Y3 - Technical report

TECHNICAL REPORT

Luigi Di Vito Francesco UNIT 3 University of Greenwich 2015/2016

TECHNICAL REPORT BUIL-1074-M01-2015-16 Integrated Design Technology and Professional Practice

Luigi Di Vito Francesco UNIT 3 University of Greenwich 2015/2016

Contents page

1.0

CONTEXT AND INTRODUCTION

2.0

1.1 Response to the brief 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4

Unit brief: ‘Frontiers of resilience’ Personal response to the brief Project brief: ‘Island incubator’ Concepts underpinning the project

INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY 2.1 The building’s strategies

6 8 9 10

2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5

Structural strategy - Cross section development Load path diagram Material choices Heating, cooling and ventilation Lighting study

48 49 50 52 53

1.2 The site 2.2 The fragment 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.8 1.2.9 1.2.10 1.2.11 1.2.12

Coastal erosion in the UK The Isle of Sheppey Site history Site photographs Site section Bathymetric chart - Sea depth Sandbanks Geology and habitats Wind rose diagram Sun path and shadow studies Tidal calendar Climate

12 13 14 16 18 20 21 22 23 24 26 27

1.3 The proposal 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 1.3.7 1.3.8 1.3.9

Overview List of accommodation Precedents The client Design and construction team Cost, time and quality Risk assessment for construction RIBA Plan of Work Benchmarking

28 31 32 34 35 36 37 38 39

A site of special scienti ic interest The planning application Funding Swale Borough Local Plan

40 42 43 44

2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5

The fragment Considerations about construction Transportation and access to the site Construction sequence Physical model

54 56 57 58 60

The entrance-bridge The roof The walkway

62 64 66

2.3 Details 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 Appendix

68

Bibliography

72

List of ϐigures

73

1.4 Planning 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4

3

1.0

CONTEXT AND INTRODUCTION

1.1 Response to the brief

1.1.1 Unit brief: ‘Frontiers of resilience’

‘We live in a world populated by structures – a complex mixture of geological, biological, social and linguistic constructions that are nothing but accumulations of materials shaped and hardened by history’ 1 Over 450,000 years ago nomadic tribes roamed the mud lats and marshlands of a vast river, their migratory patterns in luenced only by the proximity of food, fresh water and high ground, scavenging for survival in this harsh place. Millennia passed, the last ice age ground to a halt with melt water submerging the land bridge of Doggerland, a tsunami engulfed the lowlands and created a new island. Over the eons that followed, a booming metropolis grew on the banks of this new river estuary.

In 2015, London has grown to its largest size ever, with population igures topping those of 8.6 million2 set in 1939 and continuing to grow.

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Huge infrastructure projects like Crossrail and the ‘Super Sewer’ go way beyond the pioneering visions of Bazalgette and Brunell. Failed proposals for an esturial airport replace the migratory visitors to our shores with a species of more metallic and oil hungry. Our priorities and challenges have shifted since those original settlers irst made marks on the land, civilizations have lourished and our support structures have become increasingly complex. Reliance and dependency create a new vulnerability. Natural, economic and humanitarian disasters are shaking the rickety foundations of consumerist culture and opening our eyes to the possibilities beyond. Future resilience demands innovative solutions which rethink our relationship with climate and resources, land-use, nature and technology.

The impacts of urbanisation reach far beyond the shifting and demarcated boundaries of the

city. These ‘edgelands’ beyond the urban are the contemporary Libertines, chasing new frontiers of identity. This year UNIT 3 will be working on this edge zone, as an exploratory ield around the city. We will develop adaptive spatial strategies, focusing on the duality between architecture (physical) and infrastructure (social) to address the challenges posed in an uncertain future.

Our initial investigations will be universal, siteless and collective, based on themes of shelter, sustenance and climate, before focusing our explorations on an eastwards trajectory into the Thames Estuary.

design in an extreme outpost, and delve into the mythical world of the Icelandic culture.

Our ield trip will take us to Iceland. A place where seismic forces are still at forging new landscapes and the powerful impacts are laid bare, a place recovering from economic meltdown and the birthplace of a giant ash cloud, which grounded worldwide aviation in 2010. We will investigate strategies for resilient

1. Manuel De Landa, A Thousand Years of Non Linear History 2. www.citymetric.com/skylines/week-whenlondons-population-will- inally-overtake-itsprevious-peak 3. Bjork ‘Modern Things’ from the Album ‘Post’ 1995

“All the modern things, like cars and such, have always existed, they’ve just been waiting in a mountain, for the right moment, listening to the irritating noises, of dinosaurs and people, dabbling outside, all the modern things, have always existed, they’ve just been waiting, to come out, and multiply, and take over, it’s their turn now...” 3 __________________________________

Context and introduction 1.1 Response to the brief

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UNIT Figure 1: Robert Smithson, ‘Floating Barge’

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Unit 3 began the academic year with a series of workshops on the themes of sustenance, climate change, shelter and resilience.

Since the early start of the year I have been interested in climate change and design opportunities that may come with it.

For our workshop on climate change we were asked to imagine a future scenario for the year 2030 and the consequences of climate change on a chosen topic. We then produced a piece of writing to support our theories.

The article I wrote for this workshop was about the consequences of looding on the Thames Barrier (see ig. 3). I imagined that in 2030, due to increased loods, a new barrier may need to be built across the river Thames.

The series of workshops, other than having the function of bringing people to get to know each other and work together, set the scene for the two main projects that follow, the irst entitled ‘Personal Adaptor’, the following one ‘Island Incubator’ (the main building project).

For the ‘Personal Adaptor’ project students were asked to imagine a future scenario (linked to the themes previously treated) and design in response to it a piece of equipment, a map, a vehicle etc.

Still referring to my earlier article, I designed an amphibious vehicle (see ig. 2) which would allow transportation in very dynamic climate conditions and boost river transportation through the river Thames.

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Figure 2: Amphibious vehicle, drawing for â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Personal Adaptorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; project

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Figure 3: Article on Ď&#x201D;looding and consequences of climate change on Thames barrier, from one of Unit 3 workshops

Context and introduction 1.1 Response to the brief

1.1.3 Project brief: ‘Island incubator’

After the completion of the ‘Personal Adaptor’ project, we were given the brief for the main building project, entitled ‘Island Incubator’.

The site for the project is the Isle of Sheppey, located at the Thames Estuary ( ig. 4).

