC COMPLEXES With reference to urban developments and legacies of London 2012 and Rio 2016 Lucie Linderova Manchester School of Architecture 2018