The brief is as follows:

Our investigations will focus on: • Outposts, edgelands, periphery • Future infrastructure and impact on the built environment • Resilient communities in a dynamic environment • London’s rapid growth and changing land uses

Our exploration of resilient design strategies now continues into the Thames Estuary. Strategically located and for centuries the ‘gateway’ into London, the estuary is today a periphery, characterised by large infrastructure projects supporting the city on the one hand, and its rough natural beauty on the other. As a relatively underdeveloped area in close proximity to the metropolis, this edgeland is often earmarked for future development. But how can this be done in a sustainable way, taking into account that much of its land being threatened ϔloodrisk?

Proposals will be based around our initial research and developed around the following ten themes: • Food production and consumption • Cultural enrichment and preservation • Learning and development • Health and social support • Recreation and wellbeing • Transport and movement • Dwelling and settlement • Protection and refuge • Governance and community • Trade and manufacture

Figure 4: Satellite image of Thames Estuary. The site for project, the Isle of Sheppey, is highlighted in red

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1.1.4 Concepts underpinning the project

While each of the 2nd years students were given a site before the actual site visit, 3rd years were free to choose their own.

Before going on site, given the size of the island, I gave a quick look at the Isle of Sheppey on google maps to try to identify an interesting site for my proposal.

From google maps, one of the irst thing I noticed was the northern coast of the island being affected by erosion.

The site visit (see pictures at pages 16-17) con irmed the impression I had by looking at the site from above on google maps.

I got more interested in coastal erosion and decided that the proposal should have been strictly related to it.

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The erosion phenomena is quite signi icant on the island and has en enormous impact not only on the coastline, but on everything that sits behind it (communities, caravan sites, habitats etc.).

The irst idea for the project was to design a defensive structure, a sort of seawall, to protect the coast from further erosion.

The idea of a seawall rapidly evolved and turned into a research facility where coastal erosion and the natural elements that cause are studied in depth. Rather than protecting the coast itself, as initially thought, the coast itself becomes a sort of testing ground where research is carried out.

While I initially located the research facility along the coastline, I then decided to design a pier structure which would strecth towards the sea, and locate the main research facility at the end of the pier. By doing this the research facility looks back at the eroding coastline rather than sitting within it. The facility researches all those elements which are the causes of coastal erosion: sea waves, tidal range, weather and others.

To link the proposal with the coast a secondary facility is designed, a smaller research center were ground conditions and sediments are studied.

The pier structure and the secondary facility are linked by a staircase that provides access to the site from the mainland.

While the secondary facility is of private use, the rest of the proposal (staircase, pier and main research facility) is open to the public.

The reason for opening the research facility to the public is to promote awareness of coastal erosion but not only.

The proposal in fact creates a strong link between local communities and that part of land which would otherwise be inaccessible to the majority of people.

Context and introduction 1.1 Response to the brief

Figure 5: Rendering of proposed research facility in context

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1.2 The site

1.2.1 Coastal erosion in the UK

Coastal erosion is de ined as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;the breaking down and removal of material along a coastline by the movement of wind & waterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (GeographyAS, 2012). It contributes to de ine the pro ile of the coastline as well as the formation of any landforms.

The coasts of the UK are historically known to be widely affected by coastal erosion. Important investments are made every year to protect all those coastal areas considered at risk with the creation of temporary/permanent difense systems ( ig. 6).

Predicting erosion rate is an uncertain science.

However the foreseeable changes in climate are expected to increase erosion rates in the near future.

N.W. Scotland

N.E. Scotland

Antrim

Northumberland

Our site, the Isle of Sheppey, is part of one of the larger areas affected by coastal erosion, simply known as South East England.

Connemara Norfolk

Pembrokeshire S.E. England S.W. England

Figure 6: Map that shows the areas in the UK affected by coastal erosion. The Isle of Sheppey is highlighted in red

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Context and introduction 1.2 The site

1.2.2 The Isle of Sheppey

The Isle of Sheppey is located in the Thames Estuary, 53 miles east of London. As well as laying claim to being the birthplace of aviation in the UK, the Isle of Sheppey marks the entrance to the strategic ports of the Medway, is partly below sea level, home to one of the largest car and soft fruit import businesses in the UK, has three prisons, numerous caravan parks, two cuspate forelands, and the longest running community radio station in the UK. With a landmass of 36 square miles and its highest point at 76m above sea level, it is characterised by low lying marshlands which provide home to a wide range of migratory birds as well as rich, fertile soil on the higher ground. It lies east of the Isle of Grain across the Medway channel, and to the north is bounded by the Thames Estuary with its sandbanks, wind farms, the famous Maunsel forts, and the view towards Southend on Sea.

The population of 40,300 people is distributed between the main settlements of Queenborough, Sheerness, Minster, Warden and Leysdown on sea with some smaller outlying villages and farmsteads. The Island is part of the county of Kent and under the local juristiction of Swale borough council.

The northern coast of the island is largely affected by coastal erosion. Such area currently has no defense against coastal erosion. As a result of ths policy of non-protection, many houses have been moved from their native location considered of high risk to a safer one in the centre of the island.

The area highlighted in red in map on the right ( ig 7) was chosen as area of interest for the main building project.

Figure 7: Map of the Isle of Sheppey. Area of interest is highlighted in red

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1.2.3 Site history

The historical maps on this page illustrate how the chosen site has changed over time.

A great amount of land has been lost as a result of coastal erosion. The erosion rate is different for various areas of the northern coasts. In many points of the island more than 150 m of land have been lost from 1896 to current days.

The mean low water level has also dramatically regressed by more than 150m of average (more than 300m in some points).

This has an enormous effect on local communities. Many houses that were located in proximity of the maritime cliff have been relocated towards the centre of the island to a more secure location. Caravan sites that extend just before the cliff have been are still are damaged by this natural phenomena.

Figure 8: Series of historical maps which analyzes the erosion phenomena for the northern coast of the island

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Context and introduction 1.2 The site

The map on the left (1896-2015) illustrates the process of erosion of the northern cliff of the island over a period of almost 120 years, more precisely from 1896 to late 2015.

The analysis of coast line, cliff edge and mean low water level of four historical maps (1896, 1908, 1939 and 1964, on the left) is here compared with the current morphology of the island.

How is this relevant to my project?

The aim of this drawing is to demonstrate the rate of cliff erosion and resulting changes in topography of the island. Such study will allow me to speculate on future scenarios and effects on the communities and residents in proximity of the northern coast of the island.

Figure 9: A series of drawings that show the erosion rate for the northern coast of the island

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1.2.4 Site photographs

During my site visit I came across many warning signs located in the proximity of the cliff.

Some of these looked very aged, con irming coastal erosion has been affecting the northern cliff of the island by very long time.

Most signs found on site advise not to proceed further towards the cliff due to unstable soil and dangerous ground condition.

While I gained access to the site through the beach (picture 1 on the next page), it was practically impossible to go down the cliff in proximity of these signs due to very steep slopes and dense vegetation.

Figure 10: Two of many warning signs found on site in proximity of the cliff.

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Context and introduction 1.2 The site 1

2

3

4

5

6

Figure 11: Map that shows where the photographs have been taken

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1.2.5 Site section

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Context and introduction 1.2 The site

Figure 12: 2km long section drawing through site, as per the unit brief

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1.2.6 Bathymetric chart - Sea depth

The map on the left is known as bathymetric chart, a technical term used to indicate sea depth.

The sea depth of the coastal zone where the proposal is located is about 5m.

How is this relevant to my project?

Sea depth, in relation to water level, has been a key factor that determined the height of the columns that support the research facility lifting if above high water level at all times.

Figure 13: Map that shows sea depths in the UK, and in the Isle of Sheppey in the zoom-in

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Context and introduction 1.2 The site

1.2.7 Sandbanks

The proposal is intentionally located far from sandbanks. Sandbanks can contribute to the creation of very tall waves (wave shoaling, ig.15), which can be particularly treacherous for boats.

How is this relevant to my project?

Locating the proposal within the sandbanks would have made access to the facility by boat more dif icult and risky. This could potentially cut the supply of all the material and equipment delivered to the facility by boat.

Figure 15: Diagram of wave shoaling

Figure 14: Maps that shows the location of sandbanks and other site features

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1.2.8 Geology and habitats

The map on the left illustrates the geology of the chosen site.

As I experienced during my site visit, the cliff is mainly muddy, making access to the site very dif icult.

How is this relevant to my project?

The ground condition is one of the factors that majorly affects coastal erosion. Both design and construction team need a thorough understanding of the site geology.

Geology and habitats (including plants, animals) will be also key factors to bare in mind before, during and after the construction phase of the proposal.

Figure 16: Map that shows the geology of the chosen site

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Context and introduction 1.2 The site

1.2.9 Wind rose diagram

The diagram on the left is a wind rose diagram and it indicates that the prevailing wind on site is coming from South West. Winds coming from North East are also common.

How is this relevant to my project?

Wind is one of the factors that generates waves, and as such is one of the elements being constantly monitored in the research facility.

Figure 17: Map that shows previling wind and wind speeds for the Isle of Sheppey

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1.2.10 Sun path and shadow studies

The diagram on the left ( ig. 18) is a sun path diagram and it is used to read the position of solar azimuth and altitude for any day of the year Solar path is used to simulate a buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s seasonal thermal performance through computer modelling.

How is this relevant to my project?

My building faces predominantly east. The buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s facade is essentially a curtain wall which faces east and west, letting light in throughout most of the day (see lighting study at page xx).

The renderings on the next page constitute a 3d investigation on shadow casting on the chosen site (located in the middle of the renderings) at selected moments of the current calendar year.

Figure 18: Map that shows the geology of the chosen site

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Context and introduction 1.2 The site 06:00

12:00

18:00

20 Mar

21 Jun

23 Sep

21 Dec

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1.2.11 Tidal calendar

The calendar present in this page aim to represent graphically the tide tables (calendar year 2015) at the location of Minster on Sea, on the Isle of Sheppey.

The charts llustrate the variation in the range of the tides during each month of the past year, day by day, in relation to the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun. How is this relevant to my project?

The information obtained from such study has been used to actively in luence the design proposal and the position of the research facility in relation to the varying sea conditions.

Figure 20: Tidal calendar drawn using tide tables at the location of Minster on Sea.

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Context and introduction 1.2 The site

1.2.12 Climate

The series of graphs present on this page gives an overview of the climate on the Isle of Sheppey in 2015.

The average temperature is set on 12.2°C, with an average temperature range between day and night of 6°C. How is this relevant to my project?

Understanding the climate conditions for the chosen site will help determine some of the environmental strategies for the proposed research facility (e.g. glazing, heating, ventilation etc.).

Figure 21: Graph showing 1 year of climate data (temperature, wind, precipitations) for the chosen site

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1.3 The proposal

1.3.1 Overview

The proposal is essentially a composition of the following elements: a staircase, a pier, a main research facility and a secondary one (secondary in size, but not less important)(see ig. 22).

1. The staircase The staircase has the function of creating a new access to the site, linking the top of the cliff with the pier which will be built at the bottom.

The staircase is accessible by the public, and at about half way, it provides private access to the secondary research facility located on the slope.

2. The secondary research facility The secondary research facility is relatively small in size. It hosts a dry lab for the analysis of sediments and rocks, and a computer lab. Right next to the facility is located a small radio tower

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which collects weather data and send it directly to the computer lab where it is processed.

3. The pier The concrete pier links the main research facility to the mainland. The pier is raised about 7m from the seabed and is about 200m long.

This sensibily reduces risk of the pier being submerged by waves although such event is likely to take place in case of storm surges.

4. The main research facility The core of the proposal is the research centre located at the end of the pier structure. Here most of the research is carried out, including tests which involve the use of arti icial waves created in one the two lab the centre houses.

Building typology: Coastal observatory/research facility Location: Minster, Isle of Sheppey State of application: Planning permission granted Beginning of works: 2016 Completion date: 2018 Cost of construction: ÂŁ13m Floor area: 1400 sqm Client: Environment Agency Architect: LDVF Architects Structural Engineer: ARUP MEP: Max Fordham Building Contractor: MACE

Context and introduction 1.3 The proposal

1

Staircase/access to the site

2

Secondary research facility

3

Pier

4

Primary research facility

1 2

3

4

Figure 22: Drawing that shows the different element of the proposal in context

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Plan drawing 1:1500

Elevation - Scale 1:1500

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Context and introduction 1.3 The proposal

1.3.2 Schedule of accommodation

The main research facility includes both private and public spaces (see diagram on the left). It includes the following spaces, ordered by size: - Wave basin lab - Wave lume lab - Conference room - Weather station - Foyer - Balcony (over wave basin) - Workshop - Bar - Terrace - Technical library - Shower rooms - Of ice - Wave basin control room - Reception TOTAL

400 sqm 250 sqm 150 sqm 120 sqm 100 sqm 100 sqm 70 sqm 70 sqm 60 sqm 45 sqm 30 sqm 20 sqm 15 sqm 10 sqm 1400 sqm

Figure 23: Massing diagram which shows different spaces within the main research facility

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1.3.3 Precedents

The Field Research Facility (FRF) is a coastal observatory located near the town of Duck, in North Carolina.

The FRF was completed in 1977 and took almost two years to build.

The facility consists of two major buildings, a 560m long pier and a variety of specialized vehicles which help researchers recording the changes in the environment.

The irst of the two buildings is the main laboratory which houses the main computer system, maintenance equipment and of ices.

The second building consists of a conference room with a view on the ocean, a workshop and a technical library.

Various instruments at the facility constantly record and gather data on the changing of winds, currents, tides and waves.

Figure 24: Aerial view of the Field Research Facility.

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Some of these include: - a Costal LIDAR and Radar Imaging System mainly used for scanning activity; - a series of amphibious vehicles used to deploy instruments and sensor; - a video and radio tower which collects data in real time.

I used the FRF as a reference for the organization of spaces and needs of researchers in terms of spaces. I also gave me a better idea of the different number of instruments and research methods which are necessary to conduct research activity in a very dynamic environment.

This proved how the amphibious vehicle designed for my ‘Personal adaptor’ project would well suit the research activity of the proposed facility.

Project name: Field Research facility Type of building: Coastal observatory Location: Duck, North Carolina Year of completion: 1977 Cost of construction: $7.5m (£4.5m) I used it as a reference for: spaces organization, research instruments, use of amphibious vehicles

Figure 25: Top view of the FRF. The pier structure is the element which stands out more.

Context and introduction 1.3 The proposal

The Marine Building ( ig. 26) is a recent addition to the university of Plymouth, UK. It houses the Coastal Ocean and Sediment Transport (COAST) laboratories, the Marine Navigation Centre and the Marine Innovation Centre (plymouth.ac.uk, 2012).

The Marine building was completed in 2012 with a cost of £19m.

The COAST laboratory ‘provides physical model testing with combined waves, currents and wind, offered at scales appropriate for device testing, array testing, environmental modelling and coastal engineering’ (Plymouth, 2012).

This is achieved with the use of a unique facility known as ‘wave basin’ ( ig. 28) which is able to simulate a marine environment by generating arti icial waves, currents and strong winds.

The wave basin is a huge tank which measures 35m in lenght and about 15 in width, for a total

Figure 26: Exterior of the Marine Building

of about 500 sqm.

The COAST laboratory also houses two wave lumes ( ig. 27), generally use for studies on sediments, tidal energy as well as currents.

Project name: Marine Building Type of building: Research facility, education Location: Plymouth, United Kingdom Year of completion: 2012 Cost of construction: £19m

The Marine Building is one of the world’s most renowned laboratories of coastal engineering and is the proof that expensive technology is required to gain a deep understanding of natural phenomena.

I used it as a reference for: spaces organization, research instruments

Similarly to the Marine Building, the proposed research facility houses a 400 sqm wave basin and a 25m long wave lume, instruments which can be regarded as essential tools to conduct indepth research related to coastal erosion and its causes.

Figure 27: students of marine engineering testing their designs

Figure 28: Wave basin used at the facility for research purposes

33

1.3.4 The client

The client of the project is the Environment Agency.

The Environment Agency is a public body established in 1996 and sponsored by the United Kingdom governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA).

The Environment Agency is responsible for the protection of the environment within Englandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s territory. More speci ically to this project, within many of its tasks the Environment Agency is responsible for: - conservation and ecology: - managing the risk of looding abd coastal erosion The majority of funding for lood and coastal erosion management is through grants from Defra to the Environment Agency (EA).

34

In 2010 the Environment Agency set up the RFCCs (Regional Flood and Coastal Committees).

The RFCCs help the Environment Agency by: - ensuring there are coherent plans for identifying, communicating and managing lood and coastal erosion risks across catchments and shorelines; - encouraging ef icient, targeted and risk-based investment in lood and coastal erosion risk management that represents value for money and bene its local communities; - providing a link between the Environment Agency, LLFAs, other risk management authorities, and other relevant bodies to build understanding of lood and coastal erosion risks in its area.

Context and introduction 1.3 The proposal

1.3.5 Design and construction team

LEGEND Contract Information

35

1.3.6 Cost, Time and Quality

What are the priorities of the Environment Agency for the realization of the research centre?

How will this have an effect on costs, time and quality?

Considering the funding for the project comes through the government (see section 1.4.3: funding), the Environment Agency (EA) will aim to keep the costs down. However due to the scienti ic nature of the proposal there can be no compromise in terms of quality.

As a result time for completion of the proposal may be of secondary importance.

Procurement route selection The EA appoints the contractor since the early stages of the process, adapting a TwoStages Tendering for Design-and-Build-based procurement.

36

Considering the complexity of design and groundworks required, and the fabrication of bespoke concrete elements, two-stages tendering is, in theory, well suited for designand-build procurement. It in fact allows collaboration between the contractor and the clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s designers, giving the contractor the opportunity to contribute to the design process on buildability, sequencing and so on (building. co.uk, 2006).

This could also potentially enable to commence site works earlier on in the process.

Context and introduction 1.3 The proposal

1.3.7 Risk assessment for construction

Risk

Grade of risk

Piling grond conditions

Medium

How the risk is reduced

The table on the left illustrates some of the risks linked to the construction of the proposal and the safety measures to be taken in order to reduce the likelyhood of such risks occurring.

Testing of bore piles before construction to determine depth of pile foundations.

Working in the water

High

Consulation with Marine specialists before beginning of site works. Health and Safety manager to be present on site throughout entire duration of construction process to oversee works.

Working on unstable soil

High

Health and Safety manager to be present on site throughout entire duration of construction process to oversee works.

Working at height

High

Health and Safety manager to be present on site throughout entire duration of construction process to oversee works.

Crane lifting

Medium

Health and Safety manager to be present on site throughout entire duration of construction process to oversee works.

37

1.3.8 RIBA Plan of Work

0. Strategic Definition: The Environment Agency identifies the project’s scope and some of the project requirements. Similar project are evaluated. The client begins to consider the assembling of the project team.

1. Preparation and Brief: The client develops an initial project brief, outlining the project objectives, aspiration and budget. Feasibility studies are undertaken at this stage. The project team is assembled.

2. Concept Design: The project team produces a first outline proposal, illlustrating some of the project strategies (environmental and structural). The initial brief is reviewed and a final project brief is issued.

3. Developed Design: At this stage different iterations of the design may be produced and different tools may be used. Some of the subcontractors (e.g. concrete specialists) may intervene at this stage in order to produce a more robust developed design.

4. Technical Design: Technical drawings will be produced at this stage. At the end of this stage the work of the design team will be completed, however the designers remain avaiable for design queries that may arise during Stage 5.

5. Construction: Construction works begin on site and will last for approximately 1 year and a half. The safety of the workers on site needs to be guaranteed; the contractor work out with the designers any possible change in design that may be needed due to site-related issues.

6. Handover and Close Out: Construction works end and the building is inspected. Keys are then issued to the client.

7. In Use: The building finally opens to the public and research activity begins.

38

Context and introduction 1.3 The proposal

1.3.9 Benchmarking

Considering use and function of the building, I used the Field Research Facility as a benchmark to estimate the total cost of my proposal.

Given the total cost of £4.5m (for both buildings and pier), I divided it for the loor area of 480sqm, obtaining a cost of £9300/sqm.

I then mutiplied this igure for the loor area of my building and obtained a total of £13m.

Field Research Facility cost/sqm £4,500,000 / 480sqm= £9300/sqm Proposed research facility cost £9300/sqm * 1400sqm= £13,000,000

Project name: Field Research facility

Project name: Coastal Research facility

Type of building: Coastal observatory, research facility

Type of building: Coastal observatory, research facility

Location: Duck, North Carolina

Location: Minster on Sea, Isle of Sheppey

Floor area: 480 sqm (building only)

Floor area: 1400 sqm (buildings only)

Beginning of construction works: 1975

Beginning of construction works: 2016

Year of completion: 1977

Year of completion: 2018

Cost of construction: £4.5m (buildings+pier)

Cost of construction: £13m (buildings+pier)

Cost/sqm: £9300 ($16000/sqm at the time of construction)

Architect: Luigi Di Vito Francesco

Architect fees I have applied a fee of 5% to obtain a total of £650,000 for Architectural Services.

Architect: not known

39

1.4 Planning

1.4.1 A site of special scientiϔic interest

In 1998 the site has been designated as a site of ‘Special Scienti ic Interest’ (SSSI) by Natural England’s, a public body of the UK government responsible for ensuring that England’s natural environment is protected and improved.

The condition of site has been classi ied by Natural England as ‘favourable‘, meaning that ‘habitats and features are in a healthy state and are being conserved by appropriate management’ (Gov.uk, 2016).

Reasons for designating the site of ‘Sheppey Cliffs and Foreshore’ as SSSI are explained in a document available on Natural England website, and are as follow: ‘This classic coastal section is one of the best known Palaeogene sites in Britain having been the focus of scientiϔic study since the eighteenth century. The cliff and foreshore section between Warden and Minster comprise Eocene London Clay, capped by Pleistocene sediments except between East End and Cliff Farm where the cliff intersects an outlier of the Eocene Virginia Water Formation. This is the only extant section of the upper part of the London Clay and is

40

geographically the most extensive section of this Formation in Britain.’

‘Present day active processes have also been studied in considerable detail. At Warden Point, and to its west, a series of impressive, deep-seated, rotational landslips (bench shaped in plan) occur in the London Clay. Characteristically, each slip extends along the coast for distances between four and eight times the cliff height. The backtilted blocks produced by failure are broken down by shallow slides and mudϔlows, the debris being removed by marine erosion. This in turn results in a progressive steepening of the cliff, and thus in further landslipping. This is the best locality in Britain to observe the cycle of rotational landslip typical of soft coasts.’

Context and introduction 1.4 Planning

Figure 29: Map highlighting Sites of Special ScientiĎ&#x201D;ic interest in the Isle of Sheppey.

41

1.4.2 The planning application Planning application is submitted to the Local Planning Authority (LPA)

The diagram on the left illustrates the process for receiving planning application.

Planning application is to be submitted to the Local Planning Authority (LPA). For proposals located on the Isle of Sheppey, the planning application must be submitted to the Swale Borough Council.

1

5

2

LPA validates application and requests missing documents

3

LPA acknowledges application as VALID

4

Application is considered by Planning Committee

Permission is refused

6

7

42

Permission is granted with condition/no response

Right of appeal

Permission is refused

Permission is granted

Permission is granted

Start work within time limit

Context and introduction 1.4 Planning

1.4.3 Funding

The project is funded by Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra).

Defra gives the majority of its loods funding (ÂŁ661.4m) to the EA as Grant-in-Aid, which is the mechanism for inancing a Non-Departmental Public Body such as EA. The EA spends this funding directly on Flood and Coast Erosion Risk Management (FCERM).

Defra is committed to a six-year programme of capital investment to improve defences up to up to 2021, of ÂŁ2.3bn. 2015/16 is the irst year of this (see table below).

Figure 30: Diagram of FCERN funding (available at www.gov.uk, see bibliography)

Figure 31: Funding for coastal erosion from the Defra

43

1.4.4 Swale Borough Local Plan

Section: 7.6.49 Policy DM 21 - Water, Ď&#x201D;looding and drainage When considering the looding and drainage implications of development, development proposals will: 2. Avoid inappropriate development in areas at risk of looding and where development would increase lood risk elsewhere.

2. The proposal is located at the edge of mean low water level. Locating the proposal in such area is key to study the causes and effects of climate change on the designated landscape.

The proposal does not increase risk of looding elsewhere, it will improve the defense of the coast and its management over time.

Section: 7.6.53 Policy DM 22 - The coast

How does this relate to my project?

Planning permission will be granted for development proposals at or near the coast subject to: 1. Maintaining or enhancing access to the coast where it can be appropriately managed; 2. The protection, enhancement or management as appropriate of biodiversity, landscape, seascape and coastal processes; 5. Proposals within the built up area boundaries as de ined on the Proposals Map, contributing to the rejuvenation of the developed coast, particularly where enhancing either existing industrial and maritime infrastructure, coastal heritage, tourism or environmental management.

1. The proposal enhances access to the coast linking the residential aea located at the top of the cliff with the beach at its bottom; 2. The process of coastal erosion will be studied within the research facility with the aim of better understanding of coastal processes and their management; 5. The proposal aims to developed coastal management through environmental management. It also aims to raise awareness of coastal erosion within the population of the Isle of Sheppey and its visitors.

Section: 7.6.60 Policy DM 23 - Coastal change management

How does this relate to my project?

Within the Coastal Change Management Area (CCMA), as de ined on the Proposals Map, planning permission will be granted for development proposals subject to: 1. It being demonstrated that the proposal will not result in an increased risk to life, nor a signi icant increase in risk to property; 3. Proposals within Erosion Zone 1 being directly related to the coast and less permanent in nature, construction and value; 4. Proposals within Erosion Zone 2 may additionally be permitted when comprising: - commercial or leisure activities requiring a coastal location and providing substantial economic, social and environmental bene its to the community; or - key community infrastructure, which has been demonstrated as needing to be sited within the CCMA to provide the intended bene it to the wider community;

44

How does this relate to my project?

1. The proposal will not increase risk to life or property; 3 and 4. The proposal is located within Erosion Zone 1. The research facility is strictly related to the coast and although it is permanent in nature, it aims to provide both social and environmental bene its to the community.

Context and introduction 1.4 Planning

Figure 32: Map showing the boundaries of the Coastal Change Management Area and erosion zones 1 and 2 as set by the Swale Borough Local Plan, section 7.6.56.

45

2.0

46

INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY

This section of the report focuses on the main research facility (section drawing above).

47

2.1 The buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strategies

2.1.1 Structural strategy - Cross section development

FIRST ITERATION Pros - Relatively simple to build

SECOND ITERATION Cons

- Not enough support for the roof - Not enough support for the wave basin

Pros - Overall good structural integrity - Better balance tension/ compression

THIRD ITERATION Cons

- Not enough support for the roof - Not enough support for the wave basin

Pros - Overall good structural integrity - Adequate support for the roof - Adequate support for the wave basin - Good balance tension/ compression

48

Cons - Complex design - Need for thermal breaks where columns penetrate the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s skin

Integrated technology 2.1 The buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strategies

2.1.2 Load path diagram

LEGEND Dead and live loads (snow, furniture, people) Lateral loads (wind, seismic) Structure load Load trasnferred through structure Ground reaction

49

2.1.3 Material choices

Both the pier and the building structure will be built using concrete. Concrete is a relatively inexpensive material and due to its workability, strenght and durability represents a valid alternative to steel, especially in marine environment.

Figure 33: Detail of timber-shuttered in-situ concrete

Concrete works very well in compression but not in tension. This is the reason why reinforcement steel bars are often placed within the formwork, providing good tensile strenght. In relation to the structure I designed, reinforced concrete will need to be used, providing good resistance to the bending moments of the slanted columns.

The concrete used on site will be a mixture of Portland cement, water and aggregates (sand and small stones). High-strenght concrete will be used for the construction of the columns of the building. This type of concrete is characterized by a ratio water/aggregates lower than 0.35,

Figure 34: Example of timber formwork for walls

50

and has greater compressive strenght than regular concrete (5000ps vs 1500psi).

The images on the next page are buildings I looked at when designing the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s structure.

All these references (see pictures for projectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; names and architects) share the use of concrete as construction material and, although fabrication methods vary, there are evident similarieties between them in terms of structure and geometry.

Integrated technology 2.1 The buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strategies

Figure 35: Chiesa dellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;autostrada del sole (Florence, Italy), designed by Giovanni Michelucci.

Figure 36: Crystal Palace sports centre (London, UK), designed by LLC architects.

Figure 37: Museum-Bridge (Dayi, China), designed by Atelier Feichang Jianzhu.

Figure 38: Oriente station (Lisbon, Portugal), designed by Santiago Calatrava.

51

2.1.4 Heating, cooling and ventilation

The building makes use of under loor heating to regulate the temperature of most of the rooms.

Vents located in different zones of the building let fresh air in. Fresh air is then heated up thanks to the under loor heating system and tends to rise towards the ceiling as it becomes lighter.

Warm air slowly loses its energy and therefore drops again towards the loor surface, where is then heated up again in a continuous cycle.

This cycle allows great savings in terms of energy and power consumption.

The use of under loor heating is preferred to radiators due to their innef iciency to heat spaces uniformly.

The use of radiators would in fact create cold spots in most of the rooms.

LEGEND Cold air Warm air Waterproo ing Thermal insulation Boiler room

52

Integrated technology 2.1 The buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strategies

2.1.5 Lighting study

Lighting study Date: July 21st, 2016 Time of the day: 10:00

53

2.2 The fragment 2.2.1 The fragment

Detail 2: Concave roof (p.)

Detail 1: Entrance-bridge (p.)

Detail 3: Suspended walkway (p.)

54

Integrated technology 2.2 The fragment

Roof

Entrance-bridge

Wave basin control room

Suspended walkway

The area of focus for this report is illustrated in the drawing on the left page.

This fragment of the building is particularly important as it hosts the entrance of the building (both for public and users), and a 400sqm wave basin, main instrument of research and testing in the building.

The entrance of the building is essentially a steel bridge which spans between two concrete beams, and is anchored to the concrete columns which penetrates the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s skin through cables.

A suspended walkway around the wave basin allows the laboratory users to better observe and record ongoing tests and experiments.

By locating the entrance above the wave basin, visitors and users are able to look down the (otherwise private) wave basin to observe ongoing activity and both look out the building towards Sheerness through a curtain wall which constitutes the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s facade ( ig. 39).

Concrete structure

Curtain wall Figure 39: Diagram of user experience

55

2.2.2 Considerations about construction

What are the main issues related to underwater construction and how are these resolved?

The main issue related to underwater construction is keeping the water outside at the times of constructing the building’s foundations.

This is resolved by placing on site a temporary structure called caisson or cofferdam ( ig. 42) which keeps the water outside of its perimeter, allowing water within it to be pumped out.

The use of these temporary structures allows the creation of a dry work environment, considered a key factor for the construction of the building’s foundations.

Another issue is related to the use of construction vehicles on water. This is easily resolved through the installation of cranes and other major vehicles onto barges ( ig. 40-41).

Bridges and pier structures are built in similar ways.

Figure 41: Example of pier construction using ϔloating cranes.

56

In terms of storaging construction materials, the coast of the island offers no secure location for the storage of these. For this reason barges loaded with construction materials will need to be moored offshore, at a close distance to the construction site.

Figure 40: Floating crane used for construction over waterways.

Figure 42: Example of sheet pile cofferdam.

Integrated technology 2.2 The fragment

2.2.3 Tranportation and access to the site

How will construction material be transported on site at the time of construction?

Due to its location at the bottom of a cliff, the site is not easily accessible by land. Therefore most construction material will need to be transported on site by boat.

In this sense the Isle of Sheppey is not very far from London, from where most of the construction materials will be tranported from. The Thames river becomes the main that will be used to transport materials on site. A journey through the Thames to the Isle of Sheppey will take approximately x hours, depending on speed and other factors.

The map on the left simulates the naval route followed by boats loaded of concrete (supplied by Euromix concrete in North Greenwich) through the river Thames down to the site on the Isle of Sheppey.

Figure 43: Naval route followed by boats departing from London through the river Thames.

57

2.2.4 Construction sequence

58

STAGE 01 A sheet pile cofferdam is placed on the site where the building will be built.

The caisson is transported on site by boat.

STAGE 02 Water is pumped out from the cofferdam, keeping the internal environment dry. This enable the start of ground works for the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foundations.

STAGE 03 Pile foundations are cast in-situ. The foundation will be about 15 to 20 meters deep into the ground.

STAGE 04 The primary structure is built. Concrete columns and beams are cast in-situ using a timber formwork. Reinforced concrete is used for the columns.

STAGE 05 Between stage 04 and 05 the cofferdam is removed.

Floor slabs are cast in-situ, providing a first surface for workers to walk on.

STAGE 06 The secondary structure is added. Steel beams provide support for the walkway and buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s entrance. Beams that support the roof are also added.

Integrated technology 2.2 The fragment

STAGE 07 The roof is placed onto a series of beams. This allows for a better working environment, protecting workers from rain.

STAGE 08 The walls are constructed. From this stage onward services will be gradually added.

STAGE 09 Insulation is added to both walls and floors. The roof has been removed from the drawing to facilitate its reading.

STAGE 10 All the internal walls are built at this stage, including the wave basin control room shown in the drawing above.

STAGE 11 The curtain wall is built. Glass panels are added to the entrance-bridge.

The front facade has been removed from the drawing to facilitate its reading.

STAGE 12 All the finishes are added in this last stage. The wave basin is installed.

The building is completed and ready to open after inspection.

59

2.2.5 Physical model

60

Integrated technology 2.2 The fragment

The physical model I realized is a structural model of the fragment studied in more depth in these pages.

The model is essentially made out of 6 different components: - a solid base of 3mm white acrylic board; - a hollow base of 3mm white acrylic board which is glued on top of the solid base; - 2x 3d printed support which it within the hollow base; - 7x 3d printed columns (in white) which it into the 3d printed support; the columns constitute the primary structure of my building; - a laser-cut walkway (in light brown) which its within the columns; - a laser-cut bridge (in dark brown) which represents the entrance of my building.

A 7th element, the roof, may be added to the model later on this year.

Due to the columns tapering toward one end, 3d print resulted being the most accurate technique for the reproduction of this model. Using the more traditional (and inexpensive) laser-cutting technique would have resulted in the columns being cut lat, with equal diameter.

61

2.3 Details 2.3.1 The entrance-bridge

Cable system

Steel frame

Glazing frame

Glass panels

Cross bracing steel

62

Integrated technology 2.3 Details

6

4 6

5

1

1

3

3

1

1

2

1. Cable 2. H beam 3. Glass panel 4. Cable attachment plate 5. Bolted connection 6. Concrete beam

4

4 5

63

2.3.2 The roof

Cladding panels

Thermal insulation

Metal pro ile sheeting

The building has got a curved concave roof which emphasizes its geometry even more.

The concave roof was inspired by the beautiful in-situ cast concrete roof of the Chiesa dellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;autostrada del sole ( ig. 44 below and ig. 35 at page 51).

Although the roof of the proposed building is not made of concrete, it resembles the one of the aforementioned church in its shape and structural principles.

Purlins

Support beams

Ceiling Figure 44: Concave roof, Chiesa dellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;autostrada del sole

64

Integrated technology 2.3 Details

5

6

3

4 2

7 1

1. Concrete beam 2. Purlin 3. Rigid insulation 4. Metal proĎ&#x201D;ile sheeting 5. Cladding panel 6. Spacer system 7. Bolted connection

The roof of the building is a low pitching roof with curves and tapers. This type of system is particularly ef icient and well suit curved roofs, both concave and convex.

Note: The cladding of the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roof would actually need to run perpendicularly to the beams rather than being parallel to them. This would allow rainwater to low along the roof rather than being stuck between the cladding panels.

This technical issue has been acknowledged when all drawings were already inalized and not enough time was left to adjust them.

5

3 4 6 7 1 2 2

65

2.3.3 The walkway

5 2

1 1 3

1. Concrete column 2. Reinforcement bar 3. Thermal insulation 4. Thermal break 5. Window frame

3

4

66

Integrated technology 2.3 Details

Steel guides

Double glazed panel

Walkway handrail Walkway inish Thermal break

Concrete internal inish

Thermal insulation (wall)

Steel reinforcement

Thermal insulation ( loor) Concrete loor

67

Appendix

Firat ϔloor plan

6

Ground ϔloor plan

1

2

3

4

5

1. Entrance 2. Foyer/reception 3. Bar 4. Terrace 5. Wave ϔlume lab 6. Conference room

68

Subterranean one Ď&#x201D;loor plan

7 8

Subterranean two Ď&#x201D;loor plan

10

9

7. Weather monitoring station 8. Wave basin control room 9. Wave basin 10. Workshop

69

Long section

5

1

3

2

6 7 8

1. Entrance 2. Foyer/reception 3. Bar 4. Terrace 5. Conference room 6. Wave basin control room 7. Wave basin 8. Workshop

70

4

Cross section

1

3

2

1. Entrance/bridge 2. Wave basin 3. Suspended walkway

71

Bibliography

BOOKS

- Ching, D.K. F., 2008. Building Construction Illustrated. Wiley&Sons, New Jersey.

- Chudley, R. and Greeno R., 2006. Building Construction Handbook. Elsevier, Burlington.

- Columns, A.J., 1998. Detail in Building. Academy Editions, New York.

- Deplazes, A., 2013. Constructing architecture: Materials, processes, structures. Birkhauser, Basel.

- Little ield, D., 2012. Metric handbook: planning and design data. Routledge, Abingdon.

WEBSITES - COAST, 2012. Centre for Coastal and Ocean Science and Engineering (CCOSE). [online] Available at: <https://collaborate.plymouth.ac.uk/sites/cerg/Pages/News.aspx> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Deep excavation, 2016. Cofferdam. [online] Available at: <http://www.deepexcavation. com/en/Cofferdam-cellular-cofferdams> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Field research facility, 2016. FAQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. [online] Available at: <http://frf.usace.army.mil/frf. shtml> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Geography AS, 2012. Coastal Erosion. [online] Available at: <https://geographyas.info/ coasts/coastal-erosion/> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Gov.co.uk. Flood and coastal defence: develop a project business case. [online] Available at: <https://www.gov.uk/guidance/ lood-and-coastal-defence-appraisal-of-projects> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Swale consult, 2016. Swale Borough Local Plan. [online] Available at: <http:// swale-consult.limehouse.co.uk/portal/planning/lp_part_1/local_plan_ part_1?pointId=1418143066714> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016]

72

List of ϔigures

- Fig. 1: Robert Smithson, ‘Floating Barge’. [photo] Available at: <http://www.unit-three. com/> [Accessed 05 Apr. 2016] - Fig. 4: Satellite image of Thames Estuary. The site for project, the Isle of Sheppey, is highlighted in red. [photo] Available at: <https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/0/04/Thames_Estuary_and_Wind_Farms_from_Space_NASA.jpg> [Accessed 05 Apr .2016] - Fig. 7: Map of the Isle of Sheppey. Area of interest is highlighted in red. [photo] Available at: <http://kentcoastalcommunities2150.org.uk/isle-of-sheppey-coastal-community/isle-ofsheppy-map/> [Accessed 03 Apr .2016] - Fig. 15: Wave sholing. [drawing] Available at: <https://whybecausescience. iles. wordpress.com/2014/03/shoaling.jpg?w=584> [Accessed 05 Apr .2016]

- Fig. 31: Funding for coastal erosion from the Defra. [table] Available at: <https://www.gov. uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ ile/480527/Funding_for_ Flood_and_Coastal_Erosion_in_England_Dec_2015.pdf> [Accessed 05 Apr .2016] - Fig. 32: Map showing the boundaries of the Coastal Change Management Area and erosion zones 1 and 2 as set by the Swale Borough Local Plan, section 7.6.56.[map] Available at: <http://www.swale.gov.uk/assets/Planning-General/Planning-Policy/Local-Plan-2013/ Misc/Coastal-Change-Management-Area-Technical-Paper.pdf> [Accessed 04 Apr .2016] - Fig. 33: Detail of timber-shuttered in-situ concrete. [photo] Available at: <http://www. scotbrut.co.uk/archive/denny-civic-theatre/> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Fig. 34: Example of timber formwork for walls. [photo] Available at: <http://studio-tm. com/constructionblog/?cat=240> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016]

- Fig. 21: Graph showing 1 year of climate data (temperature, wind, precipitations) for the chosen site. [chart] Available at: <https://weatherspark.com/> [Accessed 03 Apr .2016]

- Fig. 35: Chiesa dell’autostrada del sole (Florence, Italy), designed by Giovanni Michelucci.. [photo] Available at: <http://a4.images.divisare.com/image/upload/c_ it,w_1440/f_ auto,q_80/v1/project_images/5161142/DSC_4310.jpg> [Accessed 03 Apr .2016]

- Fig. 24: Aerial view of the Field Research Facility. [photo] Available at: <http://2. bp.blogspot.com/-X60ltlnVe9g/T-aDwUZ8qwI/AAAAAAAACas/wKt4bytSP0E/s1600/ P1020055_FRF-Pier_120614_resize.JPG> [Accessed 01 Apr .2016]

- Fig. 36: Crystal Palace sports centre (London, UK), designed by LLC architects.. [photo] Available at: <http://thetrianglese19.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/the-national-sports-centrecrystal.html> [Accessed 05 Apr .2016]

- Fig. 25: Top view of the FRF. The pier structure is the element which stands out more. [photo] Available at: <http://www.frf.usace.army.mil/> [Accessed 05 Apr .2016]

- Fig. 37: Museum-Bridge (Dayi, China), designed by Atelier Feichang Jianzhu. [photo] Available at: <https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg. com/736x/1c/49/00/1c4900de0522f69d25302da7033a19f7.jpg> [Accessed 04 Apr .2016]

- Fig. 26: Exterior of the Marine Building. [photo] Available at: <https://collaborate. plymouth.ac.uk/sites/cerg/Pages/News.aspx> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Fig. 27: Students of marine engineering testing their designs. [photo] Available at: <http:// www.piratefm.co.uk/news/latest-news/1774547/video-plymouth-students-take-to-theair-and-water/> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Fig. 28: Wave basin used at the facility for research purposes. [photo] Available at: <https://collaborate.plymouth.ac.uk/sites/cerg/Pages/News.aspx> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Fig. 29: Map highlighting Sites of Special Scientiϔic interest in the Isle of Sheppey. [map] Available at: <http://magic.defra.gov.uk/home.htm> [Accessed 02 Apr .2016] - Fig. 30: Diagram of FCERN funding. [diagram] Available at: <https://www.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ ile/480527/Funding_for_Flood_ and_Coastal_Erosion_in_England_Dec_2015.pdf> [Accessed 05 Apr .2016]

- Fig. 38: Oriente station (Lisbon, Portugal), designed by Santiago Calatrava. [photo] Available at: <http://inhabitat.com/santiago-calatravas-gorgeous-oriente-station-istopped-with-a-leaf-like-canopy-that-looks-lighter-than-air/> [Accessed 04 Apr .2016] - Fig. 40: Floating crane used for construction over waterways. [photo] Available at: <http://www.shipseller.net/details.php?id=2639> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Fig. 41: Example of pier construction using ϔloating cranes. [photo] Available at: <http:// bslharbor.blogspot.co.uk/2013/02/bsl-municipal-harbor-pier-construction.html> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Fig. 42: Example of sheet pile cofferdam. [photo] Available at: <http://www. skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=1859808> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] - Fig. 44: Concave roof, Chiesa dell’autostrada del sole. [photo] Available at: <http://www. turismo.intoscana.it/allthingstuscany/tuscanyarts/ϔiles/2011/01/chiesa-autostrada-interior. jpg> [Accessed 05 Mar .2016] 73